CHAPTER XI—INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, Oh! alas! ah! poh! pshaw! avaunt! aha! hurrah!
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.—Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. Unimpassioned writings reject this part of speech altogether. As words or sounds of this kind serve rather to indicate feeling than to express thought, they seldom have any definable signification. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of them. Some significant words, perhaps more properly belonging to other classes, are sometimes ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner; as, strange! prodigious! indeed! Wells says, "Other parts of speech, used by way of exclamation, are properly regarded as interjections; as, hark! surprising! mercy!"—School Gram., 1846, p. 110. This is an evident absurdity; because it directly confounds the classes which it speaks of as being different. Nor is it right to say, "Other parts of speech are frequently used to perform the office of interjections."—Wells, 1850, p. 120.
OBS. 2.—The word interjection comes to us from the Latin name interjectio, the root of which is the verb interjicio, to throw between, to interject. Interjections are so called because they are usually thrown in between the parts of discourse, without any syntactical connexion with other words. Dr. Lowth, in his haste, happened to describe them as a kind of natural sounds "thrown in between the parts of a sentence;" and this strange blunder has been copied into almost every definition that has been given of the Interjection since. See Murray's Grammar and others. Webster's Dictionary defines it as, "A word thrown in between words connected in construction;" but of all the parts of speech none are less frequently found in this situation.
OBS. 3.—The following is a fair sample of "Smith's New Grammar,"—i.e., of "English Grammar on the Productive System,"—a new effort of quackery to scarf up with cobwebs the eyes of common sense: "Q. When I exclaim, 'Oh! I have ruined my friend,' 'Alas! I fear for life,' which words here appear to be thrown in between the sentences, to express passion or feeling? Ans. Oh! Alas! Q. What does interjection mean? Ans. Thrown between. Q. What name, then, shall we give such words as oh! alas! &c.? Ans. INTERJECTIONS. Q. What, then, are interjections? Ans. Interjections are words thrown in between the parts of sentences, to express the passions or sudden feelings of the speaker. Q. How may an interjection generally be known? Ans. By its taking an exclamation point after it: [as,] 'Oh! I have alienated my friend.'"—R. C. Smith's New Gram., p. 39. Of the interjection, this author gives, in his examples for parsing, fifteen other instances; but nothing can be more obvious, than that not more than one of the whole fifteen stands either "between sentences" or between the parts of any sentence! (See New Gram., pp. 40 and 96.) Can he be a competent grammarian, who does not know the meaning of between; or who, knowing it, misapplies so very plain a word?
OBS. 4.—The Interjection, which is idly claimed by sundry writers to have been the first of words at the origin of language, is now very constantly set down, among the parts of speech, as the last of the series. But, for the name of this the last of the ten sorts of words, some of our grammarians have adopted the term exclamation. Of the old and usual term interjection, a recent writer justly says, "This name is preferable to that of exclamation, for some exclamations are not interjections, and some interjections are not exclamations."—GIBBS: Fowler's E. Gram., §333.
LIST OF THE INTERJECTIONS.
The following are the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions which they are generally intended to indicate:—1. Of joy; eigh! hey! io!—2. Of sorrow; oh! ah! hoo! alas! alack! lackaday! welladay! or welaway!—3. Of wonder; heigh! ha! strange! indeed!—4. Of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address; (often with a noun or pronoun in the nominative absolute;) O!—5. Of praise; well-done! good! bravo!—6. Of surprise with disapproval; whew! hoity-toity! hoida! zounds! what!—7. Of pain or fear; oh! ooh! ah! eh! O dear!—8. Of contempt; fudge! pugh! poh! pshaw! pish! tush! tut! humph!—9. Of aversion; foh! faugh! fie! fy! foy![318]—10. Of expulsion; out! off! shoo! whew! begone! avaunt! aroynt!—11. Of calling aloud; ho! soho! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy!—12. Of exultation; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah!—13. Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee.—14. Of salutation; welcome! hail! all-hail!—15. Of calling to attention; ho! lo! la! law![319] look! see! behold! hark!—16. Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! 'st! aw! mum!—17. Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what!—18. Of languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum!—19. Of stopping; hold! soft! avast! whoh!—20. Of parting; farewell! adieu! good-by! good-day!—21. Of knowing or detecting; oho! ahah! ay-ay!—22. Of interrogating; eh? ha? hey?[320]
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.—With the interjections, may perhaps be reckoned hau and gee, the imperative words of teamsters driving cattle; and other similar sounds, useful under certain circumstances, but seldom found in books. Besides these, and all the foregoing, there are several others, too often heard, which are unworthy to be considered parts of a cultivated language. The frequent use of interjections savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. Philosophical writing and dispassionate discourse exclude them altogether. Yet are there several words of this kind, which in earnest utterance, animated poetry, or impassioned declamation, are not only natural, but exceedingly expressive: as, "Lift up thy voice, O daughter of Gallim; cause it to be heard unto Laish, O poor Anathoth."—Isaiah, x, 30. "Alas, alas, that great city Babylon, that mighty city! for in one hour is thy judgement come."—Rev., xviii, 10.
"Ah me! forbear, returns the queen, forbear;
Oh! talk not, talk not of vain beauty's care."
—Odyssey, B. xviii, l. 310.
OBS. 2.—Interjections, being in general little else than mere natural voices or cries, must of course be adapted to the sentiments which are uttered with them, and never carelessly confounded one with an other when we express them on paper. The adverb ay is sometimes improperly written for the interjection ah; as, ay me! for ah me! and still oftener we find oh, an interjection of sorrow, pain, or surprise,[321] written in stead of O, the proper sign of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address: as,
"Oh Happiness! our being's end and aim!" —Pope, Ess. Ep. iv, l. 1.
"And peace, oh Virtue! peace is all thy own."
—Id., ib., Ep. iv, l. 82.
"Oh stay, O pride of Greece! Ulysses, stay!
O cease thy course, and listen to our lay!"
—Odys., B. xii, 1 222.
OBS. 3.—The chief characteristics of the interjection are independence, exclamation, and the want of any definable signification. Yet not all the words or signs which we refer to this class, will be found to coincide in all these marks of an interjection. Indeed the last, (the want of a rational meaning,) would seem to exclude them from the language; for words must needs be significant of something. Hence many grammarians deny that mere sounds of the voice have any more claim to be reckoned among the parts of speech, than the neighing of a horse, or the lowing of a cow. There is some reason in this; but in fact the reference which these sounds have to the feelings of those who utter them, is to some extent instinctively understood; and does constitute a sort of significance, though we cannot really define it. And, as their use in language, or in connexion with language, makes it necessary to assign them a place in grammar, it is certainly more proper to treat them as above, than to follow the plan of the Greek grammarians, most of whom throw all the interjections into the class of adverbs.
OBS. 4.—Significant words uttered independently, after the manner of interjections, ought in general, perhaps, to be referred to their original classes; for all such expressions may be supposed elliptical: as, "Order! gentlemen, order!" i.e., "Come to order,"—or, "Keep order." "Silence!" i.e., "Preserve silence." "Out! out!" i.e., "Get out,"—or, "Clear out!" (See Obs. 5th and 6th, upon Adverbs.)
"Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!
Were the last words of Marmion."—Scott.
OBS. 5.—In some instances, interjections seem to be taken substantively and made nouns; as,
"I may sit in a corner, and cry hey-ho for a husband."—Shak.
So, according to James White, in his Essay on the Verb, is the word fie, in the following example:
"If you deny me, fie upon your law."—SHAK.: White's Verb, p. 163.
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.
PRAXIS XI.—ETYMOLOGICAL.
In the Eleventh Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and ALL _their classes and modifications.
The definitions to be given in the Eleventh Praxis, are, two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb finite, five for an infinitive, two for a participle, two (and sometimes three) for an adverb, two for a conjunction, one for a preposition, and two for an interjection. Thus_:—
EXAMPLE PARSED.
"O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!"—Brown's Inst., p. 92.
O is an interjection, indicating earnestness. 1. An interjection is a word that is uttered merely to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. 2. The interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is O.
Sooner is an adverb of time, of the comparative degree; compared, soon, sooner, soonest. 1. An adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner. 2. Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, When? How long? How soon? or, How often? including these which ask. 3. The comparative degree is that which is more or less than something contrasted with it.
Shall is an auxiliary to fall. 1. An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the principal parts of an other verb, to express some particular mode and time of the being, action, or passion.
The is the definite article. 1. An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put before nouns to limit their signification. 2. The definite article is the, which denotes some particular thing or things.
Earth is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.
And is a copulative conjunction. 1. A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences in construction, and to show the dependence of the terms so connected. 2. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that denotes an addition, a cause, a consequence, or a supposition.
Stars is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The plural number is that which denotes more than one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which usually denotes the subject of a finite verb.
Fall, or Shall fall, is an irregular active-intransitive verb, from fall, fell, falling, fallen; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and plural number. 1. A verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be acted upon. 2. An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed. 3. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses an action which has no person or thing for its object. 4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a question. 5. The first-future tense is that which expresses what will take place hereafter. 6. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 7. The plural number is that which denotes more than one.
Into is a preposition. 1. A preposition is a word used to express some relation of different things or thoughts to each other, and is generally placed before a noun or a pronoun.
Chaos is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case. 1. A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, that can be known or mentioned. 2. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or things. 3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of. 4. The singular number is that which denotes but one. 5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female. 6. The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, participle, or preposition.
LESSON I.—PARSING.
"Ah! St. Anthony preserve me!—Ah—ah—eh—eh!—Why—why—after all, your hand is not so co-o-o-old, neither. Of the two, it is rather warmer than my own. Can it be, though, that you are not dead?" "Not I."—MOLIERE: in Burgh's Speaker, p. 232.
"I'll make you change your cuckoo note, you old philosophical humdrum, you—[Beats him]—I will—[Beats him]. I'll make you say somewhat else than, 'All things are doubtful; all things are uncertain;'—[Beats him]—I will, you old fusty pedant." "Ah!—oh!—ehl—What, beat a philosopher!—Ah!—oh!—eh!"—MOLIERE: ib., p. 247.
"What! will these hands never be clean?—No more of that, my lord; no more of that. You mar all with this starting." * * * "Here is the smell of blood still.—All the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh! oh! oh!"—Shak., Macbeth, Act V, Sc. 1.
"Ha! at the gates what grisly forms appear!
What dismal shrieks of laughter wound the ear!"—Merry.
LESSON II.—PARSING.
"Yet this may be the situation of some now known to us.—O frightful thought! O horrible image! Forbid it, O Father of mercy! If it be possible, let no creature of thine ever be the object of that wrath, against which the strength of thy whole creation united, would stand but as the moth against the thunderbolt!"—Burgh's Speaker, p. 289.
"If it be so, our God, whom we serve, is able to deliver us from the burning fiery furnace; and he will deliver us out of thine hand, O king. But if not, be it known unto thee, O king, that we will not serve thy gods, nor worship the golden image which thou hast set up."—Daniel, iii, 17 and 18.
"Grant me patience, just Heaven!—Of all the cants which are canted in this canting world—though the cant of hypocrites may be the worst—the cant of criticism is the most tormenting!"—Sterne.
"Ah, no! Achilles meets a shameful fate,
Oh! how unworthy of the brave and great."—Pope.
LESSON III.—PARSING.
"O let not thy heart despise me! thou whom experience has not taught that it is misery to lose that which it is not happiness to possess."—Dr. Johnson.
"Disguise thyself as thou wilt, still, Slavery! still thou art a bitter draught; and though thousands in all ages have been made to drink of thee, thou art no less bitter on that account."—Sterne.
"Put it out of the power of truth to give you an ill character; and if any body reports you not to be an honest or a good man, let your practice give him the lie. This is all very feasible."—Antoninus.
"Oh that men should put an enemy into their mouths to steal away their brains! that we should, with joy, pleasance, revel, and applause, transform ourselves into beasts!"—Shakspeare.
"All these afar off stood, crying, Alas!
Alas! and wept, and gnashed their teeth, and groaned;
And with the owl, that on her ruins sat,
Made dolorous concert in the ear of Night."—Pollok.
"Snatch'd in thy prime! alas, the stroke were mild,
Had my frail form obey'd the fate's decree!
Blest were my lot, O Cynthio! O my child!
Had Heaven so pleas'd, and I had died for thee!"—Shenstone.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS RESPECTING INTERJECTIONS.
"Of chance or change, oh let not man complain."—Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 85.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the interjection oh, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise, is here used to indicate mere earnestness. But, according to the list of interjections, or OBS. 2d under it, the interjection of wishing, earnestness, or vocative address, is O, and not oh. Therefore, oh should here be O; thus, "Of chance or change, O let not man complain."—Beattie's Minstrel, B. ii, l. 1.]
"O thou persecutor! Oh ye hypocrites."—Merchant's Gram., p. 99; et al. "Oh! thou, who touchedst Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire."—Ib., (Key,) p. 197. "Oh! happy we, surrounded by so many blessings."—Ib., (Exercises,) p. 138. "Oh! thou, who art so unmindful of thy duty."—Ib., (Key,) p. 196. "If I am wrong, oh teach my heart To find that better way."—Pope's Works. "Heus! evocate hue Davum. Ter. Hoe! call Davus out hither."—Walker's Particles, p. 155. "It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate!) which was borrowed from the religion of paganism."—Murray's Gram., p. 281. "Oh that Ishmael might live before thee!"—ALGER'S BIBLE: Gen., xvii, 18. "And he said unto him, Oh let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak."—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Gen., xviii, 30. "And he said, Oh let not the Lord be angry."—ID., and SCOTT'S: ib., ver. 32. "Oh, my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word."—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: Gen., xliv, 18. "Oh, Virtue! how amiable thou art! I fear, alas! for my life."—Fisk's Gram., p. 89. "Ay me, they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain."—Milton's P. L., B. iv, l. 86. "Oh! that I had digged myself a cave."—FLETCHER: in Bucke's Gram., p. 78. "O, my good lord! thy comfort comes too late."—SHAK.: ib., p. 78. "The vocative takes no article; it is distinguished thus: O Pedro, Oh Peter! O Dios, Oh God!"—Bucke's Gram., p. 43. "Oh, o! But, the relative is always the same."—Cobbett's Eng. Gram., 1st Ed., p. 127. "Oh, oh! But, the relative is always the same."—Id., Edition of 1832, p. 116. "Ah hail, ye happy men!"—Jaudon's Gram., p. 116. "Oh that I had wings like a dove!"—FRIENDS' BIBLE, and ALGER'S: Ps., lv, 6. "Oh Glorious hope! O Blessed abode!"—O. B. Peirce's Gram., p. 183. "Alas, Friends, how joyous is your presence."—Rev. T. Smith's Gram., p. 87. "Oh, blissful days! Ah me! how soon ye pass!"—Parker and Fox's Gram., Part I, p. 16; Part III, p. 29.
"Oh golden days! oh bright unvalued hours!
What bliss (did ye but know that bliss) were yours!"—Barbauld.
"Ay me! what perils do eviron
The man that meddles with cold iron."—Hudibras.
CHAPTER XII.—QUESTIONS.
ORDER OF REHEARSAL, AND METHOD OF EXAMINATION.
PART SECOND, ETYMOLOGY.
[Fist] [The following questions refer almost wholly to the main text of the Etymology of this work, and are such as every student should be able to answer with readiness and accuracy, before he proceeds to any subsequent part of the study or the exercises of English grammar.]
LESSON I.—PARTS OF SPEECH.
1. Of what does Etymology treat? 2. What is meant by the term, "Parts of Speech?" 3. What are Classes, under the parts of speech? 4. What are Modifications? 5. How many and what are the parts of speech? 6. What is an article? 7. What is a noun? 8. What is an adjective? 9. What is a pronoun? 10. What is a verb? 11. What is a participle? 12. What is an adverb? 13. What is a conjunction? 14. What is a preposition? 15. What is an interjection?
LESSON II.—PARSING.
1. What is Parsing? and what relation does it bear to grammar? 2. What is a Praxis? and what is said of the word? 3. What is required of the pupil in the FIRST PRAXIS? 4. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 5. How is the following example parsed? "The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the First Chapter, or the First Praxis.]
LESSON III.—ARTICLES.
1. What is an ARTICLE? 2. Are an and a different articles, or the same? 3. When ought an to be used, and what are the examples? 4. When should a be used, and what are the examples? 5. What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require? 6. Can you repeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter? 7. Will you name the ten parts of speech, with an or a before each name? 8. When does a common noun not admit an article? 9. How is the sense of nouns commonly made indefinitely partitive? 10. Does the mere being of a thing demand the use of articles? 11. Can articles ever be used when we mean to speak of a whole species? 12. But how does an or a commonly limit the sense? 13. And how does the commonly limit the sense? 14. Which number does the limit, the singular or the plural? 15. When is the required before adjectives? 16. Why is an or a not applicable to plurals? 17. What is said of an or a before an adjective of number? 18. When, or how often, should articles be inserted? 19. What is said of needless articles? 20. What is the effect of putting one article for the other, and how shall we know which to choose? 21. How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 22. Which is the definite article, and what does it denote? 23. Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote? 24. What modifications have the articles?
LESSON IV.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SECOND PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The task of a schoolmaster laboriously prompting and urging an indolent class, is worse than his who drives lazy horses along a sandy road."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Second Chapter, or the Second Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the five lessons of bad English, with which the Second Chapter concludes.]
LESSON V.—NOUNS.
1. What is a NOUN, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what general classes are nouns divided? 3. What is a proper noun? 4. What is a common noun? 5. What particular classes are included among common nouns? 6. What is a collective noun? 7. What is an abstract noun? 8. What is a verbal or participial noun? 9. What modifications have nouns? 10. What are Persons, in grammar? 11. How many persons are there, and what are they called? 12. What is the first person? 13. What is the second person? 14. What is the third person? 15. What are Numbers, in grammar? 16. How many numbers are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the singular number? 18. What is the plural number? 19. How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed? 20. How is the regular plural formed without increase of syllables? 21. How is the regular plural formed when the word gains a syllable? LESSON VI—NOUNS.
1. What are Genders, in grammar? 2. How many genders are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the masculine gender? 4. What is the feminine gender? 5. What is the neuter gender? 6. What nouns, then, are masculine? what, feminine? and what, neuter? 7. What inflection of English nouns regularly changes their gender? 8. On what are the different genders founded, and to what parts of speech do they belong? 9. When the noun is such as may be applied to either sex, how is the gender usually determined? 10. What principle of universal grammar determines the gender when both sexes are taken together? 11. What is said of the gender of nouns of multitude? 12. Under what circumstances is it common to disregard the distinction of sex? 13. In how many ways are the sexes distinguished in grammar? 14. When the gender is figurative, how is it indicated? 15. What are Cases, in grammar? 16. How many cases are there, and what are they called? 17. What is the nominative case? 18. What is the subject of a verb? 19. What is the possessive case? 20. How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 21. What is the objective case? 22. What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition? 23. What two cases of nouns are alike in form, and how are they distinguished? 24. What is the declension of a noun? 25. How do you decline the nouns, friend, man, fox, and fly?
LESSON VII—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the THIRD PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example to be parsed? "The writings of Hannah More appear to me more praise-worthy than Scott's."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Third Chapter, or the Third Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Third Chapter concludes.]
LESSON VIII.—ADJECTIVES.
1. What is an ADJECTIVE, and what are the examples given? 2. Into what classes may adjectives be divided? 3. What is a common adjective? 4. What is a proper adjective? 5. What is a numeral adjective? 6. What is a pronominal adjective? 7. What is a participial adjective? 8. What is a compound adjective? 9. What modifications have adjectives? 10. What is comparison, in grammar? 11. How many and what are the degrees of comparison? 12. What is the positive degree? 13. What is the comparative degree? 14. What is the superlative degree? 15. What adjectives cannot be compared? 16. What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 17. How are adjectives regularly compared? 18. What principles of spelling must be observed in the comparing of adjectives? 19. To what adjectives is the regular method of comparison, by er and est, applicable? 20. Is there any other method of expressing the degrees of comparison? 21. How are the degrees of diminution, or inferiority, expressed? 22. Has the regular method of comparison any degrees of this kind? 23. Do we ever compare by adverbs those adjectives which can be compared by er and est? 24. How do you compare good? bad, evil, or ill? little? much? many? 25. How do you compare far? near? fore? hind? in? out? up? low? late? 26. What words want the positive? 27. What words want the comparative?
LESSON IX.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the FOURTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The best and most effectual method of teaching grammar, is precisely that of which the careless are least fond: teach learnedly, rebuking whatsoever is false, blundering, or unmannerly."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fourth Chapter, or the Fourth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lesons of bad English, with which the Fourth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON X.—PRONOUNS.
1. What is a PRONOUN, and what is the example given? 2. How many pronouns are there? 3. How are pronouns divided? 4. What is a personal pronoun? 5. How many and what are the simple personal pronouns? 6. How many and what are the compound personal pronouns? 7. What is a relative pronoun? 8. Which are the relative pronouns? 9. What peculiarity has the relative what? 10. What is an interrogative pronoun? 11. Which are the interrogative pronouns? 12. Do who, which, and what, all ask the same question? 13. What modifications have pronouns? 14. Why are not these things defined under the head of pronouns? 15. What is the declension of a pronoun? 16. How do you decline the pronoun I? Thou? He? She? It? 17. What is said of the compound personal pronouns? 18. How do you decline the pronoun Myself? Thyself? Himself? Herself? Itself? 19. Are the interrogative pronouns declined like the simple relatives? 20. How do you decline Who? Which? What? That? As? 21. Have the compound relative pronouns any declension? 22. How do you decline Whoever? Whosoever? Whichever? Whichsoever? Whatever? Whatsoever?
LESSON XI.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the FIFTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Nay but, O man, who art thou that repliest against God? Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Fifth Chapter, or the Fifth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Fifth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XII.—VERBS.
1. What is a VERB, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are verbs called by that name? 3. Respecting an English verb, what things are to be sought in the first place? 4. What is the Present? 5. What is the Preterit? 6. What is the Imperfect Participle? 7. What is the Perfect Participle? 8. How are verbs divided, with respect to their form? 9. What is a regular verb? 10. What is an irregular verb? 11. What is a redundant verb? 12. What is a defective verb? 13. How are verbs divided, with respect to their signification? 14. What is an active-transitive verb? 15. What is an active-intransitive verb? 16. What is a passive verb? 17. What is a neuter verb? 18. What modifications have verbs? 19. What are Moods, in grammar? 20. How many moods are there, and what are they called? 21. What is the infinitive mood? 22. What is the indicative mood? 23. What is the potential mood? 24. What is the subjunctive mood? 25. What is the imperative mood?
LESSON XIII.—VERBS.
1. What are Tenses, in grammar? 2. How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the present tense? 4. What is the imperfect tense? 5. What is the perfect tense? 6. What is the pluperfect tense? 7. What is the first-future tense? 8. What is the second-future tense? 9. What are the Person and Number of a verb? 10. How many persons and numbers belong to verbs? 11. Why are not these things defined under the head of verbs? 12. How are the second and third persons singular distinctively formed? 13. How are the person and number of a verb ascertained, where no peculiar ending is employed to mark them? 14. What is the conjugation of a verb? 15. What are the PRINCIPAL PARTS in the conjugation of a verb? 16. What is a verb called which wants some of these parts? 17. What is an auxiliary, in grammar? 18. What verbs are used as auxiliaries? 19. What are the inflections of the verb do, in its simple tenses? 20. What are the inflections of the verb be, in its simple tenses? 21. What are the inflections of the verb have, in its simple tenses? 22. What are the inflections and uses of shall and will? 23. What are the inflections and uses of may? 24. What are the inflections and uses of can? 25. What are the uses of must, which is uninflected? 26. To what style is the inflecting of shall, will, may, can, should, would, might, and could, now restricted?
LESSON XIV.—VERBS.
1. What is the simplest form of an English conjugation? 2. What is the first example of conjugation? 3. What are the principal parts of the verb LOVE? 4. How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood?—the indicative?—the potential?—the subjunctive?—the imperative? 9. What is the verb LOVE in the Infinitive, present?—perfect?— Indicative, present?—imperfect?—perfect?—pluperfect?—first-future?— second-future?—Potential, present?—imperfect?—perfect?—pluperfect?— Subjunctive, present?—imperfect?—Imperative, present? 24. What are its participles?
LESSON XV.—VERBS.
1. What is the synopsis of the verb LOVE, in the first person singular?—second person singular, solemn style?—third person singular?—first person plural?—second person plural?—third person plural? 7. If the second person singular of this verb be used familiarly, how should it be formed?
LESSON XVI.—VERBS.
1. What is the second example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb SEE conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun I? thou? he? we? you? they?
LESSON XVII.—VERBS.
1. What is the third example of conjugation? 2. What are the principal parts? 3. How is the verb BE conjugated? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the man? the men?
LESSON XVIII.—VERBS.
1. What is the compound form of conjugating active or neuter verbs? 2. What peculiar meaning does this form convey? 3. What is the fourth example of conjugation? 4. What are the principal parts of the simple verb READ? 5. How is the verb READ conjugated in the compound form? 6. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE READING, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the boy? the boys?
LESSON XIX.—VERBS.
1. How are passive verbs formed? 2. What is the fifth example of conjugation? 3. How is the passive verb BE LOVED conjugated throughout? 4. How do you form a synopsis of the verb BE LOVED, with the nominative I? thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children?
LESSON XX.—VERBS.
1. How is a verb conjugated negatively? 2. How is the form of negation exemplified by the verb love in the first person singular? 3. What is the form of negation for the solemn style, second person singular? 4. What is the form for the familiar style? 5. What is the negative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 6. How is the verb conjugated interrogatively? 7. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun I? 8. What is the form of question in the solemn style, with this verb in the second person singular? 9. How are such questions asked in the familiar style? 10. What is the interrogative form of the verb love with the pronoun he? 11. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negatively? 12. How is the negative question exemplified in the first person plural? 13. How is the negative question exemplified in the second person plural? 14. How is the like synopsis formed in the third person plural?
LESSON XXI.—VERBS.
1. What is an irregular verb? 2. How many simple irregular verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Arise, be, bear, beat, begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, buy, cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, do, draw, drink, drive, eat, fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, get, give, go, grow, have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt, keep, know, lead, leave, lend, let, lie, lose, make, meet, outdo, put, read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, say, see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing, take, teach, tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, wear, win, write?
LESSON XXII.—VERBS.
1. What is a redundant verb? 2. How many redundant verbs are there? 3. What are the principal parts of the following verbs: Abide, awake, belay, bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, burst, catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, dress, dwell, freeze, geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, hang, heave, hew, kneel, knit, lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, mean, mow, mulet, pass, pay, pen, plead, prove, quit, rap, reave, rive, roast, saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, thrive, throw, wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, wring? 4. What is a defective verb? 5. What verbs are defective?
LESSON XXIII.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SIXTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "The freedom of choice seems essential to happiness; because, properly speaking, that is not our own which is imposed upon us."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Sixth Chapter, or the Sixth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Sixth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXIV.—PARTICIPLES.
1. What is a PARTICIPLE, and how is it generally formed? 2. How many kinds of participles are there, and what are they called? 3. What is the imperfect participle? 4. What is the perfect participle? 5. What is the preperfect participle? 6. How is the first or imperfect participle formed? 7. How is the second or perfect participle formed? 8. How is the third or preperfect participle formed? 9. What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive?
LESSON XXV.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the SEVENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed: "Religion, rightly understood and practised, has the purest of all joys attending it."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Seventh Chapter, or the Seventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the three lessons of bad English, with which the Seventh Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXVI.—ADVERBS.
1. What is an ADVERB, and what is the example given? 2. To what general classes may adverbs be reduced? 3. What are adverbs of time? 4. What are adverbs of place? 5. What are adverbs of degree? 6. What are adverbs of manner? 1. What are conjunctive adverbs? 8. Are all the conjunctive adverbs included in the first four classes? 9. How may the adverbs of time be subdivided? 10. How may the adverbs of place be subdivided? 11. How may the adverbs of degree be subdivided? 12. How may the adverbs of manner be subdivided? 13. What modifications have adverbs? 14. How do we compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far, and forth? 15. Of what degree is the adverb rather? 16. What is said of the comparison of adverbs by more and most, less and least?
LESSON XXVII.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the EIGHTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "When was it that Rome attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind?"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eighth Chapter, or the Eighth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eighth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXVIII.—CONJUNCTIONS.
1. What is a CONJUNCTION, and what is the example given? 2. Have we any connective words besides the conjunctions? 3. How do relative pronouns differ from other connectives? 4. How do conjunctive adverbs differ from other connectives? 5. How do conjunctions differ from other connectives? 6. How do prepositions differ from other connectives? 7. How are the conjunctions divided? 8. What is a copulative conjunction? 9. What is a disjunctive conjunction? 10. What are corresponsive conjunctions? 11. Which are the copulative conjunctions? 12. Which are the disjunctive conjunctions? 13. Which are the corresponsive conjunctions?
LESSON XXIX.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the NINTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "If thou hast done a good deed, boast not of it."
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Ninth Chapter, or the Ninth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Ninth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXX.—PREPOSITIONS.
1. What is a PREPOSITION, and what is the example given? 2. Are the prepositions divided into classes? 3. Have prepositions any grammatical modifications? 4. How are the prepositions arranged in the list? 5. What are the prepositions beginning with a?—with b?—with c?—with d?—with e?—with f?—with i?—with m?—with n?—with o?—with p?—with r?—with s?—with t?—with u?—with w? 21. Does this list contain all the words that are ever used in English as prepositions?
LESSON XXXI.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the TENTH PRAXIS? 2. How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "Never adventure on too near an approach to what is evil?"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Tenth Chapter, or the Tenth Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Tenth Chapter concludes.]
LESSON XXXII.—INTERJECTIONS.
1. What is an INTERJECTION, and what are the examples given? 2. Why are interjections so called? 3. How are the interjections arranged in the list? 4. What are the interjections of joy?—of praise?—of sorrow?—of wonder?—of wishing or earnestness?—of pain or fear?—of contempt?—of aversion?—of calling aloud?—of exultation?—of laughter?—of salutation?—of calling to attention?—of calling to silence?—of surprise or horror?—of languor?—of stopping?—of parting?—of knowing or detecting?—of interrogating?
LESSON XXXIII.—PARSING.
1. What is required of the pupil in the ELEVENTH PRAXIS? How many definitions are here given for each part of speech? 3. How is the following example parsed? "O! sooner shall the earth and stars fall into chaos!"
[Now parse, in like manner, the three lessons of the Eleventh Chapter, or the Eleventh Praxis; and then, if you please, you may correct orally the lesson of bad English, with which the Eleventh Chapter concludes.]
CHAPTER XIII.—FOR WRITING.
EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY.
[When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological parsing and correcting, he should write out the following exercises; for speech and writing afford us different modes of testing the proficiency of students, and exercises in both are necessary to a complete course of English Grammar.]
EXERCISE I.—ARTICLES.
1. Prefix the definite article to each of the following nouns: path, paths; loss, losses; name, names; page, pages; want, wants; doubt, doubts; votary, votaries.
2. Prefix the indefinite article to each of the following nouns: age, error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, quail, raven, sample, trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, herald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour.
3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases: George Second—fair appearance—part first—reasons most obvious—good man—wide circle—man of honour—man of world—old books—common people—same person—smaller piece—rich and poor—first and last—all time—great excess—nine muses—how rich reward—so small number—all ancient writers—in nature of things—much better course.
4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the following phrases: new name—very quick motion—other sheep—such power—what instance—great weight—such worthy cause—to great difference—high honour—humble station—universal law—what strange event—so deep interest—as firm hope—so great wit—humorous story—such person—few dollars—little reflection.
EXERCISE II.—NOUNS.
1. Write the plurals of the following nouns: town, country, case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in-law, pailful, man-servant, fellow-citizen.
2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following nouns: earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, arbiter, tutor, songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, landgrave.
3. Write the possessive case singular, of the following nouns: table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf, sheep, wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial, precipice, countess, lordship.
4. Write the possessive case plural, of the following nouns: priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, woman, servant, writer, grandmother.
5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of the following nouns: body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nuncio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff, hero, thief, wretch.
EXERCISE III.—ADJECTIVES.
1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, without repeating any word: good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy, disastrous, terrible, necessary. Thus—good manners, &c.
2. Place a suitable adjective before each of the following nouns, without repeating any word: man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, actions. Thus—wise man, &c.
3. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared by inflection, or change of form: black, bright, short, white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, little, much, many, far, true, just, vast.
4. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the adverbs of increase: delightful, comfortable, agreeable, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, poignant, excellent, sincere, honest, correct.
5. Write the forms in which the following adjectives are compared, using the comparative adverbs of inferiority or diminution: objectionable, formidable, forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent, imprudent, imperfect, pleasant, unpleasant.
EXERCISE IV.—PRONOUNS.
1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.
2. Write the objective singular of the following pronouns: I, thou, he, she, it, who, which, what, that, as.
3. Write the following words in their customary and proper forms: he's, her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, myself, hisself, theirselves.
4. Write together in declension the following pronouns, according to the agreement of each two: I myself, thou thyself, he himself, she herself it itself.
5. Rewrite the following sentences, and make them good English: "Nor is the criminal binding any thing: but was, his self, being bound."—Wrights Gram., p. 193. "The writer surely did not mean, that the work was preparing its self."—Ib. "May, or can, in its self, denotes possibility."—Ib., p. 216. "Consequently those in connection with the remaining pronouns respectively, should be written,—he, his self;—she, her self;—ye or you, your selves; they, their selves."—Ib., p. 154. "Lest their beacons be lost to the view, and their selves wrecked on the shoals of destruction."—Ib., p. 155. "In the regal style, as generally in the second person, the singular noun is added to the plural pronoun, ourself."—Churchill's Gram., p. 78. "Each has it's peculiar advantages."—Ib., p. 283. "Who his ownself bare our sins in his own body on the tree."—The Friend, iv, 302. "It is difficult to look inwardly on oneself."—Journal of N. Y. Lit. Convention. p. 287.
EXERCISE V.—VERBS.
1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following verbs: slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza, pretend, deliver, arrest.
2. Write the following preterits, each in its appropriate form: exprest, stript, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, linkt, propt, fixt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, snapt, skipt, kist, discust, tackt.
3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, second person singular: move, strive, please, reach, confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue, defend, surpass, conquer, deliver, enlighten, protect, polish.
4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, present tense, third person singular: leave, seem, search, impeach, fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, beset, release, be, bias, compel, degrade, efface, garnish, handle, induce.
5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, present tense, in the three persons singular: serve, shun, turn, learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, pretend, expose, alarm, deprive, transgress.
EXERCISE VI.—VERBS.
1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb amuse, conjugated affirmatively.
2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style.
3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form.
4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively.
5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active verb lose, conjugated negatively.
6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter verb stand, conjugated interrogatively.
7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and negatively.
EXERCISE VII.—PARTICIPLES.
1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following verbs: belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember.
2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist.
3. Write the preperfect participles of the following verbs: depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot.
4. Write the following participles each in its appropriate form: dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt.
5. Write the regular participles which are now generally preferred to the following irregular ones: blent, blest, clad, curst, diven, drest, graven, hoven, hewn, knelt, leant, leapt, learnt, lit, mown, mulct, past, pent, quit, riven, roast, sawn, sodden, shaven, shorn, sown, striven, strown, sweat, swollen, thriven, waxen.
6. Write the irregular participles which are commonly preferred to the following regular ones: abided, bended, builded, bursted, catched, creeped, dealed, digged, dwelled, freezed, grinded, knitted, layed, meaned, payed, reaved, slided, speeded, splitted, stringed, sweeped, throwed, weaved, weeped, winded.
EXERCISE VIII.—ADVERBS, &c.
1. Compare the following adverbs: soon, often, long, fast, near, early, well, badly or ill, little, much, far, forth.
2. Place the comparative adverbs of increase before each of the following adverbs: purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, completely, fortunately, profitably, easily.
3. Place the comparative adverbs of diminution before each of the following adverbs: secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, powerfully, solemnly.
4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following dashes: Love—fidelity are inseparable. Be shy of parties—factions. Do well—boast not. Improve time—it flies. There would be few paupers—no time were lost. Be not proud—thou art human. I saw—it was necessary. Wisdom is better—wealth. Neither he—I can do it. Wisdom—folly governs us. Take care—thou fall. Though I should boast—am I nothing.
5. Insert suitable prepositions in place of the following dashes: Plead—the dumb. Qualify thyself—action—study. Think often—the worth—time. Live—peace—all men. Keep—compass. Jest not—serious subjects. Take no part—slander. Guilt starts—its own shadow. Grudge not—giving. Go not—sleep—malice. Debate not—temptation. Depend not—the stores—others. Contend not—trifles. Many fall—grasping—things—their reach. Be deaf—detraction.
6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjections to the emotions expressed by the other words: Aha! aha! I am undone. Hey! io! I am tired. Ho! be still. Avaunt! this way. Ah! what nonsense. Heigh-ho! I am delighted. Hist! it is contemptible. Oh! for that sympathetic glow! Ah! what withering phantoms glare!
PART III.
SYNTAX.
Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences. The relation of words is their reference to other words, or their dependence according to the sense.
The agreement of words is their similarity in person, number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form.
The government of words is that power which one word has over an other, to cause it to assume some particular modification.
The arrangement of words is their collocation, or relative position, in a sentence.
CHAPTER I.—SENTENCES.
A Sentence is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and always containing a nominative and a verb; as, "Reward sweetens labour."
The principal parts of a sentence are usually three; namely, the SUBJECT, or nominative,—the attribute, or finite VERB,—and the case put after, or the OBJECT[322] governed by the verb: as, "Crimes deserve punishment."
The other or subordinate parts depend upon these, either as primary or as secondary adjuncts; as, "High crimes justly deserve very severe punishments."
Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, simple and compound.[323]
A simple sentence is a sentence which consists of one single assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation; as, "David and Jonathan loved each other."—"If thine enemy hunger."—"Do violence to no man."—"Am I not an apostle?"—1 Cor., ix, 1. "What immortal glory shall I have acquired!"—HOOKE: Mur. Seq., p. 71.
A compound sentence is a sentence which consists of two or more simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected; as, "Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon, whose surname is Peter; who shall tell thee words, whereby thou and all thy house shall be saved."—Acts, xi, 13. "The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the energy, of his literary talents."—HAYLEY: Mur. Seq., p. 250.
A clause, or member, is a subdivision of a compound sentence; and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as, "If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty, give him water to drink."—Prov., xxv, 21.[324]
A phrase is two or more words which express some relation of different ideas, but no entire proposition; as, "By the means appointed."—"To be plain with you."—"Having loved his own."
Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily understood in order to complete the construction, (and only such,) must be supplied in parsing.
The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences, are embraced in the following twenty-four rules, which are arranged, as nearly as possible, in the order of the parts of speech.
THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
RULE I.—ARTICLES.
Articles relate to the nouns which they limit.
RULE II.—NOMINATIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case.
RULE III.—APPOSITION. A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case.
RULE IV.—POSSESSIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of the thing possessed.
RULE V.—OBJECTIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.
RULE VI.—SAME CASES.
A Noun or a Pronoun put after a verb or participle not transitive, agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same thing.
RULE VII.—OBJECTIVES.
A Noun or a Pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.
RULE VIII.—NOM. ABSOLUTE.
A Noun or a Pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word.
RULE IX.—ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns.
RULE X.—PRONOUNS.
A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender.
RULE XI—PRONOUNS.
When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in the plural number.
RULE XII.—PRONOUNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.
RULE XIII.—PRONOUNS.
When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.
RULE XIV.—FINITE VERBS.
Every finite Verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person and number.
RULE XV.—FINITE VERBS.
When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the plural number.
RULE XVI.—FINITE VERBS.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together.
RULE XVII.—FINITE VERBS.
When a Verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together.
RULE XVIII.—INFINITIVES.
The Infinitive Mood is governed in general by the preposition TO, which commonly connects it to a finite verb.
RULE XIX.—INFINITIVES.
The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after them without the preposition TO.
RULE XX.—PARTICIPLES.
Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by prepositions.
RULE XXI.—ADVERBS.
Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs.
RULE XXII.—CONJUNCTIONS.
Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences.
RULE XXIII.—PREPOSITIONS.
Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts expressed by them.
RULE XXIV.—INTERJECTIONS.
Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute, either alone, or with other words.
GENERAL OR CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SYNTAX.
OBS. 1.—An explanation of the relation, agreement, government, and arrangement, of words in sentences, constitutes that part of grammar which we call Syntax. But many grammarians, representing this branch of their subject as consisting of two parts only, "concord and government" say little or nothing of the relation and arrangement of words, except as these are involved in the others. The four things are essentially different in their nature, as may be seen by the definitions given above, yet not so distinct in practice that they can well be made the basis of any perfect division of the rules of syntax. I have therefore, on this occasion, preferred the order of the parts of speech; each of which will form a chapter in the Syntax of this work, as each forms a chapter in the Etymology.
OBS. 2.—Agreement and concord are one and the same thing. Relation and agreement, though different, may yet coincide, and be taken together. The latter is moreover naturally allied to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, incapable of any agreement; of these the relation and use must be explained in parsing; and all requisite agreement between any of the rest, is confined to words that relate to each other. For one word may relate to an other and not agree with it; but there is never any necessary agreement between words that have not a relation one to the other, or a connexion according to the sense. Any similarity happening between unconnected words, is no syntactical concord, though it may rank the terms in the same class etymologically.
OBS. 3.—From these observations it may be seen, that the most important and most comprehensive principle of English syntax, is the simple Relation of words, according to the sense. To this head alone, ought to be referred all the rules of construction by which our articles, our nominatives, our adjectives, our participles, our adverbs, our conjunctions, our prepositions, and our interjections, are to be parsed. To the ordinary syntactical use of any of these, no rules of concord, government, or position, can at all apply. Yet so defective and erroneous are the schemes of syntax which are commonly found in our English grammars, that no rules of simple relation, none by which any of the above-named parts of speech can be consistently parsed, are in general to be found in them. If there are any exceptions to this censure, they are very few, and in treatises still marked with glaring defects in regard to the syntax of some of these parts of speech.
OBS. 4.—Grammarians, of course, do not utter falsehoods intentionally; but it is lamentable to see how often they pervert doctrine by untruths uttered ignorantly. It is the design of this pandect, to make every one who reads it, an intelligent judge of the perversions, as well as of the true doctrines, of English grammar. The following citations will show him the scope and parts which have commonly been assigned to our syntax: "The construction of sentences depends principally upon the concord or agreement, and the regimen or government, of words."—Lowth's Gram., p. 68; Churchill's, 120. "Words in sentences have a twofold relation to one another; namely, that of Concord or Agreement; and that of Government or Influence."—Dr. Adam's Latin and English Grammar, p. 151. "The third part of Grammar is SYNTAX, which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence."—E. G. Greene's Grammatical Text-Book, p. 15. "Syntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Government."—Murray's Gram., p. 142; Ingersoll's, 170; Alger's, 51; R. C. Smith's, 119; and many others. "Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Government."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 175; Wright's, 124. "The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three heads, Concord, Government, and Position."—Bullions's E. Gram., p. 87. "Position means the place which a word occupies in a sentence."—Ib. "These rules may be mostly ranked under the two heads of agreement and government; the remainder may be termed miscellaneous."—Nutting's Gram., p. 92. "Syntax treats of the agreement, government and proper arrangement of words in a sentence."—Frost's El. of Gram., p. 43. This last-named author, in touching the text of my books, has often corrupted it, as he does here; but my definitions of the tenses he copied without marring them much. The borrowing occurred as early as 1828, and I add this notice now, lest any should suppose me the plagiarist.