OBS. 13.—On Rule 10th, concerning Personifications, it may be well to observe, that not every noun which is the name of an object personified, must begin with a capital, but only such as have a resemblance to proper nouns; for the word person itself, or persons, or any other common noun denoting persons or a person, demands no such distinction. And proper names of persons are so marked, not with any reference to personality, but because they are proper nouns—or names of individuals, and not names of sorts. Thus, Æsop's viper and file are both personified, where it is recorded, "'What ails thee, fool?' says the file to the viper;" but the fable gives to these names no capitals, except in the title of the story. It may here be added, that, according to their definitions of personification, our grammarians and the teachers of rhetoric have hitherto formed no very accurate idea of what constitutes the figure. Lindley Murray says, "PERSONIFICATION [,] or PROSOPOPOEIA, is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects."—Octavo Gram., p. 346; Duodecimo, p. 211. Now this is all wrong, doubly wrong,—wrong in relation to what personification is, and wrong too in its specification of the objects which may be personified. For "life and action" not being peculiar to persons, there must be something else than these ascribed, to form the figure; and, surely, the objects which Fancy thinks it right to personify, are not always "inanimate." I have elsewhere defined the thing as follows: "Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or abstract qualities."—Inst., p. 234.
OBS. 14.—On Rule 11th, concerning Derivatives, I would observe, that not only the proper adjectives, to which this rule more particularly refers, but also nouns, and even verbs, derived from such adjectives, are frequently, if not generally, written with an initial capital. Thus, from Greece, we have Greek, Greeks, Greekish, Greekling, Grecise, Grecism, Grecian, Grecians, Grecianize. So Murray, copying Blair, speaks of "Latinised English;" and, again, of style strictly "English, without Scotticisms or Gallicisms."—Mur. Gram., 8vo, p. 295; Blair's Lect., pp. 93 and 94. But it is questionable, how far this principle respecting capitals ought to be carried. The examples in Dr. Johnson's quarto Dictionary exhibit the words, gallicisms, anglicisms, hebrician, latinize, latinized, judaized, and christianized, without capitals; and the words Latinisms, Grecisms, Hebraisms, and Frenchified, under like circumstances, with them. Dr. Webster also defines Romanize, "To Latinize; to conform to Romish opinions." In the examples of Johnson, there is a manifest inconsistency. Now, with respect to adjectives from proper names, and also to the nouns formed immediately from such adjectives, it is clear that they ought to have capitals: no one will contend that the words American and Americans should be written with a small a. With respect to Americanism, Gallicism, and other similar words, there may be some room to doubt. But I prefer a capital for these. And, that we may have a uniform rule to go by, I would not stop here, but would write Americanize and Americanized with a capital also; for it appears that custom is in favour of thus distinguishing nearly all verbs and participles of this kind, so long as they retain an obvious reference to their particular origin. But when any such word ceases to be understood as referring directly to the proper name, it may properly be written without a capital. Thus we write jalap from Jalapa, hermetical from Hermes, hymeneal from Hymen, simony, from Simon, philippic from Philip; the verbs, to hector, to romance, to japan, to christen, to philippize, to galvanize; and the adverbs hermetically and jesuitically, all without a capital: and perhaps judaize, christianize, and their derivatives, may join this class. Dr. Webster's octavo Dictionary mentions "the prussic acid" and "prussian blue," without a capital; and so does Worcester's.
OBS. 15.—On Rule 12th, concerning I and O, it may be observed, that although many who occasionally write, are ignorant enough to violate this, as well as every other rule of grammar, yet no printer ever commits blunders of this sort. Consequently, the few erroneous examples which will be exhibited for correction under it, will not be undesigned mistakes. Among the errors of books, we do not find the printing of the words I and O in small characters; but the confounding of O with the other interjection oh, is not uncommon even among grammarians. The latter has no concern with this rule, nor is it equivalent to the former, as a sign: O is a note of wishing, earnestness, and vocative address; but oh is, properly, a sign of sorrow, pain, or surprise. In the following example, therefore, a line from Milton is perverted:—
"Oh thou! that with surpassing glory crowned!" —Bucke's Gram., p. 88.
OBS. 16.—On Rule 13th, concerning Poetry, it may be observed, that the principle applies only to regular versification, which is the common form, if not the distinguishing mark, of poetical composition. And, in this, the practice of beginning every line with a capital is almost universal; but I have seen some books in which it was whimsically disregarded. Such poetry as that of Macpherson's Ossian, or such as the common translation of the Psalms, is subjected neither to this rule, nor to the common laws of verse.
OBS. 17.—On Rule 14th, concerning Examples, Speeches, and Quotations, it may be observed, that the propriety of beginning these with a capital or otherwise, depends in some measure upon their form. One may suggest certain words by way of example, (as see, saw, seeing, seen,) and they will require no capital; or he may sometimes write one half of a sentence in his own words, and quote the other with the guillemets and no capital; but whatsoever is cited as being said with other relations of what is called person, requires something to distinguish it from the text into which it is woven. Thus Cobbett observes, that, "The French, in their Bible, say Le Verbe, where we say The Word."—E. Gram., p. 21. Cobbett says the whole of this; but he here refers one short phrase to the French nation, and an other to the English, not improperly beginning each with a capital, and further distinguishing them by Italics. Our common Bibles make no use of the quotation points, but rely solely upon capitals and the common points, to show where any particular speech begins or ends. In some instances, the insufficiency of these means is greatly felt, notwithstanding the extraordinary care of the original writers, in the use of introductory phrases. Murray says, "When a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary: as, 'Solomon observes, "that pride goes before destruction."'"—Octavo Gram., p. 284. But, as the word 'that' belongs not to Solomon, and the next word begins his assertion, I think we ought to write it, "Solomon observes, that, 'Pride goeth before destruction.'" Or, if we do not mean to quote him literally, we may omit the guillemets, and say, "Solomon observes that pride goes before destruction."
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.
[Fist][The improprieties in the following examples are to be corrected orally by the learner, according to the formules given, or according to others framed from them with such slight changes as the several quotations may require. A correct example will occasionally he admitted for the sake of contrast, or that the learner may see the quoted author's inconsistency. It will also serve as a block over which stupidity may stumble and wake up. But a full explanation of what is intended, will be afforded in the Key.]
UNDER RULE I.—OF BOOKS.
"Many a reader of the bible knows not who wrote the acts of the apostles."—G. B.
[FORMULE OF CORRECTION.—Not proper, because the words, bible, acts, and apostles, here begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 1st, "When particular books are mentioned by their names, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and the other letters are small." Therefore, "Bible" should begin with a capital B; and "Acts" and "Apostles," each with a large A.]
"The sons of Levi, the chief of the fathers, were written in the book of the chronicles."—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Neh., xii, 23. "Are they not written in the book of the acts of Solomon?"—SCOTT, ALGER: I Kings, xi, 41. "Are they not written in the book of the Chronicles of the kings of Israel?"—ALGER: 1 Kings, xxii, 39. "Are they not written in the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah?"—SCOTT: ib., ver. 45. "Which were written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms."—SCOTT: Luke, xxiv, 44. "The narrative of which may be seen in Josephus's History of the Jewish wars."—Scott's Preface, p. ix. "This history of the Jewish war was Josephus's first work, and published about A. D. 75."—Note to Josephus. "'I have read,' says Photius, 'the chronology of Justus of Tiberias.'"—Ib., Jos. Life. "A philosophical grammar, written by James Harris, Esquire."—Murray's Gram., p. 34. "The reader is referred to Stroud's sketch of the slave laws."—Anti-Slavery Mag., i, 25. "But God has so made the bible that it interprets itself."—Ib., i, 78. "In 1562, with the help of Hopkins, he completed the psalter."—Music of Nature, p. 283. "Gardiner says this of Sternhold; of whom the universal biographical dictionary and the American encyclopedia affirm, that he died in 1549."—Author. "The title of a Book, to wit: 'English Grammar in familiar lectures,'" &c.—Kirkham's Gram., p. 2. "We had not, at that time, seen Mr. Kirkham's 'Grammar in familiar Lectures.'"—Ib., p. 3. "When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you."—Ib., p. 53. "Whenever you parse, you may spread the compendium before you."—Ib., p. 113. "Adelung was the author of a grammatical and critical dictionary of the German language, and other works."—Univ. Biog. Dict. "Alley, William, author of 'the poor man's library,' and a translation of the Pentateuch, died in 1570."—Ib.
UNDER RULE II.—OF FIRST WORDS.
"Depart instantly: improve your time: forgive us our sins."—Murray's
Gram., p. 61.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words improve and forgive begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 2nd, "The first word of every distinct sentence should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Improve" should begin with a capital I; and "Forgive," with a capital F.]
EXAMPLES: "Gold is corrupting; the sea is green; a lion is bold."—Mur. Gram., p. 170; et al. Again: "It may rain; he may go or stay; he would walk; they should learn."—Ib., p. 64; et al. Again: "Oh! I have alienated my friend; alas! I fear for life."—Ib., p. 128; et al. Again: "He went from London to York;" "she is above disguise;" "they are supported by industry."—Ib., p. 28; et al. "On the foregoing examples, I have a word to say. they are better than a fair specimen of their kind, our grammars abound with worse illustrations, their models of English are generally spurious quotations. few of their proof-texts have any just parentage, goose-eyes are abundant, but names scarce. who fathers the foundlings? nobody. then let their merit be nobody's, and their defects his who could write no better."—Author. "goose-eyes!" says a bright boy; "pray, what are they? does this Mr. Author make new words when he pleases? dead-eyes are in a ship, they are blocks, with holes in them, but what are goose-eyes in grammar?" ANSWER: "goose-eyes are quotation points, some of the Germans gave them this name, making a jest of their form, the French call them guillemets, from the name of their inventor."—Author. "it is a personal pronoun, of the third person singular."—Comly's Gram., 12th Ed., p. 126. "ourselves is a personal pronoun, of the first person plural."—Ib., 138. "thee is a personal pronoun, of the second person singular."—Ib., 126. "contentment is a noun common, of the third person singular."—Ib., 128. "were is a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense."—Ib., 129.
UNDER RULE III.—OF DEITY.
"O thou dispenser of life! thy mercies are boundless."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 449.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word dispenser begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 3d, "All names of the Deity, and sometimes their emphatic substitutes, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Dispenser" should here begin with a capital D.]
"Shall not the judge of all the earth do right?"—SCOTT: Gen., xviii, 25. "And the spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters."—Murray's Gram., p. 330. "It is the gift of him, who is the great author of good, and the Father of mercies."—Ib., 287. "This is thy god that brought thee up out of Egypt."—SCOTT, ALGER: Neh., ix, 18. "For the lord is our defence; and the holy one of Israel is our king."—See Psalm lxxxix, 18. "By making him the responsible steward of heaven's bounties."—Anti- Slavery Mag., i, 29. "Which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day."—SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Tim., iv, 8. "The cries of them * * * entered into the ears of the Lord of sabaoth."—SCOTT: James, v, 4. "In Horeb, the deity revealed himself to Moses, as the eternal I am, the self-existent one; and, after the first discouraging interview of his messengers with Pharaoh, he renewed his promise to them, by the awful name, jehovah—a name till then unknown, and one which the Jews always held it a fearful profanation to pronounce."—Author. "And god spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the lord: and I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of god almighty; but by my name jehovah was I not known to them."—See[106] Exod., vi, 2. "Thus saith the lord the king of Israel, and his redeemer the lord of hosts; I am the first, and I am the last; and besides me there is no god."—See Isa., xliv, 6.
"His impious race their blasphemy renew'd,
And nature's king through nature's optics view'd."—Dryden, p. 90.
UNDER RULE IV.—OF PROPER NAMES.
"Islamism prescribes fasting during the month ramazan."—Balbi's Geog., p. 17.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word ramazan here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 4th, "Proper names, of every description, should always begin with capitals." Therefore, "Ramazan" should begin with a capital R. The word is also misspelled: it should rather be Ramadan.]
"Near mecca, in arabia, is jebel nor, or the mountain of light, on the top of which the mussulmans erected a mosque, that they might perform their devotions where, according to their belief, mohammed received from the angel gabriel the first chapter of the Koran."—Author. "In the kaaba at mecca, there is a celebrated block of volcanic basalt, which the mohammedans venerate as the gift of gabriel to abraham, but their ancestors once held it to be an image of remphan, or saturn; so 'the image which fell down from jupiter,' to share with diana the homage of the ephesians, was probably nothing more than a meteoric stone."—Id. "When the lycaonians, at lystra, took paul and barnabas to be gods, they called the former mercury, on account of his eloquence, and the latter jupiter, for the greater dignity of his appearance."—Id. "Of the writings of the apostolic fathers of the first century, but few have come down to us; yet we have in those of barnabas, clement of rome, hermas, ignatius, and polycarp, very certain evidence of the authenticity of the New Testament, and the New Testament is a voucher for the old."—Id.
"It is said by tatian, that theagenes of rhegium, in the time of cambyses, stesimbrotus the thracian, antimachus the colophonian, herodotus of halicarnassus, dionysius the olynthian, ephorus of cumæ, philochorus the athenian, metaclides and chamæleon the peripatetics, and zenodotus, aristophanes, callimachus, erates, eratosthenes, aristarchus, and apollodorus, the grammarians, all wrote concerning the poetry, the birth, and the age of homer." See Coleridge's Introd., p. 57. "Yet, for aught that now appears, the life of homer is as fabulous as that of hercules; and some have even suspected, that, as the son of jupiter and alcmena, has fathered the deeds of forty other herculeses, so this unfathered son of critheis, themisto, or whatever dame—this melesigenes, mæonides, homer—the blind schoolmaster, and poet, of smyrna, chios, colophon, salamis, rhodes, argos, athens, or whatever place—has, by the help of lycurgus, solon, pisistratus, and other learned ancients, been made up of many poets or homers, and set so far aloft and aloof on old parnassus, as to become a god in the eyes of all greece, a wonder in those of all Christendom."—Author.
"Why so sagacious in your guesses?
Your effs, and tees, and arrs, and esses?"—Swift.
UNDER RULE V.—OF TITLES.
"The king has conferred on him the title of duke."—Murray's Key, 8vo, p. 193.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word duke begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 5th, "Titles of office or honour, and epithets of
distinction, applied to persons, begin usually with capitals." Therefore,
"Duke" should here begin with a capital D.]
"At the court of queen Elizabeth."—Murray's Gram.; 8vo, p. 157; 12mo, p. 126; Fisk's, 115; et al. "The laws of nature are, truly, what lord Bacon styles his aphorisms, laws of laws."—Murray's Key, p. 260. "Sixtus the fourth was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books."—Ib., p. 257. "Who at that time made up the court of king Charles the second."—Murray's Gram., p. 314. "In case of his majesty's dying without issue."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 181. "King Charles the first was beheaded in 1649."—W. Allen's Gram., p. 45. "He can no more impart or (to use lord Bacon's word,) transmit convictions."—Kirkham's Eloc., p. 220. "I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor."—Murray's Gram., p. 176. "We staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his country."—Ib., p. 177. "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of Llandaff's excellent book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority."—Ib., p. 176. "Why call ye me lord, lord, and do not the things which I say?"—See GRIESBACH: Luke, vi, 46. "And of them he chose twelve, whom also he named apostles."—SCOTT: Luke, vi, 13. "And forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, master; and kissed him."—See the Greek: Matt., xxvi, 49. "And he said, Nay, father Abraham: but if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent."—Luke, xvi, 30.
UNDER RULE VI.—OF ONE CAPITAL.
"Fall River, a village in Massachusetts, population 3431."—See Univ.
Gaz., p. 416.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the name Fall River is here written in two parts, and with two capitals. But, according to Rule 6th, "Those compound proper names which by analogy incline to a union of their parts without a hyphen, should be so written, and have but one capital." Therefore, Fallriver, as the name of a town, should be one word, and retain but one capital.]
"Dr. Anderson died at West Ham, in Essex, in 1808."—Biog. Dict. "Mad River, [the name of] two towns in Clark and Champaign counties, Ohio."—Williams's Universal Gazetteer. "White Creek, town of Washington county, N. York."—Ib. "Salt Creek, the name of four towns in different parts of Ohio."—Ib. "Salt Lick, a town of Fayette county, Pennsylvania."—Ib. "Yellow Creek, a town of Columbiana county, Ohio."—Ib. "White Clay, a hundred of New Castle county, Delaware."—Ib. "Newcastle, town and halfshire of Newcastle county, Delaware."—Ib. "Sing-Sing, a village of West Chester county, New York, situated in the town of Mount Pleasant."—Ib. "West Chester, a county of New York; also a town in Westchester county."—Ib. "West Town, a village of Orange county, New York."—Ib. "White Water, a town of Hamilton county, Ohio."—Ib. "White Water River, a considerable stream that rises in Indiana, and flowing southeasterly, unites with the Miami, in Ohio."—Ib. "Black Water, a village of Hampshire, in England, and a town in Ireland."—Ib. "Black Water, the name of seven different rivers in England, Ireland, and the United States."—Ib. "Red Hook, a town of Dutchess county, New York, on the Hudson."—Ib. "Kinderhook, a town of Columbia county, New York, on the Hudson."—Ib. "New Fane, a town of Niagara county, New York."—Ib. "Lake Port, a town of Chicot county, Arkansas."—Ib. "Moose Head Lake, the chief source of the Kennebeck, in Maine."—Ib. "Macdonough, a county of Illinois, population (in 1830) 2,959."—Ib., p. 408. "Mc Donough, a county of Illinois, with a courthouse, at Macomb."—Ib., p. 185. "Half-Moon, the name of two towns, in New York and Pennsylvania; also of two bays in the West Indies."—See Worcester's Gaz. "Le Boeuf, a town of Erie county, Pennsylvania, near a small lake of the same name."—Ib. "Charles City, James City, Elizabeth City, names of counties in Virginia, not cities, nor towns."—See Univ. Gaz. "The superior qualities of the waters of the Frome, here called Stroud water."—Balbi's Geog., p. 223.
UNDER RULE VII.—TWO CAPITALS.
"The Forth rises on the north side of Benlomond, and runs easterly."—Glas. Geog.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the name "Benlomond" is compounded under one capital, contrary to the general analogy of other similar terms. But, according to Rule 7th, "The compounding of a name under one capital should be avoided when the general analogy of other similar terms suggests a separation under two." Therefore, "Ben Lomond" should be written with two capitals and no hyphen.]
"The red granite of Ben-nevis is said to be the finest in the world."—Ib., ii, 311. "Ben-more, in Perthshire, is 3,915 feet above the level of the sea."—Ib., 313. "The height of Benclough is 2,420 feet."—Ib.. "In Sutherland and Caithness, are Ben Ormod, Ben Clibeg, Ben Grin, Ben Hope, and Ben Lugal."—Ib., 311. "Benvracky is 2,756 feet high; Ben-ledi, 3,009; and Benvoirlich, 3,300."—Ib., 313. "The river Dochart gives the name of Glendochart to the vale through which it runs."—Ib., 314. "About ten miles from its source, the Tay diffuses itself into Lochdochart."—Geog. altered. LAKES:—"Lochard, Loch-Achray, Loch-Con, Loch-Doine, Loch-Katrine, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Voil."—Scott's Lady of the Lake. GLENS:—"Glenfinlas, Glen Fruin, Glen Luss, Ross-dhu, Leven-glen, Strath-Endrick, Strath-Gartney, Strath-Ire."—Ib. MOUNTAINS:—"Ben-an, Benharrow, Benledi, Ben-Lomond, Benvoirlich, Ben-venue, and sometimes Benvenue."—Ib. "Fenelon died in 1715, deeply lamented by all the inhabitants of the Low-countries."—Murray's Sequel, p. 322. "And Pharaoh-nechoh made Eliakim, the son of Josiah, king."—SCOTT, FRIENDS: 2 Kings, xxiii, 34. "Those who seem so merry and well pleased, call her Good Fortune; but the others, who weep and wring their hands, Bad-fortune."—Collier's Tablet of Cebes.
UNDER RULE VIII.—OF COMPOUNDS.
"When Joab returned, and smote Edom in the valley of salt."—SCOTT: Ps. lx, title.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the words valley and salt begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 8th, "When any adjective or common noun is made a distinct part of a compound proper name, it ought to begin with a capital." Therefore, "Valley" should here begin with a capital V, and "Salt" with a capital S.]
"Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars' hill and said," &c.—SCOTT: Acts, xvii, 22. "And at night he went out, and abode in the mount that is called the mount of Olives."—Luke, xxi, 37. "Abgillus, son of the king of the Frisii, surnamed Prester John, was in the Holy land with Charlemagne."—Univ. Biog. Dict. "Cape Palmas, in Africa, divides the Grain coast from the Ivory coast."—Dict. of Geog., p. 125. "The North Esk, flowing from Loch-lee, falls into the sea three miles north of Montrose."—Ib., p. 232. "At Queen's ferry, the channel of the Forth is contracted by promontories on both coasts."—Ib., p. 233. "The Chestnut ridge is about twenty-five miles west of the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge, ten miles further west."—Balbi's Geog., p. 65. "Washington City, the metropolis of the United States of America."—W.'s Univ. Gaz., p. 380. "Washington city, in the District of Columbia, population (in 1830) 18,826."—Ib., p. 408. "The loftiest peak of the white mountains, in new Hampshire, is called mount Washington."—Author. "Mount's bay, in the west of England, lies between the land's end and lizard point."—Id. "Salamis, an island of the Egean Sea, off the southern coast of the ancient Attica."—Dict. of Geog. "Rhodes, an island of the Egean sea, the largest and most easterly of the Cyclades."—Ib. "But he overthrew Pharaoh and his host in the Red sea."—BRUCE'S BIBLE: Ps. cxxxvi, 15. "But they provoked him at the sea, even at the Red sea."—SCOTT: Ps. cvi, 7.[107]
UNDER RULE IX.—OF APPOSITION.
"At that time, Herod the Tetrarch heard of the fame of Jesus."—ALGER: Matt., xiv, 1.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word Tetrarch begins with a capital letter. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a common and a proper name are associated merely to explain each other, it is in general sufficient, if the proper name begin with a capital, and the appellative, with a small letter." Therefore, "tetrarch" should here begin with a small t.]
"Who has been more detested than Judas the Traitor?"—Author. "St. Luke, the Evangelist, was a physician of Antioch, and one of the converts of St. Paul."—Id. "Luther, the Reformer, began his bold career by preaching against papal indulgences."—Id. "The Poet Lydgate was a disciple and admirer of Chaucer: he died in 1440."—Id. "The Grammarian Varro, 'the most learned of the Romans,' wrote three books when he was eighty years old."—Id. "John Despauter, the great Grammarian of Flanders, whose works are still valued, died in 1520."—Id. "Nero, the Emperor and Tyrant of Rome, slew himself to avoid a worse death."—Id. "Cicero the Orator, 'the Father of his Country,' was assassinated at the age of 64."—Id. "Euripides, the Greek Tragedian, was born in the Island of Salamis, B. C. 476."—Id. "I will say unto God my Rock, Why hast thou forgotten me?"—SCOTT: Ps. xlii, 9. "Staten Island, an island of New York, nine miles below New York City."—Univ. Gaz. "When the son of Atreus, King of Men, and the noble Achilles first separated."—Coleridge's Introd., p. 83.
"Hermes, his Patron-God, those gifts bestow'd,
Whose shrine with weaning lambs he wont to load."
—POPE: Odys., B. 19.
UNDER RULE X.—OF PERSONIFICATIONS.
"But wisdom is justified of all her children."—SCOTT, ALGER: Luke, vii, 35.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word wisdom begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore, "Wisdom" should here begin with a capital W.]
"Fortune and the church are generally put in the feminine gender."—Murray's Gram., i, p. 37. "Go to your natural religion; lay before her Mahomet, and his disciples."—Blair's Rhetoric, p. 157: see also Murray's Gram., i, 347. "O death! where is thy sting? O grave! where is thy victory?"—1 Cor., xv, 55; Murray's Gram., p. 348; English Reader, 31; Merchant's Gram., 212. "Ye cannot serve God and Mammon."—SCOTT, FRIENDS, ET AL.: Matt., vi, 24. "Ye cannot serve God and mammon."—IIDEM: Luke, xvi, 13. "This house was built as if suspicion herself had dictated the plan."—See Key. "Poetry distinguishes herself from prose, by yielding to a musical law."—See Key. "My beauteous deliverer thus uttered her divine instructions: 'My name is religion. I am the offspring of truth and love, and the parent of benevolence, hope, and joy. That monster, from whose power I have freed you, is called superstition: she is the child of discontent, and her followers are fear and sorrow.'"—See Key. "Neither hope nor fear could enter the retreats; and habit had so absolute a power, that even conscience, if religion had employed her in their favour, would not have been able to force an entrance."—See Key.
"In colleges and halls in ancient days,
There dwelt a sage called discipline."—Wayland's M. Sci., p. 368.
UNDER RULE XI.—OF DERIVATIVES.
"In English, I would have gallicisms avoided."—FELTON: Johnson's Dict.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word gallicisms here begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 11th, "Words derived from proper names, and having direct reference to particular persons, places, sects, or nations, should begin with capitals." Therefore, "Gallicisms" should begin with a capital G.]
"Sallust was born in Italy, 85 years before the christian era."—Murray's Seq., p. 357. "Dr. Doddridge was not only a great man, but one of the most excellent and useful christians, and christian ministers."—Ib., 319. "They corrupt their style with untutored anglicisms."—MILTON: in Johnson's Dict. "Albert of Stade, author of a chronicle from the creation to 1286, a benedictine of the 13th century."—Universal Biog. Dict. "Graffio, a jesuit of Capua in the 16th century, author of two volumes on moral subjects."—Ib. "They frenchify and italianize words whenever they can."—See Key. "He who sells a christian, sells the grace of God."—Anti-Slavery Mag., p. 77. "The first persecution against the christians, under Nero, began A. D. 64."—Gregory's Dict. "P. Rapin, the jesuit, uniformly decides in favour of the Roman writers."—Cobbett's E. Gram., ¶ 171. "The Roman poet and epicurean philosopher Lucretius has said," &c.—Cohen's Florida, p. 107. Spell "calvinistic, atticism, gothicism, epicurism, jesuitism, sabianism, socinianism, anglican, anglicism, anglicize, vandalism, gallicism, romanize."—Webster's El. Spelling-Book, 130-133. "The large ternate bat."—Webster's Dict. w. ROSSET; Bolles's Dict., w. ROSET.
"Church-ladders are not always mounted best
By learned clerks, and latinists profess'd."—Cowper.
UNDER RULE XII.—OF I AND O.
"Fall back, fall back; i have not room:—o! methinks i see a couple whom i should know."—Lucian, varied.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word I, which occurs three times, and the word O, which occurs once, are here printed in letters of the lower case.[108] But, according to Rule 12th, "The words I and O should always be capitals." Therefore, each should be changed to a capital, as often as it occurs.]
"Nay, i live as i did, i think as i did, i love you as i did; but all these are to no purpose: the world will not live, think, or love, as i do."—Swift, varied. "Whither, o! whither shall i fly? o wretched prince! o cruel reverse of fortune! o father Micipsa! is this the consequence of thy generosity?"—Sallust, varied. "When i was a child, i spake as a child, i understood as a child, i thought as a child; but when i became a man, i put away childish things."—1 Cor., xiii, 11, varied. "And i heard, but i understood not: then said i, o my Lord, what shall be the end of these things?"—Dan., xii, 8, varied. "Here am i; i think i am very good, and i am quite sure i am very happy, yet i never wrote a treatise in my life."—Few Days in Athens, varied. "Singular, Vocative, o master; Plural, Vocative, o masters."—Bicknell's Gram., p. 30.
"I, i am he; o father! rise, behold
Thy son, with twenty winters now grown old!"—See Pope's Odyssey.
UNDER RULE XIII.—OF POETRY.
"Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
lie in three words—health, peace, and competence;
but health consists with temperance alone,
and peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own."
Pope's Essay on Man, a fine London Edition.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the last three lines of this example begin with small letters. But, according to Rule 18th, "Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making but one verse with the preceding line, should begin with a capital." Therefore, the words, "Lie," "But," and "And," at the commencement of these lines, should severally begin with the capitals L, B, and A.]
"Observe the language well in all you write, and swerve not from it in your loftiest flight. The smoothest verse and the exactest sense displease us, if ill English give offence: a barbarous phrase no reader can approve; nor bombast, noise, or affectation love. In short, without pure language, what you write can never yield us profit or delight. Take time for thinking, never work in haste; and value not yourself for writing fast." See Dryden's Art of Poetry:—British Poets, Vol. iii, p. 74.
UNDER RULE XIV.—OF EXAMPLES.
"The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess of a quality: as, 'she is rather profuse in her expenses.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 47.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word she begins with a small letter.
But, according to Rule 14th, "The first word of a full example, of a
distinct speech, or of a direct quotation, should begin with a capital."
Therefore, the word "She" should here begin with a capital S.]
"Neither imports not either; that is, not one nor the other: as, 'neither of my friends was there.'"—Murray's Gram., p. 56. "When we say, 'he is a tall man,' 'this is a fair day,' we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and to different weather."—Ib., p. 47. "We more readily say, 'A million of men,' than 'a thousand of men.'"—Ib., p. 169. "So in the instances, 'two and two are four;' 'the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books.'"—Ib., p. 124. "The adjective may frequently either precede or follow it [the verb]: as, 'the man is happy;' or, 'happy is the man:' 'The interview was delightful;' or, 'delightful was the interview.'"—Ib., p. 168. "If we say, 'he writes a pen,' 'they ran the river, 'the tower fell the Greeks,' 'Lambeth is Westminster-abbey,' [we speak absurdly;] and, it is evident, there is a vacancy which must be filled up by some connecting word: as thus, 'He writes with a pen;' 'they ran towards the river;' 'the tower fell upon the Greeks;' 'Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey.'"—Ib., p. 118. "Let me repeat it;—he only is great, who has the habits of greatness."—Murray's Key, 241. "I say not unto thee, until seven times; but, until seventy times seven."—See Matt., xviii, 22.
"The Panther smil'd at this; and when, said she,
Were those first councils disallow'd by me?"—Dryden, p. 95.
UNDER RULE XV.—OF CHIEF WORDS.
"The supreme council of the nation is called the divan."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word divan begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 15th, "Other words of particular importance, and such as denote the principal subjects treated of, may be distinguished by capitals." Therefore, "Divan" should here begin with a capital D.]
"The British parliament is composed of kings, lords, and commons."—Murray's Key, p. 184. "A popular orator in the House of Commons has a sort of patent for coining as many new terms as he pleases."—See Campbell's Rhet., p. 169; Murray's Gram., 364. "They may all be taken together, as one name; as, the house of commons."— Merchant's School Gram., p. 25. "Intrusted to persons in whom the parliament could confide."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 202. "For 'The Lords' house,' it were certainly better to say, 'The house of lords;' and, in stead of 'The commons' vote,' to say, 'The votes of the commons.'"—See ib., p. 177, 4th Amer. Ed.; also Priestley's Gram., p. 69. "The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 152; Priestley's Gram., 188. "Rhetoricians commonly divide them into two great classes; figures of words, and figures of thought. The former, figures of words, are commonly called tropes."—Blair's Rhet., p. 132. "Perhaps figures of imagination, and figures of passion, might be a more useful distribution."—Ib., p. 133. "Hitherto we have considered sentences, under the heads of perspicuity, unity, and strength."—Ib., p. 120.
"The word is then depos'd, and in this view,
You rule the scripture, not the scripture you."—Dryden, p. 95.
UNDER RULE XVI.—OF NEEDLESS CAPITALS.
"Be of good cheer: It is I; be not afraid."—ALGER: Matt., xiv, 27.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the word It begins with a capital I, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th, "Capitals are improper wherever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, 'it' should here begin with a small letter, as Dr. Scott has it.]
"Between passion and lying, there is not a Finger's breadth."—Murray's Key, p. 240. "Can our Solicitude alter the course, or unravel the intricacy, of human events?"—Ib., p. 242. "The last edition was carefully compared with the Original M. S."—Ib., p. 239. "And the governor asked him, saying, Art thou the King of the Jews?"—ALGER: Matt., xxvii, 11. "Let them be turned back for a reward of their shame, that say, Aha, Aha!"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Ps., lxx, 3. "Let them be desolate for a reward of their shame, that say unto me, Aha, aha!"—IB.: Ps., xl, 15. "What think ye of Christ? whose Son is he? They say unto him, The Son of David. He saith unto them, How then doth David in Spirit call him Lord?"—SCOTT: Matt., xxii, 42, 43. "Among all Things in the Universe, direct your Worship to the Greatest; And which is that? 'T is that Being which Manages and Governs all the Rest."—Meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus, p. 76. "As for Modesty and Good Faith, Truth and Justice, they have left this wicked World and retired to Heaven: And now what is it that can keep you here?"—Ib., p. 81.
"If Pulse of Terse, a Nation's Temper shows,
In keen Iambics English Metre flows."—Brightland's Gram., p. 151.
PROMISCUOUS ERRORS RESPECTING CAPITALS.
LESSON I.—MIXED.
"Come, gentle spring, Ethereal mildness, come."—Gardiner's Music of
Nature, p. 411.
[FORMULES.—1. Not proper, because the word spring begins with a small letter. But, according to Rule 10th, "The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea strictly individual, should begin with a capital." Therefore "Spring" should here begin with a capital S.
2. Not proper again, because the word Ethereal begins with a capital E, for which there appears to be neither rule nor reason. But, according to Rule 16th. "Capitals are improper whenever there is not some special rule or reason for their use." Therefore, "ethereal" should here begin with a small letter.]
As, "He is the Cicero of his age; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Cæsars."—Murray's Gram., p. 36. "In the History of Henry the fourth, by father Daniel, we are surprized at not finding him the great man."—Priestley's Gram., p. 151. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man."—Murray's Gram., p. 172; Ingersoll's, 187; Fisk's, 99. "Do not those same poor peasants use the Lever and the Wedge, and many other instruments?"—Murray, 288; from Harris, 293. "Arithmetic is excellent for the gauging of Liquors; Geometry, for the measuring of Estates; Astronomy, for the making of Almanacks; and Grammar, perhaps, for the drawing of Bonds and Conveyances."—Harris's Hermes, p. 295. "The wars of Flanders, written in Latin by Famianus Strada, is a book of some note."—Blair's Rhet., p. 364. "William is a noun.—why? was is a verb.—why? a is an article.—why? very is an adverb.—why?" &c.—Merchant's School Gram., p. 20. "In the beginning was the word, and that word was with God, and God was that word."—Gwilt's Saxon Gram., p. 49. "The greeks are numerous in thessaly, macedonia, romelia, and albania."—Balbi, varied. "He is styled by the Turks, Sultan (Mighty) or Padishah (lord)."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "I will ransom them from the power of the grave; I will redeem them from death: O death, I will be thy plagues;[109] O grave, I will be thy destruction."—SCOTT, ALGER, ET AL.: Hosea, xiii, 14. "Silver and Gold have I none; but such as I have, give I unto thee."—Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 321. "Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine."—Ib., p. 342. "In the Attic Commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public."—Ib., p. 316. "They assert that, in the phrases, 'give me that,' 'this is John's,' and 'such were some of you,' the words in italics are pronouns: but that, in the following phrases, they are not pronouns; 'this book is instructive,' 'some boys are ingenious,' 'my health is declining,' 'our hearts are deceitful,' &c."—Ib., p. 58. "And the coast bends again to the northwest, as far as Far Out head."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 308. Dr. Webster, and other makers of spelling-books, very improperly write "sunday, monday, tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday," without capitals.—See Webster's Elementary Spelling-Book p. 85. "The commander in chief of the Turkish navy is styled the capitan-pasha."—Balbi's Geog., p. 360. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the father of spirits, and live?"—SCOTT'S BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "Shall we not much rather be in subjection unto the Father of Spirits, and live?"—FRIENDS' BIBLE: Heb., xii, 9. "He was more anxious to attain the character of a Christian hero."—Murray's Sequel, p. 308. "Beautiful for situation, the joy of the whole earth, is mount Zion."—Psalms, xlviii, 2. "The Lord is my Helper, and I will not fear what man shall do unto me."—SCOTT: Heb., xiii, 6. "Make haste to help me, O LORD my Salvation."—SCOTT: Ps., xxxviii, 22.
"The City, which Thou seest, no other deem
Than great and glorious Rome, Queen of the Earth."
Harris's Hermes, p. 49.
LESSON II.—MIXED.
"That range of hills, known under the general name of mount Jura."—Priestley's Gram., p. 110. "He rebuked the Red sea also, and it was dried up."—SCOTT: Ps., cvi, 9. "Jesus went unto the mount of Olives."—John, viii, 1. "Milton's book, in reply to the Defence of the king, by Salmasius, gained him a thousand pounds from the parliament, and killed his antagonist with vexation."—See Murray's Sequel, 343. "Mandeville, sir John, an Englishman, famous for his travels, born about 1300, died in 1372."—Biog. Dict. "Ettrick pen, a mountain in Selkirkshire, Scotland, height 2,200 feet."—Glasgow Geog., Vol. ii, p. 312. "The coast bends from Dungsbyhead in a northwest direction to the promontory of Dunnet head."—Ib., p. 307. "Gen. Gaines ordered a detachment of near 300 men, under the command of Major Twiggs, to surround and take an Indian Village, called Fowl Town, about fourteen miles from fort Scott."—Cohen's Florida, p. 41. "And he took the damsel by the hand, and said unto her, Talitha Cumi."—ALGER: Mark, v, 4. "On religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with peculiar force."—Murray's Gram., p. 318. "Contemplated with gratitude to their Author, the Giver of all Good."—Ib., p. 289. "When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth."—Ib., p. 171; Fisk, 98; Ingersoll, 186. "See the lecture on verbs, rule XV. note 4."—Fisk's E. Gram., p. 117. "At the commencement of lecture II. I informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation."—Kirkham's Gram., p. 171. "This VIII. lecture is a very important one."—Ib., p. 113. "Now read the XI. and XII. lectures four or five times over."—Ib., p. 152. "In 1752, he was advanced to the bench, under the title of lord Kames."—Murray's Sequel, p. 331. "One of his maxims was, 'know thyself.'"—Lempriere's Dict., n. Chilo. "Good master, what good thing shall I do, that I may have eternal life?"—See Matt., xix, 16. "His best known works, however, are 'anecdotes of the earl of Chatham,' 2 vols. 4to., 3 vols. 8vo., and 'biographical, literary, and political anecdotes of several of the most eminent persons of the present age; never before printed,' 3 vols. 8vo. 1797."—Univ. Biog. Dict., n. Almon. "O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?"—Merchant's School Gram., p. 172. "O sleep, O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.—SINGER'S SHAK. Sec. Part of Hen. IV, Act iii. "Sleep, gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse," &c.—Dodd's Beauties of Shakspeare, p. 129.
"And Peace, O, Virtue! Peace is all thy own."—Pope's Works, p. 379.
"And peace, O virtue! peace is all thy own."—Murray's Gram., ii, 16.
LESSON III.—MIXED.
"Fenelon united the characters of a nobleman and a Christian pastor. His book entitled 'An explication of the Maxims of the Saints concerning the interior life,' gave considerable offence to the guardians of orthodoxy."—Murray's Sequel, p. 321. "When natural religion, who before was only a spectator, is introduced as speaking by the centurion's voice."—Blair's Rhet., p. 157. "You cannot deny, that the great mover and author of nature constantly explaineth himself to the eyes of men, by the sensible intervention of arbitrary signs, which have no similitude, or connexion, with the things signified."—Berkley's Minute Philosopher, p. 169. "The name of this letter is double U, its form, that of a double V."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 19. "Murray, in his spelling book, wrote 'Charles-Town' with a Hyphen and two Capitals."—See p. 101. "He also wrote 'european' without a capital."—See p. 86. "They profess themselves to be pharisees, who are to be heard and not imitated."—Calvin's Institutes, Ded., p. 55. "Dr. Webster wrote both 'Newhaven' and 'Newyork' with single capitals."—See his American Spelling-Book, p. 111. "Gayhead, the west point of Martha's Vineyard."—Williams's Univ. Gaz. Write "Craborchard, Eggharbor, Longisland, Perthamboy, Westhampton, Littlecompton, Newpaltz, Crownpoint, Fellspoint, Sandyhook, Portpenn, Portroyal. Portobello, and Portorico."—Webster's American Spelling-Book, 127-140. Write the names of the months: "january, february, march, april, may, june, july, august, september, october, november, december."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, 21-40. Write the following names and words properly: "tuesday, wednesday, thursday, friday, saturday, saturn;—christ, christian, christmas, christendom, michaelmas, indian, bacchanals;—Easthampton, omega, johannes, aonian, levitical, deuteronomy, european."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book, sundry places.
"Eight Letters in some Syllables we find,
And no more Syllables in Words are joined."
Brightland's Gram., p. 61.
CHAPTER II.—OF SYLLABLES.
A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one sound; and is either a word, as, a, an, ant; or a part of a word, as di in dial.
In every word there are as many syllables as there are distinct sounds, or separate impulses of the voice; as, gram-ma-ri-an.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a trissyllable; and a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable.
Every vowel, except w, may form a syllable of itself; but the consonants belong to the vowels or diphthongs; and without a vowel no syllable can be formed.
DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.
A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. In oe or æ, old or foreign, the characters often unite.
A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded; as, oi in voice, ow in vow.
An improper diphthong is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded; as, oa in loaf, eo in people.
A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable; as, eau in beau, iew in view, oeu in manoeuvre.
A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all the vowels are sounded; as, uoy in buoy.
An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which only one or two of the vowels are sounded; as, eau in beauty, iou in anxious. The diphthongs in English are twenty-nine; embracing all but six of the thirty-five possible combinations of two vowels: aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,—ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,—ia, ie, (ii,) io, (iu, iw, iy,)—oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow, oy,—ua, ue, ui, uo, (uu, uw,) uy.
Ten of these diphthongs, being variously sounded, may be either proper or improper; to wit, ay,—ie,—oi, ou, ow,—ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.
The proper diphthongs appear to be thirteen; ay,—ia, ie, io,—oi, ou, ow, oy,—ua, ue, ui, uo, uy: of which combinations, only three, ia, io, and oy, are invariably of this class.
The improper diphthongs are twenty-six; aa, ae, ai, ao, au, aw, ay,—ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey,—ie,—oa, oe, oi, oo, ou, ow,—ua, ue, ui, uo, uy.
The only proper triphthong in English is uoy, as in buoy, buoyant, buoyancy; unless uoi in quoit may be considered a parallel instance.
The improper triphthongs are sixteen; awe, aye,—eau, eou, ewe, eye,—ieu, iew, iou,—oeu, owe,—uai, uaw, uay, uea, uee.
SYLLABICATION.
In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed chiefly by the ear; it may however be proper to observe, as far as practicable, the following rules.
RULE I.—CONSONANTS.
Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance; as, An-ax-ag'-o-ras, ap-os-tol'-i-cal.[110]
RULE II.—VOWELS.
Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, must be parted in dividing the syllables; as, A-cka'-i-a, A-o'-ni-an, a-e'-ri-al.
RULE III.—TERMINATIONS.
Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally be separated from the radical words to which they have been added; as, harm-less, great-ly, connect-ed: thus count-er and coun-ter are different words.
RULE IV.—PREFIXES.
Prefixes, in general, form separate syllables; as, mis-place, out-ride, up-lift: but if their own primitive meaning be disregarded, the case may be otherwise; thus, re-create, and rec'-reate, re-formation, and ref-ormation, are words of different import.
RULE V.—COMPOUNDS.
Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple words which compose them; as, boat-swain, foot-hold, never-the-less.
RULE VI.—LINES FULL.
At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary; but a syllable must never be broken.
OBSERVATIONS.
OBS. 1.—The doctrine of English syllabication is attended with some difficulties; because its purposes are various, and its principles, often contradictory. The old rules, borrowed chiefly from grammars of other languages, and still retained in some of our own, are liable to very strong objections.[111] By aiming to divide on the vowels, and to force the consonants, as much as possible, into the beginning of syllables, they often pervert or misrepresent our pronunciation. Thus Murray, in his Spelling-Book, has "gra-vel, fi-nish, me-lon, bro-ther, bo-dy, wi-dow, pri-son, a-va-rice, e-ve-ry, o-ran-ges, e-ne-my, me-di-cine, re-pre-sent, re-so-lu-tion," and a multitude of other words, divided upon a principle by which the young learner can scarcely fail to be led into error respecting their sounds. This method of division is therefore particularly reprehensible in such books as are designed to teach the true pronunciation of words; for which reason, it has been generally abandoned in our modern spelling-books and dictionaries: the authors of which have severally aimed at some sort of compromise between etymology and pronunciation; but they disagree so much, as to the manner of effecting it, that no two of them will be found alike, and very few, if any, entirely consistent with themselves.
OBS. 2.—The object of syllabication may be any one of the following four; 1. To enable a child to read unfamiliar words by spelling them; 2. To show the derivation or composition of words; 3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of words; 4. To divide words properly, when it is necessary to break them at the ends of lines. With respect to the first of these objects, Walker observes, "When a child has made certain advances in reading, but is ignorant of the sound of many of the longer words, it may not be improper to lay down the common general rule to him, that a consonant between two vowels must go to the latter, and that two consonants coming together must be divided. Farther than this it would be absurd to go with a child."—Walker's Principles, No. 539. Yet, as a caution be it recorded, that, in 1833, an itinerant lecturer from the South, who made it his business to teach what he calls in his title-page, "An Abridgment of Walker's Rules on the Sounds of the Letters,"—an Abridgement, which, he says in his preface, "will be found to contain, it is believed, all the important rules that are established by Walker, and to carry his principles farther than he himself has done"—befooled the Legislature of Massachusetts, the School Committee and Common Council of Boston, the professor of elocution at Harvard University, and many other equally wise men of the east, into the notion that English pronunciation could be conveniently taught to children, in "four or five days," by means of some three or four hundred rules of which the following is a specimen: "RULE 282. When a single consonant is preceded by a vowel under the preantepenultimate accent, and is followed by a vowel that is succeeded by a consonant, it belongs to the accented vowel."—Mulkey's Abridgement of Walker's Rules, p. 34.
OBS. 3.—A grosser specimen of literary quackery, than is the publication which I have just quoted, can scarcely be found in the world of letters. It censures "the principles laid down and illustrated by Walker," as "so elaborate and so verbose as to be wearisome to the scholar and useless to the child;" and yet declares them to be, "for the most part, the true rules of pronunciation, according to the analogy of the language."—Mulkey's Preface, p. 3. It professes to be an abridgement and simplification of those principles, especially adapted to the wants and capacities of children; and, at the same time, imposes upon the memory of the young learner twenty-nine rules for syllabication, similar to that which I have quoted above; whereas Walker himself, with all his verbosity, expressly declares it "absurd," to offer more than one or two, and those of the very simplest character. It is to be observed that the author teaches nothing but the elements of reading; nothing but the sounds of letters and syllables; nothing but a few simple fractions of the great science of grammar: and, for this purpose, he would conduct the learner through the following particulars, and have him remember them all: 1. Fifteen distinctions respecting the "classification and organic formation of the letters." 2. Sixty-three rules for "the sounds of the vowels, according to their relative positions." 3. Sixty-four explanations of "the different sounds of the diphthongs." 4. Eighty-nine rules for "the sounds of the consonants, according to position." 5. Twenty-three heads, embracing a hundred and fifty-six principles of accent. 6. Twenty-nine "rules for dividing words into syllables." 7. Thirty-three "additional principles;" which are thrown together promiscuously, because he could not class them. 8. Fifty-two pages of "irregular Words," forming particular exceptions to the foregoing rules. 9. Twenty-eight pages of notes extracted from Walker's Dictionary, and very prettily called "The Beauties of Walker." All this is Walker simplified for children!
OBS. 4.—Such is a brief sketch of Mulkey's system of orthoëpy; a work in which "he claims to have devised what has heretofore been a desideratum—a mode by which children in our common schools may be taught the rules for the pronunciation of their mother tongue."—Preface, p. 4. The faults of the book are so exceedingly numerous, that to point them out, would be more toil, than to write an accurate volume of twice the size. And is it possible, that a system like this could find patronage in the metropolis of New England, in that proud centre of arts and sciences, and in the proudest halls of learning and of legislation? Examine the gentleman's credentials, and take your choice between the adoption of his plan, as a great improvement in the management of syllables, and the certain conclusion that great men may be greatly duped respecting them. Unless the public has been imposed upon by a worse fraud than mere literary quackery, the authorities I have mentioned did extensively patronize the scheme; and the Common Council of that learned city did order, November 14th, 1833, "That the School Committee be and they are hereby authorized to employ Mr. William Mulkey to give a course of Lectures on Orthoëpy to the several instructors of the public schools, and that the sum of five hundred dollars is hereby appropriated for that purpose, and that the same amount be withdrawn from the reserved fund."—See Mulkey's Circular.
OBS. 5.—Pronunciation is best taught to children by means of a good spelling-book; a book in which the words are arranged according to their analogies, and divided according to their proper sounds. Vocabularies, dictionaries, and glossaries, may also be serviceable to those who are sufficiently advanced to learn how to use them. With regard to the first of the abovenamed purposes of syllabication, I am almost ready to dissent even from the modest opinion of Walker himself; for ignorance can only guess at the pronunciation of words, till positive instruction comes in to give assurance; and it may be doubted whether even the simple rule or rules suggested by Walker would not about as often mislead the young reader as correct him. With regard to the second purpose, that of showing the derivation or composition of words, it is plain, that etymology, and not pronunciation, must here govern the division; and that it should go no further than to separate the constituent parts of each word; as, ortho-graphy, theo-logy. But when we divide for the third purpose, and intend to show what is the pronunciation of a word, we must, if possible, divide into such syllabic sounds as will exactly recompose the word, when put together again; as, or-thog-ra-phy, the-ol-o-gy. This being the most common purpose of syllabication, perhaps it would be well to give it a general preference; and adopt it whenever we can, not only in the composing of spelling-books and dictionaries, but also in the dividing of words at the ends of lines.
OBS. 6.—Dr. Lowth says, "The best and easiest rule, for dividing the syllables in spelling, is, to divide them as they are naturally divided in a right pronunciation; without regard to the derivation of words, or the possible combination of consonants at the beginning of a syllable."—Lowth's Gram., p. 5. And Walker approves of the principle, with respect to the third purpose mentioned above: "This," says that celebrated orthoëpist, "is the method adopted by those who would convey the whole sound, by giving distinctly every part; and, when this is the object of syllabication, Dr. Lowth's rule is certainly to be followed."—Walker's Principles,—No. 541. But this rule, which no one can apply till he has found out the pronunciation, will not always be practicable where that is known, and perhaps not always expedient where it is practicable. For example: the words colonel, venison, transition, propitious, cannot be so divided as to exhibit their pronunciation; and, in such as acid, magic, pacify, legible, liquidate, it may not be best to follow the rule, because there is some reasonable objection to terminating the first syllables of these words with c, g, and q, especially at the end of a line. The rule for terminations may also interfere with this, called "Lowth's;" as in sizable, rising, dronish.
OBS. 7.—For the dividing of words into syllables, I have given six rules, which are perhaps as many as will be useful. They are to be understood as general principles; and, as to the exceptions to be made in their application, or the settling of their conflicting claims to attention, these may be left to the judgement of each writer. The old principle of dividing by the eye, and not by the ear, I have rejected; and, with it, all but one of the five rules which the old grammarians gave for the purpose. "The divisions of the letters into syllables, should, unquestionably, be the same in written, as in spoken language; otherwise the learner is misguided, and seduced by false representations into injurious errors."—Wilson's Essay on Gram., p. 37. Through the influence of books in which the words are divided according to their sounds, the pronunciation of the language is daily becoming more and more uniform; and it may perhaps be reasonably hoped, that the general adoption of this method of syllabication, and a proper exposition of the occasional errors of ignorance, will one day obviate entirely the objection arising from the instability of the principle. For the old grammarians urged, that the scholar who had learned their rules should "strictly conform to them; and that he should industriously avoid that random Method of dividing by the Ear, which is subject to mere jumble, as it must be continually fluctuating according to the various Dialects of different Countries."—British Grammar, p. 47.
OBS. 8.—The important exercise of oral spelling is often very absurdly conducted. In many of our schools, it may be observed that the teacher, in giving out the words to be spelled, is not always careful to utter them with what he knows to be their true sounds, but frequently accommodates his pronunciation to the known or supposed ignorance of the scholar; and the latter is still more frequently allowed to hurry through the process, without putting the syllables together as he proceeds; and, sometimes, without forming or distinguishing the syllables at all. Merely to pronounce a word and then name its letters, is an exceedingly imperfect mode of spelling; a mode in which far more is lost in respect to accuracy of speech, than is gained in respect to time. The syllables should not only be distinctly formed and pronounced, but pronounced as they are heard in the whole word; and each should be successively added to the preceding syllables, till the whole sound is formed by the reunion of all its parts. For example: divisibility. The scholar should say, "Dee I, de; Vee I Ess, viz, de-viz; I, de-viz-e; Bee I Ell, bil, de-viz-e-bil; I, de-viz-e-bil-e; Tee Wy, te, de-viz-e-bil-e-te." Again: chicanery. "Cee Aitch I, she; Cee A, ka, she-ka; En E Ar, nur, she-ka-nur; Wy, she-ka-nur-e." One of the chief advantages of oral spelling, is its tendency to promote accuracy of pronunciation; and this end it will reach, in proportion to the care and skill with which it is conducted. But oral spelling should not be relied on as the sole means of teaching orthography. It will not be found sufficient. The method of giving out words for practical spelling on slates or paper, or of reading something which is to be written again by the learner, is much to be commended, as a means of exercising those scholars who are so far advanced as to write legibly. This is called, in the schools, dictation.
IMPROPRIETIES FOR CORRECTION.
ERRORS IN SYLLABICATION.
LESSON I.—CONSONANTS.
1. Correct the division of the following words of two syllables: "ci-vil, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, hea-ven, hea-vy, ho-ney, le-mon, li-nen, mea-dow, mo-ney, ne-ver, o-live, o-range, o-ther, phea-sant, plea-sant, pu-nish, ra-ther, rea-dy, ri-ver, ro-bin, scho-lar, sho-vel, sto-mach, ti-mid, whe-ther."—Murray's Spelling-Book, N. Y., 1819, p. 43-50.
[FORMULE.—Not proper, because the v in ci-vil, the l in co-lour, the p in co-py, &c., are written with the following vowel, but spoken with that which precedes. But, according to Rule 1st, "Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels or diphthongs which they modify in utterance." Therefore, these words should be divided thus: civ-il, col-our, cop-y, &c.]
2. Correct the division of the following words of three syllables: "be-ne-fit, ca-bi-net, ca-nis-ter, ca-ta-logue, cha-rac-ter, cha-ri-ty, co-vet-ous, di-li-gence, di-mi-ty, e-le-phant, e-vi-dent, e-ver-green, fri-vo-lous, ga-ther-ing, ge-ne-rous, go-vern-ess, go-vern-or, ho-nes-ty, ka-len-dar, la-ven-der, le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, me-mo-ry, mi-nis-ter, mo-dest-ly, no-vel-ty, no-bo-dy, pa-ra-dise, po-ver-ty, pre-sent-ly, pro-vi-dence, pro-per-ly, pri-son-er, ra-ven-ous, sa-tis-fy, se-ve-ral, se-pa-rate, tra-vel-ler, va-ga-bond;—con-si-der, con-ti-nue, de-li-ver, dis-co-ver, dis-fi-gure, dis-ho-nest, dis-tri-bute, in-ha-bit, me-cha-nic, what-e-ver;—re-com-mend, re-fu-gee, re-pri-mand."—Murray: ib., p. 67-83.
3. Correct the division of the following words of four syllables: "ca-ter-pil-lar, cha-ri-ta-ble, di-li-gent-ly, mi-se-ra-ble, pro-fit-a-ble, to-le-ra-ble;—be-ne-vo-lent, con-si-der-ate, di-mi-nu-tive, ex-pe-ri-ment, ex-tra-va-gant, in-ha-bi-tant, no-bi-li-ty, par-ti-cu-lar, pros-pe-ri-ty, ri-di-cu-lous, sin-ce-ri-ty;—de-mon-stra-tion, e-du-ca-tion, e-mu-la-tion, e-pi-de-mic, ma-le-fac-tor, ma-nu-fac-ture, me-mo-ran-dum, mo-de-ra-tor, pa-ra-ly-tic, pe-ni-ten-tial, re-sig-na-tion, sa-tis-fac-tion, se-mi-co-lon."—Murray: ib., p. 84-87.
4. Correct the division of the following words of five syllables: "a-bo-mi-na-ble, a-po-the-ca-ry, con-sid-e-ra-ble, ex-pla-na-to-ry, pre-pa-ra-to-ry;—a-ca-de-mi-cal, cu-ri-o-si-ty, ge-o-gra-phi-cal, ma-nu-fac-to-ry, sa-tis-fac-to-ry, me-ri-to-ri-ous;—cha-rac-te-ris-tic, e-pi-gram-ma-tic, ex-pe-ri-ment-al, po-ly-syl-la-ble, con-sid-e-ra-tion." —Murray: ib., p. 87-89.
5. Correct the division of the following proper names: "He-len, Leo-nard,
Phi-lip, Ro-bert, Ho-race, Tho-mas;—Ca-ro-line, Ca-tha-rine, Da-ni-el,
De-bo-rah, Do-ro-thy, Fre-de-rick, I-sa-bel, Jo-na-than, Ly-di-a,
Ni-cho-las, O-li-ver, Sa-mu-el, Si-me-on, So-lo-mon, Ti-mo-thy,
Va-len-tine;—A-me-ri-ca, Bar-tho-lo-mew, E-li-za-beth, Na-tha-ni-el,
Pe-ne-lo-pe, The-o-phi-lus."—Murray: ib., p. 98-101.
LESSON II.—MIXED.
1. Correct the division of the following words, by Rule 1st: "cap-rice, es-teem, dis-es-teem, ob-lige;—az-ure, mat-ron, pat-ron, phal-anx, sir-en, trait-or, trench-er, barb-er, burn-ish, garn-ish, tarn-ish, varn-ish, mark-et, musk-et, pamph-let;—brave-ry, knave-ry, siave-ry, eve-ning, scene-ry, bribe-ry, nice-ty, chi-cane-ry, ma-chine-ry, im-age-ry;— as-y-lum, hor-i-zon,—fi-nan-cier, he-ro-ism,—sar-don-yx, scur-ril-ous,— com-e-di-an, post-e-ri-or."—Webster's Spelling-Books.
2. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 2d: "oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate;—am-bro-sia, cha-mel-ion, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry;—an-nun-ciate, e-nun-ciate, ap-pre-ciate, as-so-ciate, ex-pa-tiate, in-gra-tiate, in-i-tiate, li-cen-tiate, ne-go-tiate, no-vi-ciate, of-fi-ciate, pro-pi-tiate, sub-stan-tiate."—Webster: Old Spelling-Book, 86-91; New, 121-128.
3. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 3d: "dres-ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam-per, han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy."—Cobb's Standard Spelling-Book. Again: "eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, nee-dy."—Webster.
4. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 4th: "aw-ry,"—Webster's Old Book, 52; "ath-wart,"—Ib., 93; "pros-pect-ive,"—Ib., 66; "pa-renth-e-sis,"—Ib., 93; "res-ist-i-bil-ity,"—Webster's New Book, 93; "hem-is-pher-ic,"—Ib., 130; "mo-nos-tich, he-mis-tick," [112]—Walker's Dict., 8vo; Cobb, 33; "tow-ards,"—Cobb, 48.
5. Correct the division of the following words by Rule 5th: "E'n-gland,"—Murray's Spelling-Book, p. 100; "a-no-ther,"—Ib., 71; "a-noth-er,"—Emerson, 76; "Be-thes-da, Beth-a-ba-ra,"—Webster, 141; Cobb, 159.