XI
OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF COMPOSITION AND STYLE
The following is a fairly complete outline of the essential elements of rhetorical theory as applied in composition work and in a study of structure and style. As such, it is designed primarily for the teacher who desires to review any part of the subject in preparation for teaching composition. Many portions may be used in the class room in a simplified form, to supplement or summarize parts of the text-books in rhetoric and composition. The books to which references are given are in general the most convenient and comprehensive manuals for the particular parts of the subject with which each deals.
The references as abbreviated in the outline are as follows:
(P), Pearson, Principles of Composition. Heath, Boston ($.50).
(W), Barrett Wendell, English Composition. Scribner, New York. ($1.50).
(M), Minto, Manual of English Prose Literature. Ginn, New York. ($1.50).
(C), Cairns, Forms of Discourse. Ginn, New York. ($1.15).
(BI, BII), Bain, English Composition and Rhetoric, 2 Vols. American Book Co., New York. ($1.20 a vol.).
1. Whole Composition
I. SUBJECT. 1. What is it? 2. Is it indicated by title? 3. Is it stated at the beginning? 4. Is it proportionate to the length of the composition? P. 11–12.
II. PURPOSE. 1. What is it? 2. Is it stated? 3. Is it accomplished?
III. INTEREST. 1. Is it an interesting subject? 2. Is it made interesting? 3. How is it made interesting?
IV. KIND OF COMPOSITION. 1. Narration, Description, Exposition, Argumentation, or Persuasion? 2. A combination of forms?
V. PLAN. 1. What are the main divisions of the composition? 2. How is the subject introduced? 3. What are the subdivisions in the body of the composition? 4. How is the composition concluded?
VI. TITLE. 1. Accurate? 2. Concise? 3. Attractive? P. 12–13.
A. UNITY. P. 15–25. W. 155–162.
1. Selection of Material.
a. Subject and Purpose?
Violations of unity of selection.
(1) False Introduction. P. 18.
(2) Tag Conclusion. P. 42.
(3) Digressions. P. 20.
2. Unity of Expression.
a. Point of View? P. 25.
a′. Point of view evident? P. 25.
B. COHERENCE. P. 26–33. W. 162–178.
1. Arrangement. W. 162–166.
a. Order of parts of composition. P. 26.
b. Arrangement evident? P. 29.
c. Announcement. P. 31.
d. Summary. P. 30. cf. P. 44.
2. Connection. W. 173–178.
a. Devices for Transition and Connection.
(1) Transition words, phrases, and sentences.
(2) Transition paragraphs. P. 30.
(3) Repetition.
(4) Parallel construction. W. 174.
(5) Retrospective and prospective reference.
C. EMPHASIS. P. 34–45. W. 166–172.
1. Selection of Material. P. 34.
a. Important details chosen?
2. Proportion. P. 34.
a. Parts given space proportionate to their importance?
3. Arrangement. P. 38–43.
a. Important parts in emphatic positions?
a′. At end.
b′. At beginning.
c′. Summary.
d′. Climax.
e′. Antithesis.
2. Paragraphs
P. 53–60. W. 114–149. M. 11; 53–55; 89–97; 152. BI, 91–134.
A. FORM.
1. Related Paragraph.
2. Independent Paragraph.
3. Transition Paragraph.
4. Paragraph in Conversation.
B. LENGTH. W. 121–126.
1. Short—100 words or less.
2. Medium—100–300 words.
3. Long—300 words or more.
C. UNITY. P. 53–60. W. 122–126.
I. Topic.
1. Definition of Topic (i. e. determination of its limits).
2. Division of Topic (i. e. subtopics).
3. Topic Sentence. P. 57. W. 124.
4. Do first and last sentences give substance of the paragraph? P. 71–75. W. 128.
II. Selection of Material.
1. Topic and subtopics?
2. Point of View?
Violations of unity of selection.
(1) False Beginning. cf. P. 18.
(2) Tag Conclusion. cf. P. 42.
(3) Digressions. P. 56–57.
III. Unity of Expression (cf. Paragraph Coherence).
1. Uniformity of Construction.
Violations.
(1) Needless change of voice or tense of verbs.
(2) Needless change of subject of sentences.
D. COHERENCE. P. 61–70. W. 133–146.
I. Arrangement. P. 61–65. BI, 114–120.
1. Order of Parts.
a. Related ideas brought together? W. 135.
2. Arrangement evident?
a. Subtopic and transition sentences.
II. Connection. P. 65–70. W. 142–146. BI, 94–108.
1. Devices for Coherence.
a. Connective words, phrases, and clauses.
b. Transition sentences.
c. Repetition.
d. Parallel construction. W. 137–142.
e. Retrospective and prospective reference.
2. Position of Connectives. W. 144.
a. At beginning of sentences.
b. Imbedded in midst of sentences.
E. EMPHASIS. P. 71. W. 126–133. BI, 121–134.
I. Selection of Material.
1. Most important parts chosen? cf. P. 34.
II. Proportion. W. 131. cf. P. 34.
1. Parts given space proportionate to their importance?
III. Arrangement. P. 71–78. W. 126–131.
1. Position of parts.
2. Position of important parts.
a. At end.
b. At beginning.
c. Climax.
d. Summary.
e. Antithesis.
F. VARIETY.
1. In sentence construction.
a. Grammatical.
b. Rhetorical.
2. In sentence beginnings.
3. In devices for coherence.
4. In devices for emphasis.
3. Sentences
P. 83–116. W. 76–113. M. 3–11; 50–53; 87–89; 149–152. BI, 55–90.
A. LENGTH. W. 84; 89–94. M. 7. BI, 84–85.
I. Short Sentence—15 words or less.
1. Use; e. g.:—
a. Single short sentence.
a′. Topic sentence.
b′. Subtopic sentence.
c′. Conclusion.
d′. Transition sentence.
e′. For emphasis.
b. Series of short sentences; e. g.:—
a′. Rapidity.
b′. Excitement and suspense.
c′. Abruptness; staccato effect.
II. Medium Sentence—15–30 words.
III. Long Sentence—30 words or more.
1. Use; e. g.:—
a. To group minor details.
b. Climax.
c. Rhythmical effect.
B. CONSTRUCTION.
I. Grammatical.
1. Simple. 2. Complex. 3. Compound.
II. Rhetorical.
1. Loose Sentence. P. 86–89. W. 84–89. BI, 55–63.
a. Effect and use of loose sentence.
2. Periodic Sentence. P. 86; 106–112. W. 84–89. M. 4.
a. Means for securing periodic effect.
a′. Essential parts at end of sentence.
b′. Phrases and dependent clauses at beginning.
c′. Use of correlatives.
b. Effect and use of periodic sentences.
3. Balanced Sentence. P. 112. W. 95. M. 8. BI, 66–74.
a. Means for securing balanced effect.
a′. Parallelism.
b′. Use of correlatives.
b. Effect and use of balanced sentences; e. g.:—
a′. Antithesis.
b′. Epigrammatic expression.
C. UNITY. P. 83–93. W. 96–99. M. 10. BI, 85–90.
I. Unity of Thought.
Violations.
(1) Digression.
(2) Separation of parts of thought into independent sentences. P. 89–92.
II. Unity of Expression. (cf. Sentence Coherence).
1. Relation of Parts.
a. Grammatical construction evident?
b. Parallelism of construction. P. 102–3.
c. Subordination in predication. P. 86. W. 108–9.
d. Implied predicate (no sentence).
D. COHERENCE. P. 94–104. W. 105–110.
I. Order. W. 105–106.
1. Collocation accurate? (i.e. words closely related in thought placed together).
a. Modifiers in accurate relation to modified elements?
Violations.
(1) Squinting construction.
(2) Participle in false relation.
(3) Misplaced adverbial modifier.
b. Reference exact? P. 94–96.
Violations.
(1) Ambiguous reference.
(2) No antecedent.
(3) Disagreement.
c. Correlatives properly placed? P. 100–101.
d. Collocation close?
Violation.
(1) Awkward separation of essential parts.
II. Construction (i. e. elements similar in significance similar in form). P. 102–104.
a. Balance.
b. Parallel construction.
Violations.
(1) Needless change of voice or tense of verbs.
(2) Needless change of grammatical subject.
III. Connection. W. 108–110.
a. Accurate expression of relation of parts by connectives.
(1) Subordination indicated? (cf. subordination in predication under sentence unity. P. 86).
(2) Co-ordination accurately expressed?
E. EMPHASIS. P. 105–115. W. 99–103. BI, 74–84.
I. Arrangement of Parts.
1. Important parts in emphatic positions?
a. At beginning.
b. At end.
c. In other positions more emphatic.
2. Suspense—periodic effect.
3. Antithesis—balanced construction.
4. Climax. P. 113.
II. Subordination in Predication, (cf. Sentence Unity. P. 86.)
4. Words
P. 119–129. W. 50–75. M. 1–3; 49–50; 87; 147–149. BI, 27–54.
A. VOCABULARY.
I. Size.
1. Actual?
2. Relative? W. 50–52.
II. Range.
1. Narrow or wide? (cf. Kinds of words.)
III. Character.
1. General classes of words.
a. Long or short? W. 57–58.
b. Anglo-Saxon or classical? W. 52–57.
c. Common or learned?
d. General or specific? P. 121–129. W. 58–60.
e. Connotative or denotative? W. 71–75.
2. Kinds of words.
a. Literary.
b. Scientific.
c. Technical.
d. Colloquial.
e. Cant.
f. Slang.
g. Coined.
h. Archaic.
i. Foreign.
5. Figures of Speech
M. 11–14; 55–60; 97–104; 152–159. BI, 135–233.
(See Bradley, Classification of Rhetorical Figures, Modern Language Notes, Vol. I, pp. 280–284.)
A. TERM FIGURES (accentuated designation of object of thought).
I. Figure of Contrast.
1. Antithesis.
II. Figures of Resemblance.
1. Simile (resemblance affirmed).
2. Metaphor (resemblance assumed).
3. Personification (resemblance of inanimate to animate).
III. Figures of Contiguity and Association.
1. Synecdoche (part and whole, genus and species).
2. Antonomasia (individual with type of its class).
3. Metonymy (sign or symbol, cause and effect).
4. Transferred epithet (fancied sympathy or participation).
B. MODAL FIGURES (accentuated statement of proposition).
I. Interrogation.
II. Exclamation.
III. Apostrophe (absent addressed as if present).
IV. Vision (absent represented as if present).
V. Hyperbole (statement stronger than intent).
VI. Innuendo (statement weaker than intent).
VII. Irony (statement negatory to intent).
C. SENTENCE AND PARAGRAPH FIGURES (Co-ordination and gradation of terms or propositions):
I. Figures of Co-ordination.
1. Balance.
2. Parallelism.
II. Figures of Gradation.
1. Climax (ascending series).
2. Anticlimax (descending series).
6. Qualities of Style
A. INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES. M. 15–19; 60–68; 104–109; 159–161. W. 193–233. BI, 233–257.
I. Simplicity. Relation to elements of style.
II. Clearness. Relation to elements of style.
1. Perspicuity (general clearness).
2. Precision (minute clearness).
B. EMOTIONAL QUALITIES. M. 19–23; 64–81; 109–115; 162–167. W. 234.
I. Strength. Relation to elements of style.
1. Animation, vivacity, liveliness, rapidity.
2. Nerve, vigor, force, energy, fervor.
3. Dignity, stateliness, splendor, grandeur, magnificence, loftiness, sublimity.
II. Pathos. M. 20.
III. The Ludicrous. M. 23. BII, 236–279.
1. Humor.
2. Wit.
3. Satire.
C. AESTHETIC QUALITIES. M. 23–26; 71–72; 115; 167–169. BII, 280–294. W. 272–307.
I. Melody (sound or modulation).
II. Harmony (sound expressive of sense).
III. Taste.
7. Forms of Discourse
A. NARRATION. C. 58–112.
I. Kind.
1. Narration without plot. C. 58–67.
2. Narration with plot. C. 67–93.
II. Form. C. 59; 78–88.
III. Purpose. C. 59; 68.
IV. Interest. C. 65–68; 69–71.
V. Methods.
1. Number and choice of details. C. 63–64; 89–90. 2. Order of details. C. 65; 88–89.
a. Beginning. C. 65; 86–88.
b. Development. C. 65–66; 74–78.
c. Culmination. C. 67.
3. Diction. C. 66–67; 91.
B. DESCRIPTION. C. 113–169.
I. Kind.
1. Circumstantial. C. 142.
2. Dynamic. C. 143.
3. Suggestive. C. 144.
4. Objective. C. 148.
5. Subjective. C. 149.
II. Subject. C. 123–142.
III. Purpose. C. 113; 147.
IV. Methods.
1. Point of view.
2. Number and choice of details. C. 147–149.
3. Arrangement of details. C. 151.
4. Diction. C. 153.
C. EXPOSITION. C. 170–226.
I. Kind.
1. Subject.
a. Scientific or technical.
b. Popular.
2. Treatment.
a. Scientific or technical.
b. Popular.
II. Form. C. 170; 194–207.
III. Purpose. C. 170–171.
IV. Methods for Term. C. 172.
1. Definition. C. 172–174.
a. Logical definition. C. 174–178.
(1) Complete logical definition.
(2) Incomplete logical definition. C. 182.
b. Incomplete definition. C. 178–186.
(1) Repetition (synonyms). C. 179.
(2) Exclusion (what not).
(3) Comparison. C. 180–182.
(4) Contrast. C. 180–182.
(5) Example. C. 179.
(6) Logical description (particulars and details). C. 185–186.
2. Division. C. 186–191.
a. Classification. C. 187–190.
b. Partition. C. 190–191.
V. Methods for Proposition. C. 191–194.
1. Exposition of terms (cf. Methods for term).
2. Repetition.
3. Obverse.
4. Example.
5. Analogy.