Jews had been living in Arabia long before the time of Mohammed, perhaps as early as the pre-Christian era. Their mode of life was like that of the Arabs. They were divided into tribes, and had fortified places to which they retreated in case of feuds with their Arab neighbors. Like the Arabs they had their warriors, who were at the same time poets. A famous man from the time preceding Mohammed is Samuel ibn Adijah. He is known among the Arabs as a faithful friend, because when an Arab chieftain, one of his friends, sought refuge in his fortress, he allowed his son, who was in the hands of the enemy, to be killed rather than deliver the fugitive into their hands.
Mohammed had frequent intercourse with the Jews, and received from them the first impetus to found a new religion in place of the crude worship of the old Arabs. He laid particular stress on converting the Jews to the new religion, which was to be a universal theocracy. For this purpose he adopted some of the Jewish ideas, customs, and modes of worship, the strict monotheistic idea, the fast of Yom Kippur and the turning toward Jerusalem in prayer. The Jews, however, were offended at his sensuality, and ridiculed him for his ignorance. He therefore became their enemy, and after the capture of one of their forts, killed the inhabitants who had surrendered. All other Jews were expelled from Arabia, which was to be a theocratically governed state, where only the religion of Mohammed would be tolerated.
Under Mohammed’s successors, the Caliphs, Islam rapidly spread over a great part of Asia and the theocratic principle could not be maintained. Under Omar (634-644), who conquered Jerusalem in 637, a law called the Covenant of Omar governing the treatment of non-Mohammedans was proclaimed. By this law the Jews had to pay a poll-tax, and were exempt from military service. In spite of certain disabilities, they enjoyed a relative state of freedom, and, as the literature of the period proves, greeted the rise of Islam as a relief from the oppression they had suffered in Christian countries and in Persia. They also looked upon Islam as the first step toward the realization of the Messianic kingdom. The improvement of their condition was especially manifest in Spain, which was conquered by the Mohammedans in 711.
GERMANIC NATIONS
Beginning with the fourth century, various Germanic tribes settled on the soil of the old Roman Empire, and began to establish independent kingdoms in the fifth century within its limits, until in 476 the last Emperor, who was a ruler in name only, was deposed. In Italy, where Theodoric had founded the kingdom of the Ostrogoths in 493, the Jews were fairly treated, although Theodoric, a fanatical Christian, considered the Jews an undesirable element. He would, however, allow no injustice to be done them, and when a mob in Ravenna destroyed a synagogue in 519, he ordered the city to make restitution; for this he was severely censured by Ambrosius, the Bishop of Milan. The Jews held the rule of the Goths to be preferable to that of the Byzantines, and in the war between these two powers, which ended with the overthrow of the Gothic kingdom (555) they aided the former, and their bravery in defending the city of Naples was highly praised by Greek historians.
After a short period of domination by the Byzantines, the Longobards, another German tribe, conquered Italy in 568. They do not seem to have taken any interest in the Jews, as their government was restricted to members of their own nationality. The Jews, as Roman citizens, were under the authority of the Roman government, which, as the Byzantines could not exercise any authority, was left almost entirely in the hands of the Bishop of Rome, the highest local dignitary. From the records of this period, we possess information as to the attitude of Pope Gregory I (590-604), in dealing with Jewish affairs. While naturally not in sympathy with the Jews, he insisted that they be treated fairly. Thus, he ordered that a cross, which a Jewish convert to Christianity had placed in a synagogue to spite the Jews, be removed, and when a synagogue had been converted into a church, he ordered an indemnity paid to its former owners. But he very often censured the Frankish kings for allowing the Jews to hold public offices and to keep Christian slaves.
FRANCE
The Merovingian kings who conquered Ancient Gaul in 496 were the first of the Germanic rulers to adopt the Roman Catholic religion. All the others were Arians. In the sixth century they treated the Jews kindly; we hear of a Jew named Priscus, a favorite of King Hilperic (561-584), whom that king loved so well that he wished him converted to Christianity. On one occasion Priscus discussed religious problems very freely in the presence of the King, with Bishop Gregory of Tours, and criticized Christian dogmas fearlessly. In spite of the representations of Pope Gregory I, the Frankish kings entrusted the Jews with offices, such as tax collector, and allowed them to deal in Christian slaves. Church councils, however, as early as the fifth century, legislated against social intercourse between Christians and Jews.
SPAIN
The Visigoths, who ruled over Spain, treated the Jews worse than any other nation at that time. All the mediæval disabilities, such as the seclusion of the Jews in certain quarters and the restriction of their worship, had their origin in that country. Frequently we hear of a law prohibiting the holding of Christian slaves by Jews. Repeatedly Jews were converted by force, and occasionally whole communities expelled. Bishop Isidore of Seville (560-630) wrote a book entitled “Against the Jews,” which was widely read and translated into different languages. His example was imitated in later times. In the Frankish kingdom, Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons (814-840), wrote five books on the Jews, the titles of which show his animus: “On the Insolence of the Jews,” “On the Necessity of Guarding Against Having Company with Jews,” etc. He opposed the law which prohibited the baptism of heathenish slaves owned by Jews and agitated for their social seclusion. Similar was the literary activity of Amolo, Archbishop of Lyons (841-852), who wrote a book against the Jews and dedicated it to Emperor Charles III.
Charlemagne (768-814) is reported to have called Kalonymus of Lucca to Mayence as chief rabbi of all the Jews of Germany; but this report is legendary. Equally unauthentic are laws ascribed to Charlemagne, among them the one imposing upon the Jews an ignominious form of oath. A law of Charlemagne’s son Louis (814-840), required the markets to be held on Sundays in order to make it possible for the Jews to attend them.
The Jews in those days were chiefly traders, importers of merchandise from foreign lands, and slave dealers, and acted as the pioneers of commerce in the countries of Western and Northern Europe.
LITERARY ACTIVITY OF THE PERIOD
The improvement in the condition of the Jews of Spain, which began with the Arabic conquest of that country in 711, made itself felt in their literary activity. Especially was this the case in the Caliphate of Cordova, under Abderrahman (912-961). At his court, Hasdai ibn Shaprut rose to prominence, and, like the Mohammedan nobles of the time, gathered around him a number of eminent authors and scholars. Among them were Menahem ben Saruk and Dunash ibn Labrat, who first laid the foundation for a scientific Hebrew grammar. Their disciples were Judah Hayug and Mervan ibn Ganah, called Marinus. The center of Jewish learning still remained in Babylonia, where, after the conquest of the Persians by the Mohammedans, a revival of learning took place.
The two principal schools were those of Sura and Pumbeditha, and at the head of each was a president, ריש מתיבתא. The one at Sura was the higher in rank, and was called Gaon (excellency), a title which later was transferred to the president of the school in Pumbeditha. The function of the Gaon was to preside over the regular course of studies, Sidra, and the popular extension course called Kalla, held twice a year in the months preceding the Passover and the fall festivals. He further rendered decisions in important cases submitted to him from all parts of the world. A number of collections of these decisions called Teshubot (Responsa), have come down to us. They are written partly in Aramaic and partly in Arabic, according to the language in which the question was written.
The Gaon licensed rabbis, or judges, as they were called, because their chief function was to act as judges in civil cases. These licenses were endorsed by the Exilarch, Resh Galutha, the political head of the communities in Babylonia, representing them before the government and appointing the Gaon. The former, in turn, was appointed by the Caliph, and his office was hereditary as a rule. The oldest literary works of the period are collections of laws regarding matters of frequent occurrence, such as liturgy, mourning, the reception of proselytes, etc. They are known as the “Small Tractates,” and are usually found in the ninth volume of our editions of the Talmud.
Other compendia of the law are the Halakot Gedolot by Simeon Kayara, written in the eighth century, and the Sheeltot of Ahai of Shabha, the latter arranged according to the Pentateuch, and containing some moral lessons besides the legal exposition of the text. The compilation of these works was opposed by the Gaonim, who considered them injurious to the study of the law and detrimental to their own authority.
In the ninth century the first Talmudic dictionary ערוך was written by Zemah Gaon. His work has not come down to us, but most of it was incorporated in the Talmudic dictionary of the same name, written by Nathan of Rome in the eleventh century. The title has also been retained by subsequent compilers of Talmudic dictionaries, including the Aruch Completum, edited by Alexander Kohut (1878-1892). At the same time Amram Gaon compiled the first liturgy, Seder Rab Amram, and thus is the originator of our present prayer-book. The form in which this compilation has come down to us is not as the original left the hands of its editor, for quite a number of later texts are found in it and its order of services is not exactly identical with any of the rituals in use at present. Still, it is the groundwork of the liturgy of Judaism to-day all over the world.
From the same period dates, probably, the first Kabalistic book which we possess, the “Sefer Yezirah” (Book of Creation). It may be called a theosophical treatise, written in the language and form of the Mishnah, and based on the philosophy of the Pythagorean and Alexandrian schools. Its subject-matter naturally makes it obscure; from the tenth century at least it has been commented upon. Legend has ascribed its authorship to Rabbi Akiba, and even to Biblical persons such as Abraham.
In the ninth century we meet the first traces of a scientific literature. Prominent here is Saadya Gaon (892-942), born in Fayum, and called to Sura as Gaon, quite an unusual event. His literary activity extends over the whole field of Jewish literature. He wrote commentaries on the Bible besides an Arabic translation, and on Talmudic topics. He also composed religious hymns, but the most important of all his works is his אמונות ודעות (Dogma and Science), the first attempt at a scientific apology for Judaism from a philosophical point of view. His independence brought him into conflict with the Exilarch David ben Zakkai, to whose dictates he would not submit in a matter which he regarded as unjust; consequently he was deposed. Saadya contended that this act was illegal and excommunicated the Exilarch. The latter proved stronger and Saadya was forced into exile. Later on, however, they became reconciled, and Saadya was reinstated (934).
The last two Gaonim of any importance lived in Pumbeditha. They were Sherira, who died in 999, and his son, Hay Gaon, who died in 1038. From the former we possess a very important historical treatise on the development of Rabbinic law known as the epistle of Sherira Gaon. It was written at the request of a man in Morocco, and was inspired by apologetic motives to prove that the law had been handed down unaltered from generation to generation. From Hay Gaon we have various Talmudic works, many responsa, and a didactic poem. Their contemporary was Samuel ibn Hofni, a rationalistic writer, who rejected the belief in the miracles related in the Talmud. Otherwise the age of the Gaonim is characterized by a blind faith, not only in Bible and Talmud, but also in popular superstitions and in the preservation of superstitious customs. Hay was succeeded by Hezekiah, who after holding his office for two years was put to death by the Caliph in 1040. After this time the office lost all significance. Names of a few of those who held office after this time are found, but nothing is known of their activity, nor has any literary work of this age come down to us.
The blind faith which characterized the period of the Gaonim aroused considerable opposition, culminating in the foundation of a religious sect called the Karaites, בני מקרא “Sons of the Bible.” Their founder was Anan ben David (760) who claimed the Bible as the only authority for faith and practice, and therefore rejected all Rabbinic law. His successors founded a congregation in Jerusalem, and very soon spread in the East. The most prominent teachers of the Karaites are Benjamin of Nehawend, and Salman ben Jeroham, the latter of whom carried on a literary controversy with Saadya. Judah Hadassi, in the thirteenth century wrote אשכל הכפר the standard work of the Karaite law, written in rhymed prose. Other important Karaite scholars are Aaron ben Elijah, who died in 1369, the author of גן עדן, a compendium of the religious law, and עץ חיים, a work on religious philosophy.
In the fifteenth century Elijah Bashjazi wrote another compendium of the Karaite religion entitled אדרת אליהו. By this period a large Karaite community settled in Lithuania, where Isaac of Troki wrote a very able polemical treatise directed against Christianity, known as חזוק אמונה. In 1698, Jacob Trigland, professor at Leyden, made inquiries concerning the Karaites by means of a letter addressed to their chief sent through an ambassador to Poland. He received a reply, דודמרדכי, written by Mordecai ben Nissim. This was, for a long time, the only source of information on the history of the Karaites. The last Karaite author of any consequence was Abraham Firkovitch (1787-1874) of Russia, who discovered and published important Karaite documents. Some of these, however, he forged in the interest of the Karaite claim that the Karaites represent the original Judaism from which the Rabbanites seceded.
At the same time that the Karaite schism occurred, the Chazars, a Tartar tribe, were converted to Judaism. Reports of the existence of a Jewish kingdom had reached the Jews of Western Europe. Hasdai ibn Shaprut wrote a letter of inquiry on this. He received a reply from the King of the Chazars, and these two letters are the chief source of information concerning this remarkable event. Toward the end of the tenth century the kingdom of the Chazars was conquered by the Russians. Judah Halevi, who wrote his Kuzari about 1140, used the story of the conversion of the Chazar King in the form of a philosophic dialogue between him and the rabbi who converted him. The knowledge he had of an independent Jewish state was the basis of the fanciful reports circulated by an adventurer who called himself Eldad Hadani and pretended to be a descendant of one of the lost ten tribes. Their habitation and modes of life he described in a book. He appeared in the tenth century in Morocco, but nothing is known as to what finally became of him.
In the ninth century, the literature of religious hymns, Piyut, begins. The authors of these are called Payetanim (poets). Their works are characterized by arbitrary handling of the Hebrew grammar, by the creation of new words in an arbitrary style, and finally, by obscure allusions to the Midrash. The oldest of these poets are Jose ben Jose and Jannai. Their successor, Eleazar ben Kallir, is the most prolific of all. Of his life we know nothing with certainty.
The literary activity of the Jews of Europe began in the ninth century. The first work is probably the Josippon, a history of the Jews from the destruction of Babylon by Cyrus to the downfall of Jerusalem in 70, which was ascribed to Josephus Flavius. Another anonymous writer, who lived in Italy in the ninth century, is the author of the Midrash, called Pirke Rabbi Eliezer. But the first Jewish author who lived in Europe, known by name, is Sabbatai Donolo (913-982), who wrote on medicine, astrology, and Kabbala.