The exposition of 1851

THE
ELEVENTH CHAPTER
OF THE
HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

BY

C. R. WELD, ESQ.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

REPRINTED WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE PROPRIETOR.

EXTRACT FROM WELD’S

HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.

CHAPTER XI.

The Society receive a Letter from the Treasury respecting Mr. Babbage’s Calculating Machine⁠—Letter from Mr. Babbage to Sir H. Davy⁠—A Committee appointed to consider Mr. Babbage’s Plan⁠—They Report in favour of it⁠—Mr. Babbage has an interview with the Chancellor of the Exchequer⁠—Government advance 1,500l.⁠—Difference-Engine commenced⁠—Mr. Babbage gives all his labour gratuitously⁠—Advice of the Society again requested⁠—Mr. Babbage’s Statement⁠—Committee appointed to inspect the Engine⁠—Their Report⁠—Heavy Expenses not met by the Treasury⁠—Meeting of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends⁠—Their Report⁠—Duke of Wellington inspects the Works⁠—His Grace recommends the Treasury to make further Payments⁠—Letter from Mr. Babbage to the Treasury⁠—Communication from the Treasury to the Council⁠—Referred to a Committee⁠—Report of Committee⁠—They recommend the Works to be removed to the vicinity of Mr. Babbage’s Residence⁠—Government act on the Recommendation⁠—Fire-proof Buildings erected⁠—Misunderstanding with Mr. Clement⁠—Works stopped⁠—Mr. Babbage discovers new principles which supersede those connected with the Difference-Engine⁠—He requests an interview with Lord Melbourne⁠—Letter to M. Quetelet explaining the principles of Analytical-Engine⁠—Mr. Babbage visits Turin⁠—M. Menabrea’s account of the Engine⁠—Translated with Notes by Lady Lovelace⁠—Mr. Babbage applies to Government for their Determination⁠—Letter from the Chancellor of the Exchequer⁠—Mr. Babbage’s Answer⁠—Government resolve not to proceed with the Engine⁠—Mr. Babbage has an interview with Sir R. Peel⁠—Difference-Engine placed in the Museum of King’s College⁠—Present State of the Analytical-Engine.

1820-25.

On the 1st April, 1823, a letter was received from the Treasury, requesting the Council to take into consideration a plan which had been submitted to Government by Mr. Babbage, for “applying machinery to the purposes of calculating and printing mathematical tables;” and the Lords of the Treasury further desired “to be favoured with the opinion of the Royal Society on the merits and utility of this invention[28].”

This is the earliest allusion to the celebrated Calculating Engine of Mr. Babbage, in the records of the Society[29]. But the invention had been brought before them in the previous year by a letter from Mr. Babbage to Sir H. Davy, dated July 3, 1822, in which he gives some account of a small model of his engine for calculating differences, which “produced figures at the rate of 44 a minute, and performed with rapidity and precision all those calculations for which it was designed[30].” He then proceeds to enumerate various tables which the machine was adapted to calculate, and concludes: “I am aware that these statements may perhaps be viewed as something more than Utopian, and that the philosophers of Laputa may be called up to dispute my claim to originality. Should such be the case, I hope the resemblance will be found to adhere to the nature of the subject, rather than to the manner in which it has been treated. Conscious from my own experience of the difficulty of convincing those who are but little skilled in mathematical knowledge, of the possibility of making a machine which shall perform calculations, I was naturally anxious, in introducing it to the public, to appeal to the testimony of one so distinguished in the records of British science[31]. Induced by a conviction of the great utility of such engines, to withdraw for some time my attention from a subject on which it has been engaged during several years, and which possesses charms of a higher order, I have now arrived at a point where success is no longer doubtful. It must, however, be attained at a very considerable expense, which would not probably be replaced by the works it might produce for a long period of time, and which is an undertaking I should feel unwilling to commence, as altogether foreign to my habits and pursuits.”

The Council appointed a Committee to take Mr. Babbage’s plan into consideration, which was composed of the following gentlemen: Sir H. Davy, Mr. Brande, Mr. Combe, Mr. Baily, Mr. (now Sir Mark Isambard) Brunel, Major (now General) Colby, Mr. Davies Gilbert, Mr. (now Sir John) Herschel, Captain Kater, Mr. Pond (Astronomer-Royal), Dr. Wollaston, and Dr. Young. On the 1st May, 1823, the Committee reported: “That it appears that Mr. Babbage has displayed great talents and ingenuity in the construction of his machine for computation, which the Committee think fully adequate to the attainment of the objects proposed by the inventor, and that they consider Mr. Babbage as highly deserving of public encouragement in the prosecution of his arduous undertaking[32].”

This Report was transmitted to the Lords of the Treasury, by whom it was, with Mr. Babbage’s letter to Sir H. Davy, printed and laid before Parliament[33].

In July, 1823, Mr. Babbage had an interview with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Robinson (now Earl of Ripon), to ascertain if it were the wish of Government that he should construct a large engine of the kind, which would also print the results it calculated. Unfortunately, no Minute of that conversation was made at the time, nor was any sufficiently distinct understanding arrived at, as it afterwards appeared that a contrary impression was left on the mind of either party[34]. Mr. Babbage’s conviction was, that whatever might be the labour and difficulty of the undertaking, the engine itself would, of course, become the property of the Government, which had paid for its construction.

Soon after this interview with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, a letter was sent from the Treasury to the Royal Society, informing them that the Lords of the Treasury “had directed the issue of 1,500l. to Mr. Babbage, to enable him to bring his invention to perfection, in the manner recommended.”

These words “in the manner recommended,” can refer only to the previous recommendation by the Royal Society; but it does not appear from their Report, that any plan, terms, or conditions had been pointed out.

Towards the end of July, 1823, Mr. Babbage took measures for the construction of the present Difference-Engine[35], and it was regularly proceeded with for four years.

And here it is right to state, that Mr. Babbage gave his mental labour gratuitously, and that from first to last he has not derived any emolument whatever from Government[36]. Sectional, and other drawings, of the most delicate nature had to be made; tools to be formed expressly to meet mechanical difficulties; and workmen to be educated in the practical knowledge necessary in the construction of the machine. The mechanical department was placed under the management of Mr. Clement, a draughtsman of great ability, and a practical mechanic of the highest order[37]. Money was advanced from time to time by the Treasury, the accounts furnished by the engineer undergoing the examination of auditors[38], and passing through the hands of Mr. Babbage. Thus years elapsed, and public attention became at length directed to the fact, that a large sum had been expended upon the construction of the engine, which was not completed. Again the advice of the Royal Society was solicited.

In December, 1828, Government begged the Council “to institute such enquiries as would enable them to report upon the state to which it (the machine) had then arrived; and also whether the progress made in its construction confirmed them in the opinion which they had formerly expressed, that it would ultimately prove adequate to the important object which it was intended to attain.”

Accompanying this communication was a statement from Mr. Babbage of the condition of the engine, in which he says:⁠—

A Committee was appointed by the Council, consisting of Mr. Gilbert (President), Dr. Roget, Captain Sabine, Sir John Herschel, Mr. Baily, Mr. Brunel, Captain Kater, Mr. Donkin, Mr. Penn, Mr. Rennie, Mr. Barton, and Mr. Warburton.[39]

They minutely inspected the drawings, tools, and the parts of the engine then executed, and drew up a report, “declining to consider the principle on which the practicability of the machinery depends, and of the public utility of the object which it proposes to attain; because they considered the former fully admitted, and the latter obvious to all who consider the immense advantage of accurate numerical tables in all matters of calculation, which it is professedly the object of the engine to calculate and print with perfect accuracy.”

They further stated, that “the progress made was as great as could be expected, considering the numerous difficulties to be overcome; and lastly, that they had no hesitation in giving it as their opinion, that the engine was likely to fulfil the expectations entertained of it by its inventor.”

The Council adopted the Report, expressing their trust, that while Mr. Babbage’s mind was intently occupied on an undertaking likely to do so much honour to his country, he might be relieved as much as possible from all other sources of anxiety.

It is clear that the Council of the Royal Society regarded Mr. Babbage’s engine, as it then existed, in a favourable light, and were sanguine respecting its satisfactory completion.

Government acted on the foregoing Report; funds were advanced, the machinery was declared national property, and the works were continued. But there was evidently a misgiving on the part of the Lords of the Treasury, for the official payments soon failed to meet the heavy and increasing expenses incurred by Mr. Babbage.

Under these circumstances, by the advice of Mr. Wolryche Whitmore (Mr. Babbage’s brother-in-law), a meeting of Mr. Babbage’s personal friends was held on the 12th of May, 1829. It consisted of:⁠—

They drew up the annexed Report:⁠—

In consequence of what passed at this interview, which took place as suggested, the Duke of Wellington, accompanied by the Chancellor of the Exchequer (Mr. Goulburn) and Lord Ashley, inspected the model of the engine, the drawings, and parts in progress. The Duke recommended that a grant of 3,000l. should be made towards the completion of the machine, which was duly paid by the Treasury.

In the mean time, difficulties of another kind arose. The engineer, who had constructed the Engine under Mr. Babbage’s directions, had delivered his bills in such a state, that it was impossible to judge how far the charges were just and reasonable; and although Mr. Babbage had paid several thousand pounds, there yet remained a considerable balance, which could not be liquidated until the accounts had been examined, and the charges approved by professional engineers.

With a view of drawing attention to these charges, Mr. Babbage addressed the following letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer:⁠—

The receipt of this letter caused the Treasury to make the following communication to the Secretary of the Royal Society:⁠—

The consideration of this letter was referred to the same Committee which had previously been appointed for a similar purpose, with the addition of Sir John Lubbock and Mr. Troughton.

Again the Committee met[41] Mr. Babbage, at No. 21, Prospect Place, Lambeth (where the construction of the engine was carried on), and minutely inspected the machinery and drawings.

Their Report embodied the whole facts of the case:⁠—the workmanship of the various parts of the machine was declared to have been executed with the greatest possible degree of perfection, and the pains taken to verify the charges on the part of the Government altogether satisfactory. It was recommended that the vacancy occasioned by the decease of Mr. Maudslay, who had been appointed to inspect the accounts, should be filled up by another engineer, conversant with the execution of machinery, and the value thereof. With respect to the suggested removal of the workshops nearer to Mr. Babbage’s residence, the Committee gave their entire concurrence, on the ground that greater expedition would thereby be attained in carrying on the work, and that it was highly essential to secure all the machinery and drawings in fire-proof premises, without delay. A plot of ground held on lease by Mr. Babbage, adjacent to his garden at the back of his house in Dorset Street, was recommended as a desirable site for the contemplated erections, of which the plans and estimates had been submitted to the Committee. The framers of the Report stated in conclusion that:⁠—

The Report, with Mr. Brunel’s estimate, were sent to the Treasury on the 13th April, 1831: and having been approved by a Committee of practical engineers appointed by Government, the latter acted on the recommendations which it contained. The piece of ground adjoining Mr. Babbage’s garden was taken, and a fire-proof building erected, designed to contain the plans and drawings, and also the engine when completed. But new and unforeseen difficulties arose. When about 17,000l. had been expended, further progress was arrested on account of a misunderstanding with Mr. Clement, who made the most extravagant demands as compensation for carrying on the construction of the engine in the new buildings. These demands could not be satisfied with proper regard to the justice due to Government. Mr. Clement accordingly withdrew from the undertaking, and carried with him all the valuable tools that had been used in the work; a proceeding the more unfortunate, as many of them had been invented expressly to meet the unusual forms and combinations arising out of the novel construction.[43]

An offer was made to surrender the tools, for a given sum, which was declined, and the works came to a stand-still. But other circumstances interposed to prevent the completion of the original design.

During the suspension of the works, Mr. Babbage had been deprived of the use of his own drawings. Having in the meanwhile naturally speculated upon the general principles on which machinery for calculation might be constructed, a principle of an entirely new kind occurred to him, the power of which over the most complicated arithmetical operations seemed nearly unbounded. This was the executing of analytical operations by means of an analytical-engine. On re-examining his drawings, when returned to him by the engineer, the new principle appeared to be limited only by the extent of the mechanism it might require. The invention of simpler mechanical means for performing the elementary operations of the engine, now derived a far greater importance than it had hitherto possessed; and should such simplifications be discovered, it seemed difficult to anticipate, or even to over-estimate, the vast results which might be attained.

These new views acquired additional importance from their bearings upon the engine already partly executed for the Government; for, if such simplifications should be discovered, it might happen that the Analytical-Engine would execute with greater rapidity the calculations for which the Difference-Engine was intended; or that the Difference-Engine would itself be superseded by a far simpler mode of construction.

Though these views might perhaps at that period have appeared visionary, they have subsequently been completely realized. To have allowed the construction of the Difference-Engine to be resumed, while these new conceptions were withheld from the Government, would have been improper; yet the state of uncertainty in which those views were then necessarily involved, rendered any written communication respecting their probable bearing on that engine, a task of very great difficulty. It therefore appeared to Mr. Babbage, that the most straightforward course was to ask for an interview with the head of the Government, and to communicate to him the exact state of the case.

On the 26th September, 1834, Mr. Babbage requested an audience of Lord Melbourne, for the purpose of placing these views before him; his Lordship acceded to the request, but from some cause the interview was postponed; and soon after, the ministry went out of office, without the desired conference having taken place.

The duration of the Duke of Wellington’s administration was short; and no decision on the subject of the Difference-Engine was obtained.

In May, 1835, Mr. Babbage announced in a letter[44] to M. Quetelet, which was laid before the Academy of Sciences at Brussels, that he had “for six months been engaged in making the drawings of a new calculating engine of far greater power than the first.” “I am myself astonished,” says Mr. Babbage, “at the power I have been enabled to give to this machine; a year ago I should not have believed this result possible. This machine is intended to contain a hundred variables, or numbers susceptible of changing, and each of these numbers may consist of twenty-five figures. The greatest difficulties of the invention have already been surmounted, and the plans will be finished in a few months.”

Subsequently to the date of this letter, Mr. Babbage visited Turin, where he explained to Baron Plana, M. Menabrea, and several other distinguished philosophers of that city, the mathematical principles of his Analytical-Engine, and also the drawings and engravings of the more curious mechanical contrivances, by which those principles were to be carried into effect. M. Menabrea, with Mr. Babbage’s consent, published the information which he had received in the 41st volume of the Bibliothèque Universelle de Génève. The article is remarkable as giving the first account of the Analytical-Engine.[45] An English translation, with copious original notes, made by a lady of distinguished rank and talent,[46] was published in the third volume of Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs.

But it did not contain all the information respecting the Difference-Engine that was desirable, and Mr. Babbage was consequently led to communicate a short article upon this subject to the Philosophical Magazine, which is inserted in the 23rd volume[47]. The more comprehensive statements and official documents which Mr. Babbage has placed at my disposal renders it unnecessary to do more than allude to that article.

For nine years, that is, from the year 1833, when the construction of the Difference-Engine was suspended, until 1842, no decision respecting the machine was arrived at, although Mr. Babbage made several applications to Government on the subject.

On the 21st October, 1838, he wrote to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, stating that the question he wished to have settled was:⁠—“Whether the Government required him to superintend the completion of the Difference-Engine, which had been suspended during the last five years, according to the original plan and principle, or whether they intended to discontinue it altogether.” This letter produced no result. Time wore on, and Sir Robert Peel became Prime Minister. This was in 1841. Up to the termination of the Parliamentary Session in 1842, Mr. Babbage had received no other communication on the subject than a note from Sir George Clerk (Secretary to the Treasury), written in January of that year, stating that he feared the pressing official duties of Sir Robert Peel would prevent him turning his attention to the matter for some days.

Having availed himself of several private channels for recalling the question to Sir Robert Peel’s attention without effect, Mr. Babbage, on the 8th of October, 1842, again wrote to him, requesting an early decision.

At last Mr. Babbage received the following letter:⁠—

To this letter Mr. Babbage replied as follows:⁠—

Mr. Babbage had an interview with Sir R. Peel subsequently to the date of the foregoing letter: the result was, however, entirely unsatisfactory; and thus, with the communication from the then Chancellor of the Exchequer, terminated an engagement which had existed upwards of twenty years, during which period it is due to Mr. Babbage to state, that he refused more than one highly desirable and profitable situation,[48] in order that he might give his whole time and thoughts to the fulfilment of the contract, which he considered himself to have entered into with the Government.

With respect to the Difference-Engine little remains to be added. In 1843, an application was made to Government, by the Trustees of King’s College, London, to allow the Engine, as it existed, to be removed to the museum of that institution. The request was complied with; and the Engine, enclosed within a glass case, now stands nearly in the centre of the Museum. It is capable of calculating to five figures, and two orders of differences, and performs the work with absolute precision; but no portion whatever of printing machinery, which was one of the great objects in the construction of the Engine, exists. All the drawings of the machinery and other contrivances are also in King’s College.

Before closing this Chapter, it will not be out of place to put upon record the state of the Analytical-Engine at this period (1848).

Mechanical Notations have been made, both of the actions of detached parts, and of the general action of the whole, which cover about four or five hundred large folio sheets of paper.

The original rough sketches are contained in about five volumes. There are upwards of one hundred large drawings. No part of the construction of the Analytical-Engine has yet been commenced. A long series of experiments have, however, been made upon the art of shaping metals; and the tools to be employed for that purpose have been discussed, and many drawings of them prepared. The great object of these inquiries and experiments is, on the one hand, by simplifying the construction as much as possible, and on the other, by contriving new and cheaper means of execution, ultimately to reduce the expense within those limits which a private individual may command.