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The Family among the Australian Aborigines, a Sociological Study

Chapter 24: BIBLIOGRAPHY
By Bronislaw Malinowski
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About This Book

This study examines the institution of family among Australian Aborigines, focusing on kinship and its sociological implications. It critiques previous theories that oversimplified or misrepresented primitive marriage and family structures, advocating for a comprehensive approach that includes emotional, legal, and cultural dimensions. The work emphasizes the necessity of understanding social institutions in their complexity, considering daily life and collective psychology. By analyzing the actual workings of kinship organization, it aims to contribute to a more nuanced understanding of family dynamics within Aboriginal societies, challenging earlier speculative frameworks and highlighting the importance of empirical evidence in sociological research.

There is yet another point in Australian sociology most intimately connected with the individual family. I mean the other forms of kinship organization: the exogamy class, the totemic clan, possibly also the other divisions reported by Mr. R. H. Mathews and Mrs. Parker ("blood" and "shed" divisions, etc.). And on this point the present study is obviously incomplete, as it neither clearly fixes the line of demarcation between the individual and the group kinship, nor solves any of the difficulties and contradictions indicated at the outset. A few words must be said here in order to avoid misunderstandings. If in any society there exist two institutions of very close resemblance, as in Australia, the individual family creating individual relationship and the various kinship organizations creating group relationship, the only way to understand their working is by describing minutely the social functions of each of them. This has been done for the individual family in the foregoing pages; it remains to be done for the kinship groups.[966]

Social institutions should in the first place be defined by their social functions; if the functions—religious, magical, legal, economic, etc.—of the totemic class, the exogamous class, and other divisions be known and compared with the functions of the individual family, each of these institutions will appear as occupying a definite place in the social organization, and playing a determinate part in the life of the community. And such a knowledge would afford a firm basis for further speculations.

In the foregoing investigations we have omitted this side of the problem partly in order to avoid increasing the bulk of the monograph, but above all, that we might develop more clearly the features of the institution described.

The individual family was shown to be a unit playing an important part in the social life of the natives and well defined by a number of moral, customary and legal norms; it is further determined by the sexual division of labour, the aboriginal mode of living, and especially by the intimate relation between the parents and children. The individual relation between husband and wife (marriage) is rooted in the unity of the family. Moreover, it is expressed by a series of facts connected with the modes in which marriage is brought about and in the well-defined, although not always exclusive, sexual right the husband acquires over his wife.

ADDENDA

Several points omitted in the body of this book, as well as a few works and passages of special importance, which I noted whilst reading the proofs, may be mentioned shortly in this place. I read the book of Mr. Crawley (Mystic Rose) unfortunately after the foregoing pages were in type; my study would have been more complete had I known it before. Mr. Crawley analyzes the psychology underlying human relations (those of sex in particular) from their religious side. Primitive man is full of apprehension of the mutual danger inherent in social and especially in sexual contact. Hence the different systems of taboo; the sexual taboo being one of the most important. To establish harmless relations between people of different sexes requires a system of breaking the taboo.

The ceremonies and rites of marriage are treated in the Mystic Rose from this point of view (removal of taboo). In my opinion this book is of great sociological importance chiefly because it shows that the sexual act must be treated in its bearing upon social forms, not as a simple physiological fact, but as a phenomenon complex both in its sociological and psychological aspects. For "savages" in particular it is surrounded by a network of magico-religious ideas, apprehensions and emotions, resulting in a system of rites, customs and institutions, which never can be comprehended without reference to the underlying psychology. It follows as an important consequence that everything connected with matters of sex is an object of well-defined rules and laws (compare the passage above, p. 123, where the same has been pointed out with reference to the Australians).

Another important result of Mr. Crawley's work is the establishment of the principle that marriage rites, being the breaking of a dangerous taboo, are an essential part of marriage, and therefore their study is essential for the understanding of this institution. The rites, being exclusively intended to break the taboo between two individuals and not between two groups, lead to individual marriage and family, and not to "group marriage" and "group family."

Mr. Crawley's book is full of valuable remarks, some of which must be quoted in the following paragraphs. I complete also the information on several points by the addition of statements from Mr. Roth's North Queensland Ethnography (Bull. 9 sqq.), which I have only recently been able to peruse.

Pp. 27-29. Methodic presentation of evidence. As in summing up the evidence the number of statements supporting one view or another has been adduced sometimes by way of illustration, it is necessary to say explicitly what is considered to be a unit of information (or an individual statement). I consider as independent statements: (1) Observations of different ethnographers. (2) Observations of the same author made on different tribes, provided that the author has pointed out the differences and that they are substantial enough. It seems hardly necessary to emphasize that the numeric treatment of statements has no pretentions to be a "statistic method of presenting evidence." It is meant only as a convenient and clear way of summarizing evidence.

P. 35 and Chap. VII. passim. Mystic. By this word I understand belonging to the category of magico-religious ideas.

P. 42. The marriage ceremonies of the Central and Northern tribes, religious and magical. Compare Crawley (M.R., p. 347).

P. 48. Betrothal is prevalent all over the tribes of North Queensland (Roth, Bull. 10, pp. 3-7, §§ 6-14). Among the tribes of Pennefather River (§ 6) it is effected during the infancy of the female and it is invariably adhered to. In the hinterland of Princess Charlotte Bay the bridegroom has to visit his fiancée before marriage for several weeks (§ 7). Infant betrothal is rare among the natives of Cape Bedford (§ 8). On the Bloomfield River female children are betrothed at birth (§ 10). Infant betrothal obtains also among the Cape Grafton and Tully River natives (§§ 11, 12). A betrothal ceremony (recalling that of the Euahlayi tribe, see above, p. 40) held when a girl is about three years old is described with reference to the Torilla and Pine Mountain Blacks (§ 13). There are an elaborate ceremonial, taboos and duties connected with betrothal in all these tribes. In the North-West tribes betrothal is generally known (§ 14).

Pp. 50-52. Marriage gifts. In the Pennefather River tribes a man is bound to supply his fiancée's parents with gifts (food, arms, etc.) (Bull. 10, § 6). Presents form an important feature of the marriage contract among the natives of Princess Charlotte Bay (ibid., § 7). The same is reported about the tribes of Normanby River (§ 9), Bloomfield River (§ 10), Torilla and Pine Mountain (§ 12).

P. 52. Publicity of marriage and betrothal is mentioned by Roth among the natives of Pennefather River (Bull. 10, § 6) and Bloomfield River (§ 10). There is a public ceremonial sign for marriage ("building of a hut and lighting of a fire" by the girl) common to all tribes (§ 5).

P. 52. Marriage ceremonies more prevalent than appears from evidence. To corroborate my supposition that marriage ceremonies are much more frequent in Australia than stated by the authorities I may quote Mr. Crawley's view. He says that "as to those (peoples) who are said to possess no marriage ceremony, it will generally be found that there is some act performed which is too slight or too practical to be marked by an observer as a 'ceremony,' but which when analyzed turns out to be a real marriage rite." And as an example the author quotes two forms of marriage ceremony among the tribes of Central Australia (Mystic Rose, p. 318).

Pp. 52, 53. Marriage ceremonies are reported by Roth with reference to all tribes of Northern Queensland (Bull. 10, "Marriage Ceremonies," etc., especially §§ 1-19). In § 5 a public ceremonial sign of marriage common to all these tribes is described; in §§ 9, 13 and 15, such ceremonies in different tribes are given with details. Ceremonial sexual intercourse with other men before marriage is mentioned in § 20.

Pp. 56-58. Legal aspect of marriage. The different social conditions enumerated by Roth (Bull. 10, §§ 1, 2 and 3) are a valuable addition to our knowledge of the legal aspect of marriage. "Essentials of marriage before it can be publicly recognized" are: membership in suitable exogamous groups, absence of intimate consanguinity and a suitable social status. If these conditions are not fulfilled the community either violently break the match, or by ridicule, plots, etc., will take an action "usually quite sufficient to cause a separation" (§1, p. 2).

P. 61. Ideas embodied in marriage ceremonies. In the survey of various marriage ceremonies Mr. Crawley first enumerates those in which the aspect of breaking the taboo, of securing immunity from danger, dominates (M.R., pp. 322-370); then come those in which the magical and religious elements "actually and materially uniting the man and woman" are prominent (loc. cit., pp. 370-390). This aspect corresponds to what I have expressed above emphasizing that marriage is a "sacrament" (p. 61). Very important is the analogy between marriage rites and love charms which Mr. Crawley points out; the same has been said above (p. 41), where it was pointed out that the Arunta love charm has its legal (=binding) aspect. Mr. Crawley lays emphasis on the fact that all marriage ceremonies and rites possess an individualistic character (loc. cit., pp. 320 sqq.). They refer always to individuals and not to groups, and all their magical, religious (I would add legal) consequences refer to the two individuals concerned and not to two groups.

P. 63. Polygyny. Although this fact had no special theoretical bearing in any of my arguments, still it seems advisable to state it here explicitly and with references for the sake of completeness. Polygyny seems to be restricted to the old and influential men, and to be rather an exception, although it seems to be found in all tribes. Cf. Curr, A.R., i. pp. 106, 107, 110 sqq.; Br. Smyth, ii. p. 291; Howitt, T.R.S.V., p. 115; Woods, p. 191 (Meyer), and p. 222 (Schürmann); Angas, ii. p. 222; Curr, Recollections, p. 129; Wilson, p. 143; Macgillivray, i. p. 151. Idem, ii. p. 8; Hodgkinson, p. 230; Bennett, p. 173; Henderson, p. 110; Roth, Bull. 10, p. 12; Tom Petrie, p. 61; Brown, p. 450; Salvado, p. 278. Compare besides Westermarck, H.H.M., p. 440, and the references given there.

Pp. 63, 64. Levirate. Cf. Westermarck, H.H.M., p. 510, for Australian references and for the exposition and criticism of different theories concerning this custom.

Pp. 64-66. Divorce is mentioned by Roth (Bull. 10, pp. 11, 12). Usually the man repudiates or gives away his wife.

Pp. 82-84. Marital affection. Mutual attachment and love between man and wife is stated explicitly by Roth (Bull. 10, § 17). It plays an important part in marriage arrangements (marriage by elopement). That love must be prevalent among the Australian savages is shown also by the different love charms they possess. (Compare, for instance, above, p. 41, footnote 9).—Compare Westermarck, H.H.M., p. 359, where Australian references are given, and Chap. XVI. pp. 356 sqq., where the problem in general is discussed.

Pp. 84-88. Mourning and burial. In Roth, Bull. 9, pp. 366, 367, we read that only after the elaborate mourning and burial ceremonies have been finished and the dead man's spirit appeased and got rid of, is the widow allowed to remarry. On pp. 394, 396 and 402, we read that the widow and widower have the greatest share in these ceremonies. P. 381 recounts the severe ordeals that a widow and widower have to undergo. Unfortunately it it impossible to enter here into the many details given by Roth which strongly confirm the views expressed above, in Chap. III. From the description of mourning and burial customs among some tribes of New South Wales, given by Mr. R. H. Mathews, it appears that the widow has long and toilsome mourning duties; she is specially adorned, she may not go out hunting, and has to chant customary lamentation for several months (Eth. Notes, pp. 71, 72).

P. 93, footnote 4 and p. 107. Incest. Roth affirms that incest is absolutely never perpetrated in the North Queensland tribes (Bull. 10, pp. 2, 3).

Pp. 108-123. Pirrauru not a group marriage. Mr. A. Lang gives an excellent criticism of the view that Pirrauru is a survival of ancient promiscuity. Still less tenable, of course, is the view that it is actual group marriage. Lang, The Secret of the Totem, Chap. III.—A similar view has been expounded by Mr. Crawley, loc. cit., pp. 475-483.

Pp. 168 sqq. Necessity of adapting sociological concepts to the social and psychological conditions of the given society. "It is only in early modes of thought that we can find the explanation of ceremonies and systems which originated in primitive society; and, if ceremony and system are the concrete forms in which human relations are expressed, an examination, ethnological and psychological, of human relations is indispensable for inquiry into human institutions." And, speaking of some previous inquiries into human kinship, the same author adds: "They have interpreted primitive custom by ideas which are far from primitive, which, in fact, are relatively late and belong to the legal stage of human culture. The attribution of legal conceptions to primitive thought has had the usual effect of a priori theory, and has checked inquiry" (Crawley, loc. cit., p. 1). The second phrase covers in particular the views expounded above, pp. 185 sqq.

P. 170. Social factors of kinship. "Habitual proximity and contact is the strongest and most ordinary tie, and is earlier in thought than the tie of blood" (Crawley, loc. cit., p. 452).

P. 175. Collective mind. This expression does not postulate the existence of any metaphysical entity—any mysterious spiritual medium, independent of any human brains. Of course every psychological process takes place in an individual mind. This term is an abbreviation for denoting the ensemble of "collective ideas" and "collective feelings." And by these are expressed such mental facts as are peculiar to a certain society, and at the same time embodied in and expressed by its institutions. For sociological purposes psychological facts must be treated from a special point of view, and, to emphasize that, the adjective "collective" seems appropriate. Compare p. 192, footnote 1.

Pp. 179-182. Absence of social consanguinity in primitive societies. "The strong conception of the tie of blood, best seen in feudal and semi-civilized societies, is by no means so strong in primitive culture" (Crawley, loc. cit., p. 451).

P. 183. The meaning of "kinship" ought not to be restricted to any special set of ideas. "'Kinship' in primitive thought is a vaguer term than in later culture ... because the tie of blood had not attained prominence over looser ties of contact" (Crawley, loc. cit., p. 451).

Pp. 183, 184. Couvade. An extensive bibliography on this subject is forthcoming in Zeitschr. f. Ethnol. Band 43. Heft iii. and iv., pp. 560-63. Berlin, 1911.

Pp. 260-262. Young females monopolized by old men. Besides the statements set forth in the text, I find three more collected by Prof. Webster referring to the Queenslanders (Lumholtz), to the West Australians (Frogatt), and to the Australians in general (J. Matthew) (loc. cit., pp. 70, 71). Among the tribes of Northern Queensland infant betrothal widely prevails; "the old men usually getting the pick" (Roth, Bull. 10, pp. 3-7).

Pp. 262 sqq. The bachelors' camp is mentioned by Roth (Bull. 10, p. 4).

Pp. 272, 273. Relations between brothers and sisters. Mr. Crawley has shown that avoidance between brother and sister, rooted in apprehensions of mutual danger is the rule among savages. This is corroborated by the scanty Australian evidence we possess. (See M.R., passim; for references see Index under "Brother and Sister").

Pp. 283-286. Communism in food. An interesting statement of an old explorer concerning the aboriginal communism in food may be adduced here. It refers to the North-Western blacks. "Be it little or much that they get, every one has his part, as well the young and tender as the old and feeble, who are not able to go abroad, as the strong and lusty" (Dampier, loc. cit., p. 103).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. List of Books used as Ethnographical Sources, referring to the Australian Aborigines.

  • Angas, G. F.: Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand. 2 vols. London, 1847.
  • Barrington, G.: The History of New South Wales, including Botany Bay, Port Jackson, Parramatta, Sidney and all its Dependencies. London, 1802.
  • Basedow, Herbert: "Anthropological Notes on the Western Coastal Tribes of the Northern Territory of South Australia"; in Transactions of the R. Soc. of S. Australia, vol. xxxi. Adelaide, 1907.
  • Bates, Mrs. D. M.: Article in Victorian Geographical Journal, vols. xxiii-xxiv. 1905-1906.
  • Bennett, G.: Wanderings in New South Wales, etc. 2 vols. London, 1834.
  • Beveridge, P.: The Aborigines of Victoria and Riverina. 1 vol. Melbourne, 1889.
  • Bonney, F.: "On some Customs of the Aborigines of the River Darling"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiii. London, 1884.
  • Browne, J.: "Die Eingeborenen Australiens"; in Petermann's Mittheilungen. Gotha, 1856.
  • Cameron, A. L. P.: "Notes on Some Tribes of New South Wales"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiv. London, 1885.
  • Campbell, Major: "Geographical Memoir of Melville Island and Port Essington, Northern Australia"; in Journ. of the R. Geog. Soc., vol. iv. London, 1834.
  • Chauncy: Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. ii. London, 1878.
  • Collins, D.: An Account of the English Colony in New South Wales, 2 vols. London, 1798-1802.
  • Crawley, Ernest: The Mystic Rose. London, 1902.
  • Curr, E. M.: Recollections of Squatting in Victoria. 1 vol. Melbourne, 1883.
  • —— The Australian Race. 4 vols. Melbourne and London, 1886.
  • Dampier, W.: in "Early voyages to ... Australia," by R. H. Major, Hakluyt Society. London, 1859.
  • Dawson, J.: Australian Aborigines. 1 vol. Melbourne, 1881.
  • Dawson, Rob.: The Present State of Australia. London, 1831.
  • Earl, G. W.: "On the Aboriginal Tribes of the North Coast of Australia"; in the Journ. of the R. Geog. Soc., vol. xvi. London, 1846.
  • Eyre, E. J.: Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia and Overland from Adelaide to King George's Sound, in the Years 1840-41. 2 vols. London, 1845.
  • Field Barron: Geographical Memoirs on New South Wales, etc. London, 1825.
  • Fison, L., and Howitt, A. W.: "From Mother-right to Father-right"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xii. London, 1883.
  • —— Kamilaroi and Kurnai. 1 vol. Melbourne, 1880.
  • Forrest, J.: "On the Natives of Central and Western Australia"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. v., pp. 316 sqq. London, 1876.
  • Fraser, J.: The Aborigines of New South Wales. 1 vol. Sydney, 1892.
  • Frazer, J. G.: "Notes on the Aborigines of Australia; Questions of Prof. Frazer, and Answers of Several Correspondents"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xxiv. London, 1894-95.
  • Gason, S.: "The Manners and Customs of the Dieyerie Tribe"; in Woods, The Native Tribes of South Australia. Adelaide, 1879.
  • Gerstaecker, F.: Narrative of a Journey round the World. 3 vols. London, 1853.
  • Gill, T.: "Notes on South Australian Aborigines"; in Proc. R. Geogr. Soc. Australasia. (S. Austr. Branch), vol. x. Adelaide, 1907-1908, pp. 220 sqq.
  • Gillen, F.: Article in Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch), vol. iv. Adelaide, 1889.
  • Green, J.: Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria,
    vol. i. London, 1878.
  • Grey, Sir G.: Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in North-West and Western Australia during the Years 1837, 1838, 1839. 2 vols. London, 1841.
  • Gribble, J. B.: Black but Comely. London, 1874.
  • Henderson, John: Excursions and Adventures in N. S. Wales. 2 vols. London, 1851.
  • Hodgkinson, Cl.: Australia from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay. London, 1845.
  • Hodgson, C. P.: Reminiscences of Australia. London, 1846.
  • Howitt, A. W.: "Australian Group Relations"; in Smithsonian Report, 1883. Washington, 1885.
  • —— On the "Organization of Australian Tribes"; in Transactions of the Royal Society of Victoria, vol. i., part ii. Melbourne, 1889.
  • —— "The Dieri and other kindred Tribes of Central Australia"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xx. London, 1891.
  • —— The Native Tribes of South-East Australia. 1 vol. London, 1904.
  • —— "The Native Tribes of South-East Australia"; in Folk-Lore, vol. xvii. London, 1906.
  • —— See also Fison, L., and Howitt, A. W.
  • Krichauff, F. E.: "The Customs, etc., of the Abdolinga Tribe, Central Australia." Read before the R. Geog. Soc. of Australasia (South Australian Branch), 1886. Proceedings, vol. ii. pp. 33 sqq. and 77 sqq.
  • Kühn: Article in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi and Kurnai. Melbourne, 1880.
  • Lang, G. S.: The Aborigines of Australia. Melbourne, 1865.
  • Lang, J. D.: Queensland. London, 1861.
  • Leonhardi, M. von. See Strehlow.
  • Le Souëf: Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria, 2 vols. London, 1878.
  • Lumholtz, C.: Among Cannibals. 1 vol. London, 1889.
  • McDougall, A. C.: Article in Science of Man. 1900.
  • Macgillivray, John: Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Rattlesnake," etc. 2 vols. London, 1852.
  • Mathew, J.: Two Representative Tribes of Queensland (the Kabi and Wakka Tribes). London, Leipsic, 1910.
  • Mathews, D.: Article in Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch), vol. iv.
  • Mathews, R. H.: Numerous short articles in various papers; chiefly Journ. and Proc. R. Soc. N. S. Wales, Amer. Anthropologist, Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. In the present book the articles in the first-named paper have chiefly been used, and an explicit reference in each case is given. Numerous references and bibliographies of his own articles are to be found in Mr. Mathew's publications. Cf. "Ethnological Notes on the Aboriginal Tribes of N. S. Wales and Victoria" (Sydney, 1905); which is a reprint from the Journ. and Proc. R.S.N.S.W., vol. xxxviii. Sydney, 1904.
  • Meyer, H. E. A.: "Manners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Encounter Bay Tribe"; in Woods, Native Tribes of South Australia. Adelaide, 1879.
  • Mitchell, Major T. L.: Three Expeditions into the Interior of Eastern Australia. 2 vols. London, 1838.
  • Moore, G. F.: A descriptive Vocabulary of the Language of Aborigines of Western Australia. London, 1884.
  • Moore-Davies, J.: Article in R. B. Smyth's The Aborigines of Victoria, vol. ii. London, 1878.
  • Morgan, John: Life and Adventures of William Buckley. Hobart, 1852.
  • Newland, S.: "The Parkengees" (Darling Riv.); in Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch). vol. ii. 3rd session.
  • Nind, Scott: Description of the Natives of King George's Sound. London, 1831.
  • North Queensland Ethnography (chiefly by W. E. Roth), Bulletins 1-8. Brisbane, 1901-1906. Bulletins 9-18; in Records of the Australian Museum, vols. vi.-viii. Sydney, 1890-1910. Bull. No. 9 in vol. vi. No. 5.—Bull. No. 10 in vol. vii. No. 1.—Bull. No. 11 in vol. vii. No. 2.—Bull. No. 12 in vol. vii. No. 3.—Bull. No. 13 in vol. vii. No. 4.—Bulls. Nos. 14-18 in vol. viii. No. 1.
  • Oldfield, A.: "On the Aborigines of Australia"; in the Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. iii. London, 1865.
  • Palmer, E.: "Notes on Some Australian Tribes"; in Journ. Anthr. Inst., vol. xiii. London, 1884.
  • Parker, Mrs. K. L.: The Euahlayi Tribe. London, 1905.
  • Parkhouse: Article in Reports Austr. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. vi. Sydney, 1895.
  • Petrie, Tom: Reminiscences. Brisbane, 1905.
  • Phillip, A.: An Authentic and Interesting Narrative, etc. London, 1789.
  • Purcell, B. H.: "The Aborigines of Australia"; in Transactions of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia (Victorian Branch), vol. xi. Melbourne, 1894.
  • Roth, W. E.: Ethnological Studies among the North-West Central Queensland Aborigines. 1 vol. Brisbane and London, 1897.
  • —— Article in the Proc. of the Royal Society of Queensland, vol. xvii, part II. Brisbane, 1903.
  • —— See under North Queensland Ethnography.
  • Rusden, G. W.: An article in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi and Kurnai.
  • Salvado, Rudesindo: Mémoires Historiques sur l'Australie. 1 vol. Paris, 1854.
  • Science of Man and Australasian Anthropological Journal (New Series). Sydney, 1898, etc. Some articles from this series have been used and quoted with detailed references.
  • Schultze, L.: "The Aborigines of the Upper and Middle Fink River"; Transactions of the R. Soc. South Australia, vol. xiv. Part II. Adelaide, 1891.
  • Schürmann, C. W.: "The Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln"; in Woods, Native Tribes of South Australia. Adelaide, 1879.
  • Smyth, R. Brough: The Aborigines of Victoria, 2 vols. Melbourne and London, 1878.
  • Spencer, B.: Notice in Athenæum, Nov. 4, 1911.
  • Spencer, Baldwin, and Gillen, F. J.: The Northern Tribes of Central Australia, 1 vol. London, 1904.
  • —— The Native Tribes of Central Australia. 1 vol. London, 1899.
  • Stähle, Rev. J. H.: Article in Fison and Howitt's Kamilaroi and Kurnai.
  • Stanbridge, W. E.: "General Characteristics ... of the Tribes of the Central Part of Victoria"; in Transactions of the Ethnological Society, vol. i. London, 1861.
  • Strehlow, C.: "Die Aranda und Loritja-Stämme in Zentral-Australien," Bearbeitet von Moritz Freiherrn von Leonhardi; in Veröffentlichungen aus dem städtischen Museum zu Frankfurt. 4 parts. Frankfort on the Main, 1907, etc.
  • Sutton, T. M.: "The Adjahdurah Tribe" (Yorke's Peninsula), Proc. R.G.S.A. (S. Austr. Branch), vol. ii. 3rd session.
  • Taplin, G.: "The Narrinyeri"; in Wood's Native Tribes. Adelaide, 1879.
  • Tench, W.: A complete Account of the Settlement at Port Jackson in N. S. Wales. London, 1793.
  • Turnbull, John: A Voyage round the World in the Years 1800-1804. London, 1813.
  • Waitz, T., and Gerland, G.: Anthropologie der Naturvölker, vol. vi. Leipsic, 1872.
  • Wilhelmi, Charles: "Manners and Customs of the Australian Natives" (Port Lincoln); in the Transactions of the R. S. of Victoria, vol. v.
  • Wilkes, Ch.: Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition. 2 vols. London, 1852.
  • Wilkes, Ch.: Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition, 5 vols. Philadelphia, 1844.
  • Wilson, T. B.: Narrative of a Voyage round the World. London, 1835.
  • Willshire, W. H.: The Aborigines of Central Australia. Adelaide, 1891.
  • Withnell, J. G.: The Customs and Traditions of the Aboriginal Natives of N. W. Australia. Roeburne, 1901.
  • Woods, J. D.: The Native Tribes of South Australia, 1 vol. Adelaide, 1879.
  • Wyatt, W.: "Some Account of the Manners and Superstitions of the Adelaide and Encounter Bay Aboriginal Tribes"; in Wood's Native Tribes of South Australia. Adelaide, 1879.

II. List of other Works quoted in the Text.

  • Avebury, Lord: The Origin of Civilization. London, 1902.
  • Bücher, Karl: Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft. Tübingen, 1904.
  • Cunow, H.: Die Verwandtschafts-Organisationen der Australneger. Stuttgart, 1894.
  • Dargun, L.: Mutterrecht und Vaterrecht. Leipsic, 1892.
  • Darwin, Charles: The Descent of Man. London, 1890.
  • Durkheim, Émile: De la division du travail social. Paris, 1893.
  • —— Reviews of books on family; in Année sociologique, vol. i. 1896-97. Paris, 1898.
  • Frazer, J. G.: Totemism and Exogamy. 4 vols. London, 1910.
  • Gennep, Arnold van: Mythes et Légendes d'Australie. Paris, 1906.
  • Giddings, F. H.: The Principles of Sociology. New York, 1896.
  • Gomme, Sir Laurence: "Folklore as an Historical Science"; in The Antiquary's Books. London, 1908.
  • Graebner, F.: Article in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. 1905. Berlin, 1905.
  • Grosse, Ernst: Die Formen der Familie und die Formen der Wirthschaft. Freiburg i. B. and Leipsic, 1896.
  • Haddon, A. C.: Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, vols. v. and vi. Cambridge, 1904.
  • Hartland, Edwin Sidney: Primitive Paternity. 2 vols. London, 1909.
  • Kohler, J.: "Über das Recht der Australneger"; in Zeitschr. f. vergleichende Rechtswiss., vol. vii. Stuttgart.
  • Lang, Andrew: The Secret of the Totem. London, 1905.
  • —— Article in the Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor. Oxford, 1907.
  • —— "The Origin of Terms of Human Relationship"; in Proceedings of the British Academy. London, 1909.
  • Lévy-Bruhl, L.: Les Fonctions mentales dans les sociétés inférieurs. Paris, 1910.
  • MacLennan: Studies in Ancient History. London, 1886.
  • Morgan, L. H.: Ancient Society. London, 1877.
  • —— "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family"; in Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xvii. Washington, 1871.
  • Nieboer, H. J.: Slavery as an Industrial System. The Hague, 1900.
  • Post, A. H.: Grundriss der ethnologischen Jurisprudenz. 2 vols. Oldenburg and Leipsic, 1894-95.
  • Reitzenstein, Frhr. v.: Article in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, vol. xli. Berlin.
  • Rivers, W. H. R.: The Todas. London, 1906.
  • —— "On the Origin of the Classificatory System of Relationships"; in Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor. Oxford, 1907.
  • —— Several chapters in Reports, Cambridge Expedition, etc. See under Haddon.
  • —— "The Genealogical Method of Anthropological Inquiry"; in Sociological Review, vol. iii. Manchester and London, 1910.
  • Schmidt, Fr. W.: "Die Stellung d. Aranda"; in Zeitschr. f. Ethn., 1908.
  • Seligmann, C. G.: The Melanesians of British New Guinea. Cambridge, 1910.
  • Steinmetz, S. R.: "Das Verhältnis zwischen Eltern und Kindern bei den Naturvölkern"; in Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissensch., vol. i. Berlin, 1898.
  • —— "Die neueren Forschungen zur Geschichte der menschlichen Familie"; in Zeitschr. f. Sozialwissensch., vol. ii. Berlin, 1899.
  • —— Ethnologische Studien zur ersten Entwickelung der Strafe. 2 vols. Leiden and Leipsic, 1894.
  • Thomas, N. W.: Kinship Organisations and Group Marriage in Australia. Cambridge, 1906.
  • Webster, Hutton: Primitive Secret Societies. New York, 1908.
  • Westermarck, Edward A.: The History of Human Marriage. London, 1901.
  • —— The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. 2 vols. London, 1908.
  • Wheeler, G. C.: The Tribe, and Intertribal Relations in Australia. With a prefatory note by E. A. Westermarck. London, 1910.

INDEX

  • Abduction, considered as a crime, 38, 39, 41, 55
  • Adoption, alternative for infanticide, 247
  • Adultery, punishment of, 92-97, 99, 103, 124
  • Affection:
  • Between husband and wife, 68, 70-74, 82-84, 307
  • Parental, 191-197, 238-257, 269-272, 299
  • Aggregation, social, its influences, 132-134
  • Alatunja:
  • Head of local group, 143
  • Position hereditary among the Arunta, 225-226
  • Alcheringa ancestors, reincarnation belief, 214, 215, 218, 221
  • Allotment of females, its consequences, 60.
  • See also Infant Betrothal
  • Altjira, term explained, 215
  • Ancestors, reincarnation beliefs discussed, 212-233
  • Angas, G. F., on—marriage customs, 261;
  • maternal love, 239;
  • mode of living, 138;
  • relations between husband and wife, 70;
  • women's work, 276
  • Animism, fatherhood as determined by animistic ideas, 227-229
  • Anjea, supernatural being, 228
  • Annihilation, aboriginal belief in, asserted, 215-216
  • Anula, tribe:
  • Marriage customs, 42, 51
  • Reincarnation and kinship ideas, 220
  • Aralkililima ceremony, 85
  • Arunta nation:
  • Camping rules, 265
  • Ceremonial licence, 106
  • Division of labour, 278
  • Hereditary position of Alatunja, 225-226
  • Infanticide and motive for, 236
  • Marriage customs, 41-42
  • Mourning ceremonies, 85-86
  • Procreation and reincarnation beliefs, 209, 212, 216, 220-221
  • Relations of husband and wife,72
  • Treatment of children, 244-245
  • Tribal government, 13
  • Atninga, avenging party, 13
  • Authority:
  • Marital, 67, 68-74, 76, 77-79, 302
  • Parental, 254-256
  • See also Law
  • Avebury, Lord, on primitive law, 10
  • Bachelors' camp, 164, 262-269
  • Bahumul, form of betrothal, 40
  • Bangerang tribe:
  • Camping rules, 263
  • Marriage customs, 37, 258, 260
  • Mode of living, 137, 154, 155, 156, 159
  • Relations between husband and wife, 69
  • Treatment of children, 238-239, 248-249
  • Banks Islanders, determination of paternity, 180
  • Barrington, George, on marriage customs, 40;
  • on mode of living, 162
  • Bates, Mrs. D. M., on—infanticide, 236;
  • procreation beliefs, 227;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 99;
  • tribal divisions and ownership of land, 147-148
  • Bennett, G., on—infanticide, 235;
  • treatment of children, 241
  • Betrothal:
  • Evidence in favour of a ceremony, 52-53, 61-62
  • Individual appropriation affirmed by, 296
  • Legal aspect, 57, 60
  • Prevalence of custom, 48, 66, 306
  • Statements of authorities, 36-48
  • Beveridge, P., on—mode of living, 161;
  • sexual relations, 93
  • Bidwelli tribe, no initiation ceremonies, 262
  • Binbinga tribe:
  • Marriage customs, 42, 43, 50, 51
  • Reincarnation and kinship ideas, 220
  • Birth. See Procreation
  • Blood relationship. See Consanguinity
  • Bonney, T., on—parental affection, 270;
  • relations between husband and wife, 70
  • Boundaries, tribal, 136-157
  • Brother and sister, relations between, 272-273, 309
  • Browne, J., on sexual division of labour, 281
  • Buckley, William, treatment by the natives, 222, 271
  • Bulmer, J., on marriage customs, 36
  • Burial ceremonies:
  • Description of and deductions from, 84-88
  • Duties and behaviour of relatives, 271-272, 308
  • Cameron, H. L. P., on sexual aspect of marriage, 95
  • Campbell, Major, on tribal divisions, 146
  • Camps:
  • Bachelor, statements and remarks, 164, 262-269
  • Customs regulating, 158-167, 298
  • Unmarried females, 104, 266
  • Capture, marriage by, 40, 41, 53-55, 58
  • Celibacy, female, 104, 266
  • Ceremonies:
  • Betrothal, individual appropriation affirmed by, 296;
  • legal aspect of, 57, 60;
  • statements of authorities and deductions from, 37, 38, 42, 43-44, 48-50, 52-53, 61-62, 66, 306
  • Initiation, age of commencement and duration, 259, 262-269;
  • education of boys begun at, 256-257;
  • sexual promiscuity in connection with, 97-99, 104, 105-106, 129
  • Licence practised at, 105-107, 123
  • Marriage, a breaking of the taboo, 305;
  • ideas embodied in, 61, 307;
  • individual appropriation affirmed by, 296;
  • statements of authors and deductions from, 42-44, 52-53, 61-62, 306-307
  • Mourning and burial, description of, and their meaning, 84-88, 271-272, 308;
  • proof of strength of marriage tie, 296;
  • scars self-inflicted by women, 72
  • Chastity, how regarded, 104-105, 125, 178
  • Chauncy, Ph., on treatment of children, 246
  • Chepara tribe:
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Mourning customs, 271
  • Children. See Parent and child
  • Choi, term explained, 145
  • Class taboo, theory of origin, 288-289
  • Collective feelings, 191-192, 197-198
  • Collective ideas, 192-198
  • Collective mind, explanation of term, 175, 308-309
  • Collins, D., on—authority of husbands, 71;
  • infanticide, 236;
  • land ownership, 141;
  • mode of living, 161-162
  • Communism:
  • Food, 283-286, 289-290, 300, 309
  • In mode of living, instances, 160
  • Suckling and rearing children, remarks on, 234, 236-237
  • Consanguinity:
  • Absence (in the sociological sense) of tie in primitive societies, 179-182, 209, 217, 232, 309
  • Analysis of concepts of, 176-185, 204-207
  • Claim to kinship on basis of, in certain tribes, 231
  • Definition, 182
  • Coombangree tribe, tribal divisions, 142-143
  • Corroborees, licence at, 106-107
  • Cotertie, marriage custom, 46
  • Councils, tribal, authority exercised by, 12-13
  • Couvade custom, 183-184, 309;
  • similar customs in Australia, 225, 226
  • Crawley, on religious side of human relations, 305-309
  • Curr, E. M., on—camping rules, 263;
  • economics of family life, 275-276;
  • kinship, 3, 5;
  • marriage customs, 4, 258, 259;
  • mode of living, 137-138, 159-160;
  • parental affection, 269;
  • relations between husband and wife, 69, 82;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 92-93;
  • treatment of children, 238-239
  • Economics of family life, 274-291, 299-300
  • Education:
  • At bachelor camps, 263-264, 267
  • Initiation the beginning of, 256-257
  • Parental, discussed, 241, 242-243, 245, 246, 256-257
  • Elopement:
  • Individual appropriation affirmed by, 295
  • Punishment for, 36-46, 55-58, 66, 92, 103, 295
  • Sexual love denoted by, 83
  • Statements of authors and deductions from, 36, 41-47, 55-58, 66
  • Emotional side of kinship. See Affection
  • Euahlayi tribe:
  • Authority of grandparents, 270
  • Camping rules, 265
  • Communism in food, 285
  • Marriage customs, 40, 61, 261
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 95-96, 102, 103
  • Treatment of wives, 72
  • Exchange, mode of obtaining wives:
  • Effect on treatment of wives, 81-82
  • Form of marriage by purchase, 50-52, 58-59
  • Individual appropriation affirmed by, 296
  • Prevalence of custom, 48-49
  • Statements of authors, 36-38, 41-44, 47
  • Eyre, E. J., on—marriage customs, 261;
  • mode of living, 139, 160-161;
  • relations between husband and wife, 70
  • Family:
  • Analysis of family life a necessity, 6-9, 206
  • Customs regulating social life, 158-167
  • Economic facts connected with, 274-291
  • Evidence, method of dealing with, 17-33
  • Husband and wife, 67-88
  • Importance in marriage contracts, 49-50, 57
  • Individual appropriation proved, 295-304
  • Kinship, discussion of, 168-233
  • Legal aspect, 300-302
  • Mode of living, 132-167
  • Mode of obtaining wives, 33-66
  • Parents and children, 234-273
  • Scope of work and difficulties, 1-17, 292-294
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 89-131
  • Social units discussed, 132-135, 136-167
  • Fatherhood. See Paternity
  • Fire-sticks, carrying of, by women, 275, 276, 278, 279
  • Fison, L., on—kinship, 203;
  • marriage, 3
  • Folk-lore, kinship ideas suggested by, 207-233
  • Food:
  • Acceptance by a woman from a man belief, 229-230
  • Bachelor camp rules, 263, 267
  • Communism in, 283-286, 289-290, 309
  • Customs regulating the taking of meals, 159, 163-164, 166
  • Distribution among the family, 288-289
  • Division of labour in providing, 275-290
  • Taboos, 15, 279
  • Forrest, John, on—marriage customs, 44-45;
  • sexual division of labour, 280
  • Fraser, Dr. John, on—mode of living, 142;
  • parental affection, 270;
  • relations between brothers, 272;
  • relations between husband and wife, 72;
  • sexual division of labour, 277-278;
  • treatment of children, 242-243
  • Frazer, Prof. J. G., on—kinship, 189-190;
  • procreation beliefs, 226;
  • social life of the aborigines, 156;
  • totemic conception, 211
  • Frodsham, Dr., on procreation beliefs, 226
  • Game, statements on division of, 285-286
  • Gason, S., on—infanticide, 236;
  • Pirrauru custom, 117-118;
  • relation between brother and sister, 272;
  • treatment of children, 243
  • Geawe Gal tribe:
  • Marriage customs, 39, 261
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 95
  • Gennep, A. van, on folk-lore, 208;
  • on kinship, 204
  • Giddings, F. H., on mode of living, 132-133
  • Gifts at marriage, 50-52
  • Gillen, F. See Spencer, Baldwin, and Gillen
  • Gnanji tribe:
  • Marriage customs, 43
  • Reincarnation beliefs, 218-219
  • Gomme, Sir Laurence, on kinship, 182, 202, 205-206
  • Gournditch Mara tribe:
  • Chiefs, 12
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Marriage customs, 36
  • Mode of living, 159
  • Government, tribal:
  • Existence of, 11-17
  • Intervention between husband and wife, 79
  • Marriage contracts supervised by, 57-58
  • Pirrauru relation authorised by, 110
  • Grey, Sir G., on—camping rules, 266;
  • marriage customs, 64, 65;
  • mode of living, 164;
  • relation between brother and sister, 273;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 99;
  • treatment of children, 249;
  • tribal divisions and ownership of land, 146-147
  • Gribble, Rev. J. B., on communism in food,285
  • Grosse, E., criticism of Howitt's statements, 4
  • Group marriage:
  • Existence in Australia discussed, 30, 89, 113-115
  • Relation of the Pirrauru custom to, 108-123, 308
  • Hartland, E. S., on kinship, 201-202;
  • on paternity, 181, 208
  • Headmen, authority exercised by, 12-13
  • Henderson, John, on mode of living, 162
  • Hereditary positions, 225-226
  • Hodgkinson, Cl., on relations between husband and wife, 72;
  • on tribal divisions, 142
  • Hodgson, C. P., on relations between husband and wife, 71
  • Howitt, A. W., on—economic side of family life, 275;
  • group marriage, 4-5, 30, 109, 113-114, 121;
  • kinship, 1-2, 203;
  • marriage customs, 261, 262-263;
  • mode of living, 136-137;
  • parental affection, 195;
  • Pirrauru custom, 108-112, 117, 120;
  • relations between husband and wife, 68, 81;
  • sexual relations, 92, 101;
  • treatment of children, 238, 241
  • Husband and wife:
  • Affection between, existence of, 82-84
  • Authority of husband, 76, 77-79, 302
  • Bond created by affection for children, 253-254, 299
  • Division of labour, 274-291
  • Individual relationship between, proved, 295-298
  • Mourning and burial ceremonies and their meaning, 84-88
  • Obligations of husband, 62-65
  • Parental aspect. See Parent and child
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 89-131
  • Statements of authors on relations between, 67-76
  • Treatment of wife, 76, 79-84
  • See also Wives and Women
  • Huts. See Dwellings
  • Kabi tribe:
  • Infanticide and motive for, 236
  • Marriage customs, 262
  • Relations of husband and wife, 73
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 98
  • Treatment of children, 245
  • Tribal divisions and mode of living, 144, 154, 155, 163
  • Kafirs, ideas on procreation, 180
  • Kaitish tribe:
  • Ceremonial licence, 106
  • Mourning ceremonies, 86
  • Reincarnation belief, 216
  • Kamilaroi tribe, sexual aspect of marriage, 95, 103
  • Karamundi tribes, communism in food, 284
  • Kinship:
  • Aboriginal collective ideas, 171, 183, 207-233, 309
  • Affection of parents, 191-197
  • Contradictions in authorities, 1-7
  • Definition aimed at, 8
  • Legal aspect, 185-191
  • Meaning generally attached to term, 170-178
  • Organisations creating group relationship, not dealt with, 303
  • Protection of wives by their relatives, 78, 79
  • Relatives' part in mourning ceremonies, 88
  • Social factors, 170, 308
  • Sociologists' application of concept, 200-206
  • Theoretical analysis, 168-207
  • Kohler, J., on primitive law, 10
  • Kühn, Rev. J., on customs of Turra tribe, 264
  • Kuinmurbura tribe, marriage customs, 43, 52
  • Kulin tribe:
  • Chiefs, 12
  • Procreation ideas, 231
  • Kurdaitcha party, 13
  • Kurnai tribe:
  • Authority of grandparents, 270
  • Camping rules, 262-263
  • Communism in food, 283-284
  • Economics of family life, 275
  • Magic and its effect on sexual relations, 129
  • Marriage customs, 36, 47, 51, 55, 56, 258
  • Mode of living, 136, 154, 155, 158-159, 162
  • Relations between husband and wife, 68
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 92, 101, 103, 105
  • Treatment of children by their parents, 238
  • MacLennan, J. F., on kinship, 200-201
  • Magic:
  • Mode of obtaining wives, 14, 41, 55, 58, 62, 97
  • Punishment by means of, 10, 13
  • Sexual intercourse influenced by belief in, 129-130
  • Mara tribe:
  • Marriage customs, 42, 43, 51
  • Reincarnation and kinship ideas, 220
  • Marriage:
  • Affection in, 82-84
  • Age of girls, 257-259
  • Breaking the taboo necessary, 305
  • Contradictions of authorities, 2-3, 3-5
  • Definition, 34-35
  • Defloration ceremony, 42-43, 98, 104, 105-106, 129
  • Disparity of age, 259-262
  • Duration, length of, 64-66
  • Ideas embodied in ceremonies, 61-62, 307
  • Individual appropriation proved by evidence, 59, 295-298
  • Legal aspect, 8, 35, 56-66, 307
  • Modes of obtaining wives, 35-66
  • Mourning rites of widows, 84-88
  • Pirrauru relation distinguished from, 109-123
  • Prevalence of ceremonies, statements, 52-53, 61-62, 306-307
  • Sexual aspect, 89-131
  • See also Husband and wife, Parent and child, Purchase marriages
  • Maternity:
  • Definition of individual motherhood, 173
  • Relative unimportance of physiological motherhood, 230-232
  • See also Parent and Child
  • Mathew, Rev. J., on—marriage, 4;
  • mode of living, 163;
  • sexual division of labour, 278-279
  • Mathews, R. H., on—Communism in food, 285;
  • hereditary offices, 225;
  • reincarnation beliefs, 212;
  • tribal divisions, 144
  • Meyer, H. E. A., on sexual division of labour, 277
  • Mitchell, Major T. L., on—relations between husband and wife, 70;
  • treatment of children, 240;
  • women's work, 276-277
  • Moore, G. F., on—marriage customs, 46;
  • on sexual division of labour, 280
  • Moore-Davies, J., on mode of living, 161;
  • on sexual licence, 94
  • Morgan, John, on—kinship, 200;
  • use of terms kinship and consanguinity, 171
  • Mourning ceremonies:
  • Description of, and deductions from, 84-88, 308
  • Duties of relatives, 271-272
  • Proof of strength of marriage ties, 296
  • Scars self-inflicted by women, 72
  • Mukjarawaint tribe:
  • Authority of grandparents, 254-255, 270
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Murring tribe:
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Mode of living, 136, 154, 159, 162
  • Sexual life, 92
  • Treatment of children, 241
  • Murrumbidgee tribes, treatment of children, 241
  • Nanarree, form of betrothal, 40
  • Narran-ga tribe, communism in food, 284
  • Narrinyeri tribe:
  • Communism in food, 285
  • Marriage customs, 38, 52
  • Mode of living, 139-140, 155
  • Relation between husband and wife, 70-71
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 94, 105
  • Naudowessies, ideas on procreation, 180
  • Ngarigo tribe, camping rules, 263
  • Ngura-mundu custom, 96
  • Nieboer, H. J., on relation between husband and wife, 75-76
  • Nind, Scott, on sexual aspect of marriage, 100;
  • on tribal divisions, 148-149
  • Oldfield, A., on—relation between brother and sister, 272-273;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 99;
  • treatment of children, 246
  • Orphans, adoption of, 242
  • Reincarnation of ancestors, aboriginal ideas and beliefs discussed, 212-233
  • Relationship. See Kinship
  • Repudiation of wives. See Divorce
  • Rivers, W. H. R., on kinship, 6-7, 202-203
  • Roth, W. E., on—camping rules, 266;
  • folk-lore, 227;
  • food taboos, 279;
  • kinship, 225;
  • marriage customs, 306-309;
  • mode of living, 163;
  • mourning ceremonies, 88;
  • origin of class taboo, 288-289;
  • relation between husband and wife, 73-74;
  • tribal divisions, 145
  • Rusden, G. W., on relations between husband and wife, 72
  • Salvado, R., on—affection for parents, 271;
  • camping rules, 266;
  • marriage customs, 45, 64, 65, 259;
  • mode of living, 164;
  • relation between husband and wife, 74;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 99-100;
  • treatment of children, 246-247;
  • tribal divisions and ownership of land, 147
  • Schultze, L., on marriage customs, 41
  • Schürmann, C. W., on—mode of living, 162;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 94
  • Scott Nind. See Nind
  • Separation of husband and wife, 69.
  • See also Divorce
  • Sexual life:
  • Aboriginal ideas on procreation discussed, 175, 176-183, 206, 208-233
  • Ceremonial licence, 105-107, 123
  • Chastity, how regarded, 104-105, 125, 178
  • Elopement a proof of sexual love, 83-84
  • Jealousy, existence discussed, 124-131
  • Pirrauru custom, 108-123
  • Relative unimportance for unity of family, 299-300
  • Rights and restrictions of the husband, 101-103, 112, 126-127, 297-298, 300
  • Statements of authorities, 89-101
  • Subject to rules, 123, 305
  • Young females monopolized by old men, 260-262, 309
  • Sister and brother. See Brother and Sister
  • Smyth, R. Brough, on mode of living, 161;
  • on treatment of children, 239-240
  • Society, primitive:
  • Collective mind, explanation of term, 175, 308-309
  • Early modes of thought the only manner of explanation, 168-169, 308
  • Kinship as affected by social conditions, 175-207
  • Manner of influencing an institution, 300-301
  • Unit of aboriginal society, problem discussed, 1-17
  • Spencer, Baldwin, and Gillen, F., on—folk-lore, 208, 211, 212, 216, 220, 225, 226;
  • food customs, 285;
  • kinship, 2, 3, 5;
  • marriage customs, 41-43;
  • mode of living, 163;
  • mourning ceremonies, 85-88, 272;
  • Pirrauru custom, 108, 115, 117, 120;
  • relation between brother and sister, 273;
  • treatment of children, 243-244;
  • tribal divisions, 143
  • Stanbridge, W. E., on marriage customs, 38
  • Strehlow, Herr C., on folk-lore, 208, 210-215
  • Suckling of children, bond established by, 234-237
  • Taboo:
  • Breaking of, necessary for marriage, 305
  • Class, theory of origin, 288-289
  • Food, 15, 279
  • Paternal, during pregnancy of wife, 225
  • Taplin, G., on relation between husband and wife, 70
  • Tench, W., on—marriage customs, 40;
  • relation between husband and wife, 71;
  • sexual division of labour, 277;
  • sexual licence, 95
  • Theddora tribe, chiefs, 12
  • Thomas, N. W., on—kinship, 7, 187;
  • marriage, 91;
  • Pirrauru custom, 119
  • Tippa Malku marriage, 41, 96, 110
  • Tjinjilli tribe, marriage customs, 43
  • Todas, determination of paternity, 180
  • Tongaranka tribe:
  • Chief, 12
  • Mourning customs, 271
  • Torres Straits Islanders, kinship of, 203
  • Totems:
  • Ideas on conception and birth connected with, 208-233
  • Totemic centres, statements on, 146, 153
  • Tribal government. See Government, Tribal
  • Tribe:
  • Local group as subdivision of. See Local Group
  • Social divisions of, 136-157, 298
  • Use of term defined, 134
  • Tualcha Mura marriage custom, 41, 42, 50, 261
  • Turnbull, John, on—marriage customs, 39;
  • mode of living, 141;
  • relation between husband and wife, 71;
  • sexual aspect of marriage, 95;
  • treatment of children, 242
  • Turra tribe:
  • Marriage customs, 264
  • Mode of living, 162
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 94, 101, 103, 105
  • Turrubul tribe, customs, 285-286
  • Umbaia tribe, reincarnation beliefs, 218-219
  • Unmatjera tribe:
  • Mourning ceremonies, 86
  • Reincarnation belief, 216
  • Urabunna tribe:
  • Ignorance of physiological fatherhood, 128
  • Pirrauru custom, 108, 115, 118
  • Reincarnation belief, 212, 216
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 96
  • Treatment of children, 243-244
  • Wakelbura tribe, marriage customs, 44, 56
  • Wakka tribe:
  • Infanticide and motive for, 236
  • Marriage customs, 262
  • Relations between husband and wife, 73
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 98
  • Treatment of children, 245
  • Tribal divisions and mode of living, 144, 154, 155, 163
  • Warramunga tribe:
  • Ceremonial licence, 106-107
  • Marriage customs, 42, 43
  • Mourning ceremonies, 85, 86
  • Reincarnation belief, 212, 217
  • Watchandee tribe:
  • Communism in food, 286
  • Marriage customs, 45
  • Westermarck, Prof. E. A., on—chastity among uncivilized people, 178;
  • kinship, 205;
  • marriage, 3-4, 34-35;
  • sexual jealousy, 125;
  • study of family life, 134
  • Wheeler, G. C., on sociology of aborigines, 133
  • White men, believed to be ghosts of relatives, 222-224
  • Wife. See Wives, below
  • Wiimbaio tribe:
  • Chiefs, 12
  • Mourning customs, 271
  • Wilhelmi, C., on sexual aspect of marriage, 94
  • Wilkes, Charles, on sexual aspect of marriage, 95
  • Willshire, W. H., on sexual aspect of marriage, 97
  • Wiradjuri tribe:
  • Chiefs, 12
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Marriage customs, 41
  • Procreation ideas, 230
  • Women's work, 277
  • Withnell, J. G., on tribal divisions, 146
  • Wives:
  • Economic functions, 67
  • Exchange of, statements, 92-95, 98, 101, 102-103
  • Modes of obtaining, 35-66, 295
  • Obligations of the husbands, 62-65
  • See also Husband and Wife and Women
  • Woeworung tribe, marriage customs, 37, 52
  • Wogait tribe, procreation ideas, 230
  • Wolgal tribe:
  • Camping rules, 263
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Marriage customs, 261
  • Procreation ideas, 231
  • Women:
  • Condition of drudgery and servitude, 274-290
  • Licence among the unmarried, 266-267
  • Scars self-inflicted at mourning ceremonies, 72, 86
  • See also Husband and Wife and Wives
  • Wotjobaluk tribe:
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Marriage customs, 37-38, 50
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 93, 101, 103, 105
  • Wurrunjeri tribe:
  • Communism in food, 284
  • Mode of living, 137, 159
  • Wuurn, term explained, 160
  • Wyatt, W., on treatment of children, 241
  • Yantruwunta tribe, Pirrauru custom, 108
  • Yerkla-Mining tribe:
  • Communism in food, 285
  • Sexual aspect of marriage, 94-95, 102
  • Yuin tribe:
  • Chiefs, 12
  • Marriage customs, 36, 50, 52, 56
  • Procreation ideas, 231