The English Language

To speak first of the word (or words) gallant mast. If gallant mean brave, there are two words. If the words be two, there is a stronger accent on mast. If the accent on mast be stronger, the rhyme with fast is more complete; in other words, the metre favours the notion of the words being considered as two. Gallant-mast, however, is a compound word, with an especial nautical meaning. In this case the accent is stronger on gal- and weaker on -mast. This, however, is not the state of things that the metre favours. The same applies to mountain wave. The same person who in prose would throw a stronger accent on mount- and a weaker one on wave (so dealing with the word as a compound), might, in poetry, make the words two, by giving to the last syllable a parity of accent.

The following quotation from Ben Jonson may be read in two ways; and the accent may vary with the reading.

§ 418. On certain words wherein the fact of their being compound is obscured.—Composition is the addition of a word to a word, derivation is the addition of letters or syllables to a word. In a compound form each element has a separate and independent existence; in a derived form, only one of the elements has such. Now it is very possible that in an older stage of a language two words may exist, may be put together, and may so form a compound; at the time in point each word having a separate and independent existence: whilst, in a later stage of language, only one of these words may have a separate and independent existence, the other having become obsolete. In this case a compound word would take the appearance of a derived one, since but one of its elements could be exhibited as a separate and independent word. Such is the case with, amongst others, the word bishopric. In the present language the word ric has no separate and independent existence. For all this, the word is a true compound, since, in Anglo-Saxon, we have the noun ríce as a separate, independent word, signifying kingdom or domain.

Again, without becoming obsolete, a word may alter its form. This is the case with most of our adjectives in -ly. At present they appear derivative; their termination -ly having no separate and independent existence. The older language, however, shows that they are compounds; since -ly is nothing else than -lic, Anglo-Saxon; -lih, Old High German; -leiks, Mœso-Gothic;=like, or similis, and equally with it an independent separate word.

For the following words a separate independent root is presumed rather than shown. It is presumed, however, on grounds that satisfy the etymologist.

Mis-, as in misdeed, &c.—Mœso-Gothic, missô=in turns; Old Norse, â mis=alternately; Middle High German, misse=mistake. The original notion alternation, thence change, thence defect. Compare the Greek ἄλλως.—Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 470.

Dom, as in wisdom, &c.—The substantive dôm presumed.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 491.

Hood and head, as in Godhead, manhood, &c.—The substantive háids=person, order, kind, presumed.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 497. Nothing to do with the word head.

Ship, as in friendship.—Anglo-Saxon, -scipe and -sceäft; German, -schaft; Mœso-Gothic, gaskafts=a creature, or creation. The substantive skafts or skap presumed. The -skip or -scape in landskip is only an older form.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 522.

Less, as in sleepless, &c., has nothing to do with less. Derived from láus, lôs, destitute of=Latin, expers.—Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 565.

For the further details, which are very numerous, see the Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii.

§ 419. "Subject to four classes of exceptions, it may be laid down that there is no true composition unless there is either a change of form or a change of accent."—Such is the statement made in p. 359. The first class of exceptions consists of those words where the natural tendency to disparity of accent is traversed by some rule of euphony. For example, let two words be put together, which at their point of contact form a combination of sounds foreign to our habits of pronunciation. The rarity of the combination will cause an effort in utterance. The effort in utterance will cause an accent to be laid on the latter half of the compound. This will equalize the accent, and abolish the disparity. The word monkshood, the name of a flower (aconitum napellus), where, to my ear at least, there is quite as much accent on the -hood as on the monks-, may serve in the way of illustration. Monks is one word, hood another. When joined together, the h- of the -hood is put in immediate opposition with the -s of the monks-. Hence the combination monkshood. At the letters s and h is the point of contact. Now the sound of s followed immediately by the sound of h is a true aspirate. But true aspirates are rare in the English language. Being of rare occurrence, the pronunciation of them is a matter of attention and effort; and this attention and effort creates an accent which otherwise would be absent. Hence words like monkshóod, well-héad, and some others.

Real reduplications of consonants, as in hop-pole, may have the same parity of accent with the true aspirates: and for the same reasons. They are rare combinations that require effort and attention.

The second class of exceptions contains those words wherein between the first element and the second there is so great a disparity, either in the length of the vowel, or the length of the syllable en masse, as to counteract the natural tendency of the first element to become accented. One of the few specimens of this class (which after all may consist of double words) is the term upstánding. Here it should be remembered, that words like hapházard, foolhárdy, uphólder, and withhóld come under the first class of the exceptions.

The third class of exceptions contains words like perchánce and perháps. In all respects but one these are double words, just as by chance is a double word. Per, however, differs from by in having no separate existence. This sort of words we owe to the multiplicity of elements (classical and Gothic) in the English language.

To anticipate objections to the rule respecting the disparity of accent, it may be well to state in fresh terms a fact already indicated, viz., that the same combination of words may in one sense be compound, and in the other double (or two). An uphill game gives us the combination up + hill as a compound. He ran up hill gives us the combination up + hill as two words. So it is with down + hill, down + right, and other words. Man-servant, cock-sparrow, &c., are double or compound, as they are pronounced mán-sérvant, mán-servant, cóck-spárrow, or cóck-sparrow.

The fourth class is hypothetical. I can, however, imagine that certain compounds may, if used almost exclusively in poetry, and with the accent at par, become so accented even in the current language.

§ 420. For a remark on the words peacock, peahen, see the Chapter upon Gender.—If these words be rendered masculine or feminine by the addition of the elements -cock and -hen, the statements made in the beginning of the present chapter are invalidated. Since, if the word pea- be particularized, qualified, or defined by the words -cock and -hen, the second term defines or particularises the first, which is contrary to the rule of p. 355. The truth, however, is, that the words -cock and -hen are defined by the prefix pea-. Preparatory to the exhibition of this, let us remember that the word pea (although now found in composition only) is a true and independent substantive, the name of a species of fowl, like pheasant, partridge, or any other appellation. It is the Latin pavo, German pfau. Now, if the word peacock mean a pea (pfau or pavo) that is a male, then do wood-cock, black-cock, and bantam-cock, mean woods, blacks, and bantams that are male. Or if the word peahen mean a pea (pfau or pavo) that is female, then do moorhen and guineahen mean moors and guineas that are female. Again, if a peahen mean a pea (pfau or pavo) that is female, then does the compound pheasant-hen mean the same as hen-pheasant; which is not the case. The fact is that peacock means a cock that is a pea (pfau or pavo); peahen means a hen that is a pea (pfau or pavo); and, finally, peafowl means a fowl that is a pea (pfau or pavo). In the same way moorfowl means, not a moor that is connected with a fowl, but a fowl that is connected with a moor.

§ 421. It must be clear, ex vi termini, that in every compound word there are two parts; i. e., the whole or part of the original, and the whole or part of the superadded word. In the most perfect forms of inflection there is a third element, viz., a vowel, consonant, or syllable that joins the first word with the second.

In the older forms of all the Gothic languages the presence of this third element was the rule rather than the exception. In the present English it exists in but few words.

a. The -a- in black-a-moor is possibly such a connecting element.

b. The -in- in night-in-gale is most probably such a connecting element. Compare the German form nacht-i-gale, and remember the tendency of vowels to take the sound of -ng before g.

§ 422. Improper compounds.—The -s- in words like Thur-s-day, hunt-s-man, may be one of two things.

a. It may be the sign of the genitive case, so that Thursday=Thoris dies. In this case the word is an improper compound, since it is like the word pater-familias in Latin, in a common state of syntactical construction.

b. It may be a connecting sound, like the -i- in nacht-i-gale. Reasons for this view occur in the following fact:—

In the Modern German languages the genitive case of feminine nouns ends otherwise than in -s. Nevertheless, the sound of -s- occurs in composition equally, whether the noun it follows be masculine or feminine. This fact, as far as it goes, makes it convenient to consider the sound in question as a connective rather than a case. Probably, it is neither one nor the other exactly, but the effect of a false analogy.

§ 423. Decomposites.—"Composition is the joining together of two words."—See p. 357.

In the first edition the sentence ran "two or more" words; being so written to account for compounds like mid-ship-man, gentle-man-like, &c., where the number of verbal elements seems to amount to three.

Nevertheless, the caution was unnecessary. Compound radicals like midship and gentleman, are, for the purposes of composition, single words. Compounds wherein one element is compound are called decomposites.

§ 424. The present chapter closes with the notice of two classes of words. They are mentioned now, not because they are compounds, but because they can be treated of here more conveniently than elsewhere.

There are a number of words which are never found by themselves; or, if so found, have never the same sense that they have in combination. Mark the word combination. The terms in question are points of combination, not of composition: since they form not the parts of words, but the parts of phrases. Such are the expressions time and tide—might and main—rede me my riddle—pay your shot—rhyme and reason, &c. These words are evidently of the same class, though not of the same species with bishopric, colewort, spillikin, gossip, mainswearer, and the words quoted in p. 362. These last-mentioned terms give us obsolete words preserved in composition. The former give us obsolete words preserved in combination.

The other words are etymological curiosities. They may occur in any language. The English, however, from the extent of its classical element, is particularly abundant in them. It is a mere accident that they are all compound words.

CHAPTER XXXII.

ON DERIVATION AND INFLECTION.

§ 425. Derivation, like etymology, is a word used in a wide and in a limited sense. In the wide sense of the term every word, except it be in the simple form of a root, is a derived word. In this sense the cases, numbers, and genders of nouns, the persons, moods, and tenses of verbs, the ordinal numbers, the diminutives, and even the compound words, are alike matters of derivation. In the wide sense of the term the word fathers, from father, is equally in a state of derivation with the word strength, from strong.

In the use of the word, even in its limited sense, there is considerable laxity and uncertainty.

Gender, number, case.—These have been called the accidents of the noun, and these it has been agreed to separate from derivation in its stricter sense, or from derivation properly so called, and to class together under the name of declension. Nouns are declined.

Person, number, tense, voice.—These have been called the accidents of a verb, and these it has been agreed to separate from derivation properly so called, and to class together under the name of conjugation. Verbs are conjugated.

Conjugation and declension constitute inflection. Nouns and verbs, speaking generally, are inflected.

Inflection, a part of derivation in its wider sense, is separated from derivation properly so called, or from derivation in its limited sense.

The degrees of comparison, or certain derived forms of adjectives; the ordinals, or certain derived forms of the numerals; the diminutives, &c., or certain derived forms of the substantive, have been separated from derivation properly so called. I am not certain, however, that for so doing there is any better reason than mere convenience. By some the decrees of comparison are considered as points of inflection.

Derivation proper, the subject of the present chapter, comprises all the changes that words undergo, which are not referable to some of the preceding heads. As such, it is, in its details, a wider field than even composition. The details, however, are not entered into.

§ 426. Derivation proper may be divided according to a variety of principles. Amongst others,

I. According to the evidence.—In the evidence that a word is not simple, but derived, there are at least two degrees.

A. That the word strength is a derived word I collect to a certainty from the word strong, an independent form, which I can separate from it. Of the nature of the word strength there is the clearest evidence, or evidence of the first degree.

B. Fowl, hail, nail, sail, tail, soul; in Anglo-Saxon, fugel, hægel, nægel, segel, tægel, sawel. —These words are by the best grammarians considered as derivatives. Now, with these words I can not do what was done with the word strength, I can not take from them the part which I look upon as the derivational addition, and after that leave an independent word. Strength - th is a true word; fowl or fugel - l is no true word. If I believe these latter words to be derivations at all, I do it because I find in words like handle, &c., the -l as a derivational addition. Yet, as the fact of a word being sometimes used as a derivational addition does not preclude it from being at other times a part of the root, the evidence that the words in question are not simple, but derived, is not cogent. In other words, it is evidence of the second degree.

II. According to the effect.—The syllable -en in the word whiten changes the noun white into a verb. This is its effect. We may so classify as to arrange combinations like -en (whose effect is to give the idea of the verb) in one order; whilst combinations like th (whose effect is, as in the word strength, to give the idea of abstraction) form another order.

III. According to the form.—Sometimes the derivational element is a vowel (as the -ie in doggie); sometimes a consonant combined: in other words, a syllable (as the -en in whiten); sometimes a change of vowel without any addition (as the i in tip, compared with top); sometimes a change of consonant without any addition (as the z in prize, compared with price; sometimes it is a change of accent, like a súrvey, compared with to survéy. To classify derivations in this manner is to classify them according to their form. For the detail of the derivative forms, see Deutsche Grammatik, ii. 89-405.

IV. According to the historical origin of the derivational elements.—For this see the Chapter upon Hybridism.

V. According to the number of the derivational elements.—In fisher, as compared with fish, there is but one derivational affix. In fishery, as compared with fish, the number of derivational elements is two.

§ 427. The list (taken from Walker) of words alluded to in p. 293, is as follows:—

§ 428. Churl, earl, owl, fowl, hail, nail, sail, snail, tail, hazel, needle, soul, teazle, fair, beam, bottom, arm, team, worm, heaven, morn, dust, ghost, breast, rest, night, spright, blind, harp, flax, fox, finch, stork, &c. All these words, for certain etymological reasons, are currently considered, by the latest philologists, as derivatives. Notwithstanding the general prevalence of a fuller form in the Anglo-Saxon, it is clear that, in respect to the evidence, they come under division B.

§ 429. Forms like tip, from top, price and prize, &c., are of importance in general etymology. Let it be received as a theory (as with some philologists is really the case) that fragmentary sounds like the -en in whiten, the -th in strength, &c., were once words; or, changing the expression, let it be considered that all derivation was once composition. Let this view be opposed. The first words that are brought to militate against it are those like tip and prize, where, instead of any addition, there is only a change; and, consequently, no vestiges of an older word. This argument, good as far as it goes, is rebutted in the following manner. Let the word top have attached to it a second word, in which second word there is a small vowel. Let this small vowel act upon the full one in top, changing it to tip. After this, let the second word be ejected. We then get the form tip by the law of accommodation, and not as an immediate sign of derivation. The i in chick (from cock) may be thus accounted for, the -en in chicken being supposed to have exerted, first, an influence of accommodation, and afterwards to have fallen off. The i in chick may, however, be accounted for by simple processes.

§ 430. In words like bishopric, and many others mentioned in the last chapter, we had compound words under the appearance of derived ones; in words like upmost, and many others, we have derivation under the appearance of composition.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

ADVERBS.

§ 431. Adverbs.—The adverbs are capable of being classified after a variety of principles.

Firstly, they may be divided according to their meaning. In this case we speak of the adverbs of time, place, number, manner. This division is logical rather than etymological.

A division, however, which although logical bears upon etymology, is the following:—

Well, better, ill, worse.—Here we have a class of adverbs expressive of degree, or intensity. Adverbs of this kind are capable of taking an inflection, viz., that of the comparative and superlative degrees.

Now, then, here, there.—In the idea expressed by these words there are no degrees of intensity. Adverbs of this kind are incapable of taking any inflection.

Words like better and worse are adjectives or adverbs as they are joined to nouns or verbs.

Adverbs differ from nouns and verbs in being susceptible of one sort of inflection only, viz., that of degree.

Secondly, adverbs may be divided according to their form and origin. This is truly an etymological classification.

A Better, worse.—Here the combination of sounds gives equally an adjective and an adverb. This book is better than that—here better agrees with book, and is therefore adjectival. This looks better than that—here better qualifies looks, and is therefore adverbial. Again; to do a thing with violence is equivalent to do a thing violently. This shows how adverbs may arise out of cases. In words like the English better, the Latin vi=violenter, the Greek κάλον=κάλως, we have adjectives in their degrees, and substantives in their cases, with adverbial powers. In other words, nouns are deflected from their natural sense to an adverbial one. Adverbs of this kind are adverbs of deflection.

B Brightly, bravely.—Here an adjective is rendered adverbial by the addition of the derivative syllable -ly. Adverbs like brightly, &c., may (laxly speaking) be called adverbs of derivation.

C Now.—This word has not satisfactorily been shown to have originated as any other part of speech but as an adverb. Words of this sort are adverbs absolute.

When, now, well, worse, better.—here the adverbial expression consists in a single word, and is simple. To-day, yesterday, not at all, somewhat—here the adverbial expression consists of a compound word, or a phrase. This indicates the division of adverbs into simple and complex.

§ 432. The adverbs of deflection (of the chief importance in etymology) may be arranged after a variety of principles. I. According to the part of speech from whence they originate. This is often an adjective, often a substantive, at times a pronoun, occasionally a preposition, rarely a verb. II. According to the part of the inflection from whence they originate. This is often an ablative case, often a neuter accusative, often a dative, occasionally a genitive.

The following notices are miscellaneous rather than systematic.

Else, unawares, eftsoons.—These are the genitive forms of adjectives. By rights is a word of the same sort.

Once, twice, thrice.—These are the genitive forms of numerals.

Needs (as in needs must go) is the genitive case of a substantive.

Seldom.—The old dative (singular or plural) of the adjective seld.

Whilom.—The dative (singular or plural) of the substantive while.

Little, less, well.—Neuter accusatives of adjectives. Bright, in the sun shines bright, is a word of the same class. The neuter accusative is a common source of adverbs in all tongues.

Athwart.—A neuter accusative, and a word exhibiting the Norse neuter in -t.

§ 433. Darkling.—This is no participle of a verb darkle, but an adverb of derivation, like unwaringun=unawares, Old High German; stillinge=secretly, Middle High German; blindlings=blindly, New High German; darnungo=secretly, Old Saxon; nichtinge=by night, Middle Dutch; blindeling=blindly, New Dutch; bæclinga=backwards, handlunga=hand to hand, Anglo-Saxon; and, finally, blindlins, backlins, darklins, middlins, scantlins, stridelins, stowlins, in Lowland Scotch.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 236.

§ 434. "Adverbs like brightly may (laxly speaking) be called adverbs of derivation." Such the assertion made a few paragraphs above. The first circumstance that strikes the reader is, that the termination -ly is common both to adjectives and to adverbs. This termination was once an independent word, viz., leik. Now, as -ly sprung out of the Anglo-Saxon -lice, and as words like early, dearly, &c., were originally arlîce, deorlîce, &c., and as arlîce, deorlîce, &c., were adjectives, the adverbs in -ly are (strictly speaking) adverbs, not of derivation, but of deflection.

It is highly probable that not only the adverbs of derivation, but that also the absolute adverbs, may eventually be reduced to adverbs of deflection. For now, see Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 249.

CHAPTER XXXIV.

ON CERTAIN ADVERBS OF PLACE.

§ 435. It is a common practice for languages to express by different modifications of the same root the three following ideas:—

1. The idea of rest in a place.

2. The idea of motion towards a place.

3. The idea of motion from a place.

This habit gives us three correlative adverbs—one of position, and two of direction.

§ 436. It is also a common practice of language to depart from the original expression of each particular idea, and to interchange the signs by which they are expressed.

§ 437. This may be seen in the following table, illustrative of the forms here, hither, hence, and taken from the Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 199.

§ 438. These local terminations were commoner in the earlier stages of language than at present. The following are from the Mœso-Gothic:—

Now a reason for the comparative frequency of these forms in Mœso-Gothic lies in the fact of the Gospel of Ulphilas being a translation from the Greek. The Greek forms in -θεν, ἔσωθεν, ἔξωθεν, ἄνωθεν, πόῤῥωθεν, πάντοθεν, were just the forms to encourage such a formation as that in -þro.—Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 199, &c.

§ 439. The -ce (=es) in hen-ce, when-ce, then-ce, has yet to be satisfactorily explained. The Old English is whenn-es, thenn-es. As far, therefore, as the spelling is concerned, they are in the same predicament with the word once, which is properly on-es, the genitive of one. This statement, however, explains only the peculiarity of their orthography; since it by no means follows, that, because the -s in ones and the -s in whennes, thennes are equally replaced by -ce in orthography, they must equally have the same origin in etymology.

§ 440. Yonder.—In the Mœso-Gothic we have the following forms: jáinar, jáina, jáinþrô=illic, illuc, illinc. They do not, however, explain the form yon-d-er. It is not clear whether the d=the -d in jâind, or the þ in jáinþro.

Anon, as used by Shakspeare, in the sense of presently.—The probable history of this word is as follows: the first syllable contains a root akin to the root yon, signifying distance in place. The second is a shortened form of the Old High German and Middle High German, -nt, a termination expressive, 1, of removal in space; 2, of removal in time; Old High German, ënont, ënnont; Middle High German, ënentlig, jenunt=beyond. The transition from the idea of place to that of time is shown in the Old High German, nâhunt, and the Middle High German, vërnent=lately; the first from the root nigh, the latter from the root far.—See Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 215.

CHAPTER XXXV.

ON WHEN, THEN, AND THAN.

§ 441. The Anglo-Saxon adverbs are whenne and þenne=when, then.

The masculine accusative cases of the relative and demonstrative pronoun are hwæne (hwone) and þæne (þone).

Notwithstanding the difference, the first form is a variety of the second; so that the adverbs when and then are pronominal in origin.

As to the word than, the conjunction of comparison, it is a variety of then; the notions of order, sequence, and comparison being allied.

This is good: then (or next in order) that is good, is an expression sufficiently similar to this is better than that to have given rise to it.

CHAPTER XXXVI.

PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS.

§ 442. Prepositions.—Prepositions, as such, are wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Other parts of speech, in a state of inflection, may be used with a prepositional sense. This, however, is not an inflection of prepositions.

No word is ever made a preposition by the addition of a derivational^[59] element. If it were not for this, the practical classification of the prepositions, in respect to their form, would coincide with that of the adverbs. As it is, there are only the prepositions of deflection, and the absolute prepositions. On another principle of division there are the simple prepositions (in, on, &c.), and the complex prepositions (upon, roundabout, across).

The prepositions of deflection, when simple, originate chiefly in adverbs, as up, down, within, without, unless, indeed, we change the assertion, and say that the words in point (and the others like them) are adverbs originating in prepositions. The absence of characteristic terminations renders these decisions difficult.

The prepositions of deflection, when complex, originate chiefly in nouns, accompanied by an absolute preposition; as instead of of substantival, between of adjectival origin.

The absolute prepositions, in the English language, are in, on, of, at, up, by, to, for, from, till, with, through.

§ 443. Conjunctions.—Conjunctions, like prepositions, are wholly unsusceptible of inflection. Like prepositions they are never made by means of a derivational element. Like prepositions they are either simple (as and, if), or complex (as also, nevertheless).

The conjunctions of deflection originate chiefly in imperative moods (as all save one, all except one); participles used like the ablative absolute in Latin (as all saving one, all excepting one); adverbs (as so); prepositions (as for); and relative neuters (as that).

The absolute conjunctions in the English language are and, or, but, if.

§ 444. Yes, no.—Although not may be reduced to an adverb, nor to a conjunction, and none to a noun, these two words (the direct affirmative, and the direct negative) are referable to none of the current parts of speech. Accurate grammar places them in a class by themselves.

§ 445. Particles.—The word particle is a collective term for all those parts of speech that are naturally unsusceptible of inflection; comprising, 1, interjections; 2, direct affirmatives; 3, direct negatives; 4, absolute conjunctions; 5, absolute prepositions; 6, adverbs unsusceptible of degrees of comparison; 7, inseparable prefixes.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

ON THE GRAMMATICAL POSITION OF THE WORDS MINE AND THINE.

§ 446. The inflection of pronouns has its natural peculiarities in language; it has also its natural difficulties in philology. These occur not in one language in particular, but in all generally. The most common peculiarity in the grammar of pronouns is the fact of what may be called their convertibility. Of this convertibility the following statements serve as illustration:—

1. Of case.—In our own language the words my and thy, although at present possessives, were previously datives, and, earlier still, accusatives. Again, the accusative you replaces the nominative ye, and vice versâ.

2. Of number.—The words thou and thee are, except in the mouths of Quakers, obsolete. The plural forms, ye and you, have replaced them.

3. Of person.—Laying aside the habit of the Germans and other nations, of using the third person plural for the second singular (as in expressions like wie befinden sie sich = how do they find themselves? instead of how do you find yourself?) the Greek language gives us examples of interchange in the way of persons in the promiscuous use of νιν, μιν, σφε, and ἑαυτοῦ; whilst sich and sik are used with a similar latitude in the Middle High German and Scandinavian.

4. Of class.—The demonstrative pronouns become