The Fleets at War

As early as 1889 he had been a lieutenant in the old Imperial yacht in which the Emperor made his first long cruises. On leaving the “Hohenzollern” in 1908 he was promoted to Rear-Admiral, and placed in charge of the second division of the First Squadron. In the following year he hoisted his flag as admiral of the cruiser squadron in China, whence he was recalled twelve months later to assume charge of the Second Battle Squadron in home waters. The commander-in-chief of the High Sea Fleet was then Admiral von Holtzendorff, who, after Grand-Admiral von Koester (the president of the Navy League), is considered to be the finest naval strategist in Germany. Under this officer the battle fleet is said to have increased remarkably in efficiency, both in regard to gunnery, seamanship, and general smartness. This period witnessed the introduction into the fleet of up-to-date shooting methods, and notably of long-range practice. In the manœuvres of 1912 the Second Squadron, commanded by Admiral von Ingenohl, was held to have scored a decisive success against a much stronger fleet, which included seven Dreadnought battleships, whereas his own squadron was composed of older and weaker ships. In January, 1913, Admiral von Holtzendorff hauled down his flag, and was succeeded by Admiral von Ingenohl as commander-in-chief.

The leader of the German battle fleet has, therefore, held his present appointment for upwards of eighteen months, and it is to be supposed that he is thoroughly familiar with every unit of his fine force, especially as the ships in active commission spend more than nine months of the year at sea. The fleet certainly stands to benefit by this comparatively long period of single command. It will feel the confidence born of experience in its distinguished leader, and he in turn, knowing exactly what his ships can do, need fear no check to his plans by unsuspected defects in personnel or material. Whatever the near future may bring, it is certain that the German navy will put forth its utmost effort to fulfil the hope placed in it by the nation, and those who anticipate a cheaply purchased naval victory for us are laying up a rude disappointment for themselves. The material resources of the German fleet alone can give some idea of its formidability, but its potentiality will be incalculably increased if the leadership is of the high order which the reputation of the present commander-in-chief leads us to expect.

CHAPTER VII
Officers and Men of the Foreign Navies

PERSONNEL OF THE NAVIES

NOTES TO PERSONNEL STATISTICS

GERMANY.—The Imperial German Navy is manned largely by conscription. About 25 per cent. of the non-commissioned personnel consists, however, of volunteers, or long-service men, who have made the Navy their profession. These “professionals,” as they are called, are the backbone of the fleet. They fill all the really important posts, such as that of gun-captain, gun-layer, torpedo-gunner, leading signalman, and they are responsible for the efficiency of the conscripts under their charge. Seventy-five per cent. of the personnel is represented by conscripts mainly from the inland districts whose term of service is three years, and who see the sea for the first time after entering the Navy. Enrolment takes place each October, and after two or three weeks of rudimentary instruction on shore, they are distributed among the battle-fleet and the torpedo flotillas. Hence, at the outbreak of war, 25 per cent. of the German personnel had been under training about 34 months, 25 per cent. about 22 months, and 25 per cent. no longer than 10 months.

Owing to the limited period of service German naval training is extremely strenuous and intensive. Every effort is made to specialize, newcomers being selected for certain duties according to the aptitude they display. The German bluejacket is not a “handy man” in the sense that the British sailor is, but he is said to be efficient in his own particular groove. Discipline is exceedingly strict, and the relations between officers and men are rarely cordial.

The officers are well educated and very scientific in their methods.

FRANCE.—The French Navy is manned principally on the conscript system, but as France has a large maritime population, the majority of the naval recruits are men who have followed the sea since boyhood and who, therefore, adapt themselves very quickly to service in the Fleet. There is also a large percentage of long-service volunteers. The period of compulsory service was, until lately, two years, but under the new Law this has been raised to three years. Authorities speak highly of the French bluejacket’s intelligence and courage. Discipline is good, but not so strict as in the German Navy. The officers are, as a rule, men of high scientific attainments and very keen on their work.

RUSSIA.—The Russian Navy is manned almost exclusively by conscripts, who serve for five years afloat. Although his education generally leaves much to be desired, the Russian sailor has many excellent qualities. He is obedient, courageous, and never gets into a panic. Since the disastrous war with Japan, the Navy has been purged of many of the elements which impaired efficiency. The officers are now capable and zealous. The change which has come over the Fleet is evidenced by an “order of the day,” recently promulgated, which enjoins all naval officers never to surrender their ships under any circumstances, but to sink them if capture is imminent.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.—The Austro-Hungarian Navy is manned by conscripts and volunteers, the former largely predominating. Four years is the period of service. The men are drawn almost exclusively from the Dalmatian coast, and represent a very hardy and courageous type. The average of education is, however, very low, the percentage of illiterates being abnormal. Although Italian is the mother tongue of the majority, German is the official language of the Navy. All-round efficiency is maintained on a high level. The officers are men of excellent education, wide knowledge, and unlimited zeal.

JAPAN.—The Japanese Navy is principally manned on a compulsory basis, the term of active service being three years. The men are excellent in every way, smart, intelligent, resourceful, and amenable to discipline. They display a wonderful aptitude for manipulating the complex mechanism of a modern warship, as was proved in the campaign against Russia. The officers are highly trained and enterprising.

CHAPTER VIII
German Naval Bases

KIEL

Kiel, in spite of the growing importance of Wilhelmshaven, still retains its position as Germany’s premier “Reichskriegshafen,” or Imperial War Port. Its superb harbour, and the international regatta, known as the “Kieler Woche,” which is held each June, have made Kiel one of the best known ports of Europe. This year’s regatta, it will be remembered, was rendered memorable by the presence of the British Second Battle Squadron and some of our light cruisers. The Imperial Dockyard at Kiel is said to be one of the best-equipped establishments of its kind in the world.

It has two large building slips, on one of which the Dreadnought battleship “Kaiser” was constructed, and there are other slips for the building of smaller vessels. Of the six graving docks, two are large enough for Dreadnoughts. There is also a mammoth floating dock capable of raising vessels up to 39,500 tons, and five other pontoon docks for ships of smaller dimensions. Upwards of 10,500 officials and hands are employed at the yard, which specialises in repair and refitting work, though a good deal of new construction is also undertaken.

Kiel is the official residence of Prince Henry of Prussia, the Kaiser’s brother, who is Inspector-General of the Fleet. Some four miles down the harbour is Holtenau and the locks of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Kiel is very strongly defended against both land and seaward attack. The harbour entrance is guarded by the batteries of Friedrichsort on the west, and those of Laboe and Möltenort on the east. At Friedrichsort the fairway is less than 1,000 yards wide, so that ships attempting to force an entrance would have to run the gauntlet of the heavy fortress guns at almost point-blank range. Friedrichsort is the home of the State torpedo factory, which supplies practically the entire navy with these weapons.

In normal times the Second and Third Battle Squadrons are based in Kiel, which is also the base for the Baltic Reserve Squadron, the First Torpedo Division, and the submarine flotillas. Besides the State yard, there is the immense shipbuilding and engineering establishment known as the Germania Yard, owned by Krupp, and the Howaldt Yard, both of which construct warships of the largest size. Hence the building and repairing facilities at Kiel are very extensive, and they pass automatically under State control in wartime. Kiel itself is a large and thriving city, with a population of 180,000. Its growth dates from 1866, when it was wrested from Denmark by Prussia, with the whole of the Schleswig-Holstein province.

HELIGOLAND.

Heligoland is the most remarkable of Germany’s naval strongholds. This island, it will be remembered, was ceded to Germany by us in 1890. At that date the sea had made such inroads on the soft cliffs that the complete disappearance of Heligoland at no very distant date was freely predicted.

With characteristic thoroughness the Germans took measures to preserve their new acquisition. Immensely strong breakwaters and sea-walls were built all round the coast, but violent gales demolished much of the work, which had to be replaced at great expense, and it is only in recent years that the ravages of the sea have been completely checked.

Simultaneously with this work a good deal of land reclamation went on, with the result that the area of the island has been greatly increased.

A large harbour for torpedo-boats and submarines has been enclosed by two long moles. Inside there is a miniature dockyard, with repair shops, magazines, stores, &c. Outside this harbour there is a safe anchorage for warships of great size. It is estimated that from beginning to end the naval works at Heligoland have cost Germany something like £10,000,000 sterling.

Fortifications of remarkable strength have been erected. These consist chiefly of heavy guns, mounted in steel turrets, well concealed from the view of an enemy at sea, and so placed that every approach to the island is swept by their fire. As these guns are mounted on the plateau they have a high command, and attacking ships would have to encounter a plunging fire.

Numerous bomb-proof control stations and magazines have been excavated. It is understood that, given an ample supply of ammunition and provisions, Heligoland is in a position to resist attack by the strongest naval force for an indefinite period.

There is a powerful wireless station, a naval flying depot, and a large naval hospital. The garrison consists in the main of four companies of seamen gunners. The commandant is Rear-Admiral Jacobson.

The high strategical importance of Heligoland is self-evident. Its position, some thirty-five miles from the mainland, is that of a strong outpost, defending the estuaries of the Elbe and Weser. A flotilla of destroyers or submarines based on the island could make things very uncomfortable for a fleet endeavouring to blockade the German coast, and it was the recognition of this fact which led to the construction of the new torpedo harbour.

Thanks to the wireless station, communication can always be maintained with the mainland, and also by means of aircraft.

In common with most military nations, Germany appears to place undue reliance on fixed defences as an element of sea power, but it is obvious, from the vast sums of money she has spent on its development, that Heligoland plays a leading part in the German plan of naval strategy.

BORKUM.

The island of Borkum came into prominence a few years ago as the result of an alleged case of espionage, in which two young British naval officers were concerned.

Borkum is the first German island of the Frisian group. It commands the approach to the Ems, and would offer a convenient point d’appui for naval operations against the German coast. This, apparently, explains why it has been strongly fortified by the Germans.

Its guns are said to be numerous, and are well placed among the lofty sand dunes which are a feature of the island. The garrison is supplied by the army, and includes some batteries of field artillery and machine guns.

The experience gained during naval manœuvres has shown that Borkum would be a difficult place to surprise. According to report, some of the guns in position are powerful enough to inflict serious damage on the largest warships.

EMDEN.

Emden, the southernmost port of Germany on the North Sea, has of late years acquired considerable naval importance. There have been frequent reports of the pending establishment of a State dockyard there, in connection with the Ems-Jade canal, which was to be deepened sufficiently to allow fairly large warships to traverse it. So far, however, this project has not been carried out.

Two years ago Emden became a mine station, and the headquarters of the “Arkona,” a light cruiser converted into a mine-layer. Harbour works on a grand scale have lately been completed at Emden. There is a commodious basin fronted by wharves and warehouses, and fitted with up-to-date coaling plant. The canal which connects the port with the river is deep enough to allow the largest ships to come up.

During the present war it is probable that Emden is being used both as a mine and torpedo base. It relies for its defence on the batteries at Borkum, some miles out at sea, as ships entering the River Ems are compelled to pass close to this island.

The railway connections of Emden are very good, so good, in fact, that they are believed to have been dictated by strategical considerations. Emden has often been spoken of by German writers as a sally port, and as a convenient point of assembly and embarkation for an army of invasion.

WILHELMSHAVEN.

Wilhelmshaven ranks officially as Germany’s second war harbour, though its strategical position makes it, in fact, the principal base of a German fleet operating in the North Sea. It began its career as a naval station as late as 1869, since when enormous sums of money and infinite labour have been expended on its development.

In area the dockyard is almost four times as large as that of Kiel, and it is even more modern in equipment. It contains a bewildering number of docks and basins, together with building slips, repair shops, depots, and store-houses. There are three Dreadnought graving docks and four smaller ones, and five floating docks, of which the latest can raise vessels up to 39,500 tons.

Only one of the building slips is available for constructing Dreadnoughts, but a second is being lengthened sufficiently for this purpose. The total number of officials and workmen is about 10,500 under peace conditions. At Wilhelmshaven were built the Dreadnought battleships “Nassau,” “Ostfriesland,” and “König,” and at the present moment the battle-cruiser “Ersatz Hertha” is building there.

The terminus of the Ems-Jade Canal is inside the dockyard, but so far as is known this waterway is too shallow to permit the passage of any class of warship.

The Jade Channel, which leads to Wilhelmshaven, is exceedingly difficult to navigate, owing to the innumerable and constantly shifting shoals with which it is infested. To keep this channel clear elaborate dredging operations have to be carried on throughout the year, as otherwise it would speedily silt up and become impassable. Access to the harbour is gained through huge locks, most of which can be used, if necessary, as emergency docks for repairing damaged ships. When these locks are closed the harbour is entirely cut off from the sea, thus affording the ships inside complete security against torpedo attack.

Commodious as the harbour is, however, it is not large enough to contain the whole fleet, and consequently extra moorings were recently laid outside for cruisers and other small craft. The locks are designed on so large a scale, and are so efficiently operated that several squadrons of big ships can be passed through in a few hours.

Wilhelmshaven is the base of the First Battle Squadron, the Scouting Squadron (i.e., all the battle-cruisers and other cruisers of the High Sea Fleet), the 2nd Torpedo Division, and of a submarine flotilla. It is very heavily fortified.

The approach to the Jade Channel is commanded by the batteries of Wangerooge, an island garrisoned by seamen gunners, and said to have very powerful guns. There is a flying station at Wilhelmshaven, with hangars for a dozen seaplanes.

CUXHAVEN

Cuxhaven has lately become an important German naval base. Situated as it is at the extreme entrance of the Elbe estuary, it commands the approach to the great commercial port of Hamburg, seventy miles up the river.

Cuxhaven has no dockyard of its own, but it possesses a harbour large enough to accommodate great ships of war, and certain facilities for carrying out repairs are provided by the depot of the Hamburg-Amerika Line, of which it is the headquarters.

A mile or two west of the harbour are the batteries of Döse, mounting a number of heavy guns and quick-firers. These defences are controlled by the navy, and are garrisoned by five companies of seamen gunners.

Although the mouth of the Elbe is wide, only a narrow channel is available for vessels of moderate draught, and the defences have consequently been designed to bring an overwhelming fire to bear on hostile vessels using this navigable approach.

For some years Cuxhaven has been the principal mine station of the German navy. It is the base for the mine-laying and mine-sweeping divisions, composed of special ships and a large number of old torpedo-boats equipped for the work. This station is responsible for the observation mine-fields which close the Elbe to hostile ships in war. It contains an artillery depot, a powerful wireless station, and barracks for a large contingent of seamen gunners and marines.

Cuxhaven, moreover, is the principal base of the German air fleet. An immense shed, 590-ft. long, 98-ft. high, and capable of sheltering two of the largest dirigibles, is approaching completion. This structure is of the revolving type, thus permitting airships to dock or emerge without being exposed to the wind. It rests in an excavation. When the shed is lowered the roof is on a level with the surrounding country, and by this means the location of the shed is hidden from hostile aircraft.

Near at hand there are permanent hangars for a number of seaplanes, with workshops for repairing and fitting aircraft of every description.

The German authorities are credited with the intention of gradually developing Cuxhaven into a first-class naval base, in order to relieve the congestion at Wilhelmshaven.

BRUNSBÜTTEL.

Brunsbüttel is the western terminus of the Baltic-North Sea canal. It is situated about ten miles up the River Elbe, on the Schleswig-Holstein shore. Some batteries are believed to exist at this point, armed with guns powerful enough to repel torpedo craft, but the real defences of the canal locks are the forts at Cuxhaven, at the mouth of the river.

The widening of the canal, which is now practically completed, necessitated the construction of new locks on a gigantic scale at each end. Those at Brunsbüttel were completed early this year, in advance of the locks at the Kiel end.

Brunsbüttel has a harbour nearly 1,700-ft. long and 680-ft. wide. Large supplies of coal and oil are kept here, and there is a well-equipped coaling plant which enables vessels to coal with great rapidity. The canal locks are of such massive construction that it is doubtful whether they could be seriously damaged by torpedo attack.

CHAPTER IX
The Kiel Canal

Although it is a generally accepted fact that the Kiel Canal forms one of Germany’s most valuable naval bases, it is just possible that its value in war will be found to be greatly overrated. There is no question that the size of the locks and the depth of the canal, viz., 36 ft., will allow battleships of the greatest draught to pass through; but, to make the point clear, it is necessary to consider the nature of the navigable channels leading to both the Baltic and the Elbe entrances to this great strategical undertaking.

Dealing with the Kiel end of the canal first, the entrance is situated some seven or eight miles up the estuary leading into Kiel Bay. From Kiel Bay to the North Sea a vessel has, according to her draught of water, the choice of three routes into the Kattegat, viz., Little Belt, Great Belt and the Sound. The first-named could only be used by small light draught vessels, such as destroyers and submarines. The passage through the Great Belt, and also that via the Sound, would have to be navigated by a heavy battleship on a favourable state of the tide. The least width across the Little Belt is abreast of the town of Fredericia, in Denmark, where the passage is less than three-quarters of a mile wide. In the Great Belt the navigable channels are restricted in places to about a mile or even less in width. Between Helsingor, in Denmark, and Helsinborg, in Sweden, the Sound is but little over a mile wide and only about 20 ft. deep at low water. The eastern channel of the Kattegat has deep water, and the distance between the Scaw, the northern end of Denmark, and the nearest outlying island off the Swedish coast, is about twenty-five miles.

From the above showing, it will be seen that the narrow and tortuous passages which a warship must use if she wishes to proceed from Kiel Bay to the North Sea present an easy problem to render them unnavigable by the use of submarine mines. And, again, the narrowness of the entrance to the Kattegat lends itself to easy watching by the scouts of a fleet in the North Sea. German naval authorities, of course, realised the geographical disadvantages of Kiel years ago, and, in an attempt to remedy the evil, widened and deepened the Kiel Canal.

The Elbe entrance of the canal, which is situated at Brunsbüttel, is some seventeen miles from Cuxhaven, which, as is well known, is the Gravesend of Hamburg. The channels between Brunsbüttel and Cuxhaven, which are very narrow, have a sufficient depth at low water for vessels of a moderate draught, and the anchorage room, except for ships drawing but a few feet of water, is somewhat limited. A big battleship, drawing 30 ft. or more, as she would do with stores and ammunition on board, would have to navigate the distance from the canal entrance to Cuxhaven on a flood tide, and if required to bring up would have to moor in the usual manner with two anchors. In fact, the same navigational procedure would have to be followed after passing Cuxhaven until the ship would nearly reach No. 2 Lightship at the mouth of the Elbe.

Of course, the Germans have no need to block all the available room in the Elbe with big ships, for they have many other deep-water anchorages close at hand. The entrance of the Weser River, from Roter Sand Lightship to Hohe Weg Lighthouse, and Schillig Road, in the Jade River, are both excellent big ship anchorages. Turning to available shelter for smaller craft on the German North Sea coast, this can be found in numerous inlets and channels from the borders of Denmark in the north to the entrance of the Ems in the south.

But now we have reached an important point. We know that the long chains of off-shore lightships along the German coast have been withdrawn from their stations, and that the navigation lights on shore have been discontinued. Should German warships, which we may assume are spread about in the various anchorages already referred to, make a dart to sea, especially at night-time, there is every probability of some of them stranding on the numberless flats and shoals which extend for many miles seaward from the low-lying shore of Germany. And, with the absence of lights and with mine-sown channels to navigate, getting back on a dark, dirty night to their havens would inevitably cause destruction to many a ship, whether large or small. The wilder the weather, the more toll would this dangerous coast claim. The British cruisers, when chasing their quarry, would hold the whip-hand. The sounding machine and hand-lead would tell them when to ’bout ship.

Large map (460 kB).

It is interesting to mention that for two-thirds of the fifty-six miles in length of the Kiel Canal the banks on either side are practically flat, and, owing to the nature of the soil, which is largely peat, they are constantly subsiding into the channel. This, besides necessitating constant dredging, in order to maintain the great depth of water required for battleships, forces vessels to proceed at their slowest speed possible. A battleship would take, therefore, the best part of twelve hours to get through from the Elbe to Kiel.

In view of the fact that the distance from Kiel to the Scaw, via the Sound passage, is 325 miles—from Kiel to the Scaw via the intricate channels of the Great Belt is about 245 miles—a battleship would occupy thirty-six hours fully, under the best conditions of tide and weather, to reach the waters of the North Sea. In these days a naval battle can be decided in a fractional part of that time.

CHAPTER X.—The Great Fleets Engaged; Tabular Statement.

THE BRITISH NAVY.

BRITISH BATTLESHIPS (Dreadnought Type).

Note to Armour details: am. = amidships, f. = forward, a. = aft, P.D. = protective deck, C.T. = conning-tower.

BATTLESHIPS (Pre-Dreadnought Type)

Note to Armour details: am. = amidships, f. = forward, a. = aft, P.D. = protective deck, C.T. = conning-tower.

BATTLE CRUISERS.

Note to Armour details: am. = amidships, f. = forward, a. = aft, P.D. = protective deck, C.T. = conning-tower.

ARMOURED CRUISERS.

Note to Armour details: am. = amidships, f. = forward, a. = aft, P.D. = protective deck, C.T. = conning-tower.

CRUISERS.