The human foot and the human hand

EXPLANATION OF WOOD-CUTS.

THE HUMAN FOOT.

Fig.	page
1	9	Bones of foot, with the lower ends of the two leg-bones.
2	11	Bones of the hind foot of a seal, with lower ends of leg-bones.
3	11	The same of the hind foot of a lizard.
4	14	Side view of the pelvis and lower limb of man. A, the haunch-bone. B, the ischium, or part upon which we sit. C, the thigh-bone. D, the knee-pan. E, the tibia, or larger leg-bone, with the fibula, or smaller leg-bone, alongside it. F, the heel-bone. G, the metatarsal bones. H, I, K, the phalanges, or bones of the toes.
5	14	Similar view of the pelvis and hind limb of a horse. The letters refer to the same parts as in the preceding figure.
6	18	Represents a section through the lower end of the tibia and through the heel-bone, the astragalus, navicular bone, inner cuneiform bone, and the bones of the great toe. It shows the arrangement of these bones in the arch of the foot and the disposition of the plates of which these bones are composed.
7	25	The same bones as in preceding, with two connecting ligaments. A, the plantar ligament. B, ligament passing from the heel-bone F to the scaphoid bone E. D the Astragalus. C, one of two small bones, called sesamoid bones, usually found at the ball of the great toe.
8	29	A foot, in an aggravated condition of “flat-foot.” The sole is convex, and so is the inner margin of the foot. It represents also another common deformity, inasmuch as the great toe runs athwart the second toe, which is pressed almost out of sight.
9	38	Front view of the right tibia, or larger leg-bone.
10	38	Right tibia lying on a board. The inner, as well as the outer edge, of the upper end rests upon the board; but the inner edge of the lower end is turned away from the board. In other words, the bone is so twisted that, though the upper end lies flat upon the board, the lower end touches it only by its outer edge.
11	40	Figure sitting upon the heel to draw the bow. It is one of a beautiful series of statues in the Glyptothek at Munich. They adorned the pediments of a temple in Ægina, and are supposed to represent the noble actions of the Æacidæ.
12	42	Represents some of the muscles and tendons seen on the inner side of the leg and foot. A, Gastro- cnemius and Soleus muscles. They are attached, above, to the thigh-bone and the leg-bones; below, by means of the Tendo Achillis (a) to the heel-bone; they together form the calf-muscle. B, Posterior tibial muscle attached, above, to the tibia, below, by its tendon (b) to the scaphoid bone. D, process of the tibia called the internal malleolus or inner ankle. F, Anterior tibial muscle attached, above, to the front of the tibia, below, to the scaphoid bone. k, the flexor tendon of the great toe.
13	44	Gives a corresponding view of the outer side of the leg and foot. E, the lower end of the fibula, called the external malleolus, or outer ankle. C, the short fibular muscle attached, above, to the fibula; below, by its tendon (c), to the outer metatarsal bone. I, the long fibular muscle. Its tendon (i) runs, behind the outer ankle and under the instep, to the metatarsal bone of the great toe; it is not seen in the latter part of its course. G, the anterior fibular muscle attached by its tendon g to the outer metatarsal bone. h, the extensor tendons of the toes.
14	47	Foot of a young woman presenting the variety of “club-foot” called “Talipes varus.” The sole is very much bent, and turned inwards and upwards, so that the part of the instep which should be above and in front is directed downwards and comes into contact with the ground.
15	49	Diagram (from Bell’s Anatomy) showing the mode in which the extensor tendons of the toes follow the curve of the ankle and are bound to it by cross straps, instead of taking the direct course represented by the line a.
16	52	Foot and leg from the cast of the Farnese Hercules in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.
17	52	Foot and leg of a Negro.
18	52	Outline of under surface of foot of an Englishman.
19	52	Outline of under surface of foot of a Negro.
20	55	Skeleton of the foot of a Chinese female. From a drawing by B. Cooper, in Phil. Trans.
21–25	57	Sections, from above downwards, through the tarso-metatarsal joints. A, metatarsal bone. B, tarsal bone. C, C, the ligaments connecting the two.
26–29	59	Figures standing, bowing, stooping, and squatting.
30–32	62	Figures walking.
33–35	62	Position of foot in three stages of a step in walking.
36–38	65	Figures running.
39	86	Bones of the left hind limb of an Elephant.
40	86	Bones of the left hind limb of a Hippopotamus.
41	86	Bones of the left hind limb of a Rhinoceros.
42	86	Bones of the left hind limb of an Ox.
43	86	Bones of the left hind limb of a Horse.
44	89	Hind limb of a Gorilla, showing the length of the digits, and the strong inner digit diverging from the others.
45	90	Drawing of stuffed specimen of a Gorilla in the British Museum.
46	98	Section of a foot, showing the disposition of the fibres that run from the bones and plantar ligament to the skin of the sole. At the heel the greater number of the fibres are seen to run backwards from the heel-bone to the skin. At the end of the great toe and beneath the ball of the toe they run, for the most part, forwards, from the bones and plantar ligament, to the skin.
47	103	View of the sole of a foot in its natural state.
48	103	Outline of the sole of a shoe, as commonly made for a man’s foot.
49	103	Sole of the foot of a girl twenty-two years old, distorted by the pressure of the shoe, but otherwise healthy.
50	103	View of the skeleton of a foot so deformed, from above.
51	105	The proper sole for a shoe laid, for the sake of comparison, on the symmetrical sole of the ordinary shape.
52	105	The proper sole pointed at the toes.

THE HUMAN HAND.

Fig.	page
53	110	The bones of the arm (humerus), of the forearm (radius and ulna, the former is the upper of the two, the forearm and hand being semi-prone), and of the hand. The names of the wrist-bones are, scaphoid, semilunar (these two are in contact with the radius), cuneiform (this is in a line with the ulna, but separated from it by an interval in which lies the triangular ligament, see fig. 64, page 134), pisiform (faintly seen in shadow beneath the cuneiform), trapezium (supporting the metacarpal bone of thumb), trapezoid (supporting the metacarpal bone of fore-finger), magnum (supporting the metacarpal bone of the middle or great finger), unciform (supporting the metacarpal bones of the ring and the little fingers).
54	112	Diagram of the bones of the hand with the ends of the radius and ulna. 1, end of radius; 2, end of ulna; 3, scaphoid; 4, semilunar; 5, cuneiform; 6, pisiform; 7, trapezium; 8, trapezoid; 9, magnum; 10, unciform; 11, 11, metacarpal bones; 12, 12, first row of phalanges; 13, 13, second row of phalanges; 14, 14, third row of phalanges; I, thumb; II, forefinger; III, middle finger; IV, ring finger; V, little finger.
55	116	Drawing of the front of the chest and the shoulders, with the collar-bones running across from the upper edge of the breast-bone to the projecting processes of the shoulder-blades.
56	117	The chest and shoulder of an Eagle. A, A, the united collar-bones, or “merry-thought;” B, the coracoid, or “side-bone;” C, the long, slender shoulder-blade; D, the sternum; E, the humerus.
57	120	The head, fore part of chest, and shoulder of a Rhinoceros. The chest is deep and flat at the sides. The shoulder-blade and arm-bone are nearly vertical, that is, they nearly correspond with the ribs in their direction.
58	122	Side view of chest, shoulder and arm (human). The shoulder-blade is prolonged in the direction of the spine, that is, across the ribs.
59	124	Side view of fore part of a Monkey’s skeleton.
60	126	A section, from side to side, through the Elbow-joint, showing the shape of the surfaces of the bones. A, the radius; B, the ulna; CC, the side ligaments holding the radius and ulna to the arm-bone, D.
61	127	The upper limb with the forearm and hand in the state of supination. A, the long Pronator muscle.
62	127	The same in a state of pronation. B, the short Supinator muscle. In this and the preceding drawing a plumb-line, descending from the outer condyle of the humerus traverses the lower end of the ulna and the ring finger.
63	131	Drawing of the biceps muscle. The hand is in a state of pronation. Driving the gimlet is effected by the movement to the state of supination.
64	134	Section, from side to side, through the Wrist, showing the shapes of the bones and the mode in which they are adapted to one another. A, the radius; B, the ulna; C, scaphoid bone; D, cuneiform bone; E, semi-lunar bone; F, line of contact of radius and ulna; G, G, side ligaments connecting the wrist-bones with the bones of the forearm. H, I, K, L, M, metacarpal bones of thumb and fingers.
65	138	View of the superficial muscles on the palmar aspect of the forearm and hand. A, the radial flexor of the wrist. B, the long palmar muscle. C, the ulnar flexor of the wrist. D, the muscles of the “ball of the thumb.” E, the long supinator muscle. F, the long pronator. G, the lower part of the biceps muscle. H, Cross ligaments binding the tendons in their places. (This and the two following figures are from Quain’s Anatomy.)
66	138	View of the deep muscles and tendons on the palmar aspects of the forearm and hand. A, the long flexor of the thumb. B, some of the flexors of the fingers. C, the Adductor muscle of the thumb.
67	139	The extensor muscles and tendons of the wrist, thumb, and fingers seen on the back of the forearm and hand. A, A, A, the abductors and adductors of the fingers. B, B, the cross ligament which binds the tendons in their places.
68	146	Hand holding a cricket-ball, showing that the tips of the fingers and the thumb all reach the same level.
69	152	Diagram showing the distribution of the median (A) and ulnar (B) nerves in the hand.
70	165	Drawing of a magnified section through the skin of the palmar surface of the thumb, including three of the ridges seen on that surface. a, the outer or horny layer of the cuticle; b, the deeper layer of the same called “rete mucosum;” c, c, c, the cutis, with papillæ rising from its surface beneath the ridges and projecting into the rete mucosum; g, g, grains of fat lying in the deeper part of the cutis and in the tissue beneath it. Between f and f are three sweat-glands, each composed of a tube rolled up into a ball or knot. The tubes (h, h) are seen ascending from them through the cutis and cuticle, and opening at the tops of the ridges. (From Kölliker’s Mikroskopishe Anatomie.)
71	170	Section of skin still more magnified. a, Outer or horny stratum of cuticle; b, inner stratum of cuticle, or “rete mucosum;” c, papillary stratum of cutis; d, deeper or fibrous stratum of cutis. The curling tube rolled into a ball at the lower part is the sweat-gland. Its duct is seen ascending through the fibrous structure of the cutis, and presents the coiled appearance of a rope as it traverses the cuticle.
72	170	A few layers of the cuticle and rete mucosum of a Negro, showing the spots of dark pigment in the rete which give the black colour to the Negro’s skin. (This and the preceding from Todd and Bowman’s Phys. Anatomy.)
73	170	Section of a Corn and adjacent skin. a, the cuticle; c, the cutis with its papillæ. The cuticle is seen to be very thick, and the papillæ are somewhat enlarged in the corn.
74	170	Section of a Wart and adjacent skin. a, cuticle; c, the cutis with its papillæ. The latter are seen to be enlarged, or “hypertrophied,” in the wart.
75	174	Vertical section, made lengthways, of a Nail raised from its bed, showing its connexion with the cuticle. a, a, cuticle; d, d, nail.
76	174	Similar section of a Nail lying in its bed of cutis. a, cuticle; b, rete mucosum; c, cutis; d, nail.
77	174	Section of the Cutis from which the nail, the cuticle, and the rete have been removed.
78	176	Transverse section of the Nail and Skin, made vertically. a, a, cuticle; b, rete; c, c, cutis; d, d, lines running through the cutis to the papillæ; e, e, e, lines running through the nail to the rete. (This and the three preceding from Kölliker.)
79	179	Section of a Hair and Hair-follicle. a and b, the cuticle and rete lining the follicle. e, the outer layer, or rind, of the hair formed by closely-plaited scales of cuticle continued upon it from the bottom of the follicle d.
80	179	Piece of the exterior of a Hair more highly magnified to show the imbricated arrangement of the plates or scales forming its outer surface.
81,82	179	Transverse sections of Hairs. (These and two preceding from Todd and Bowman.)
83	181	Section of a Hair-follicle containing a Hair, and with two Oil-glands, g, g, lying near it, and with their ducts opening into it. a and b, cuticle and rete; d, bottom of follicle. (From Kölliker.)
84	187	The terminal Bone of a finger, with a portion of the bone next it, showing the nodulated bulbous end of the former.

CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

By the same Author.

A TREATISE ON THE HUMAN SKELETON,

(INCLUDING THE JOINTS),

With Two Hundred and Sixty Illustrations drawn from Nature.

Medium 8vo. cloth, price £1. 8s.

II.

AN ESSAY ON THE LIMBS OF VERTEBRATE
ANIMALS.

4to. sewed, 5s.

III.

ON THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD IN
THE VENOUS SYSTEM DURING LIFE.

8vo. sewed, 2s. 6d.

FOOTNOTES:

1 Treatise on the Human Skeleton, p. 395.

2 It does not appear that the legend is based upon any peculiar ideas of susceptibility attached to the heel among Eastern nations; nor can the passages in Scripture, that the Serpent shall bruise man’s heel (Genesis iii. 15); “For the greatness of thine iniquity are thy heels made bare” (Jeremiah xiii. 22), be adduced as indicating the existence of such an idea. There are some other myths resembling this one of Achilles; but in them a different part of the body missed the protecting influence. Thus, Ajax was wrapped by Hercules in the skin of the Nemæan lion, and was, thereby, rendered invulnerable, except at the pit of the stomach where the edges of the skin did not quite meet; and he killed himself by running his sword in there. In the Niebelungenlied, the hero, Siegfried, is represented to have rendered himself invulnerable by smearing himself with the blood of a dragon which he had killed. A leaf, however, adhering to his back, prevented the contact of the fluid with one spot. The secret was unwarily communicated by his wife Krimhild to his enemy Hagan, who took advantage of the information to plunge his sword into the fatal spot while Siegfried was stooping down to drink at a rivulet.

The lesson inculcated by these myths seems to be that all men, even heroes, have their weak points.

3 It is a remarkable statement by a correspondent in The Times, Jan. 14th, 1861, that in the pillage of the Summer Palace of the Emperor of Pekin “all the ladies of the Court must have had natural-sized feet, all the slippers found in their rooms being large; not a single cramped-footed shoe was seen.”

4 In Walking the hind leg moves first, then the fore leg of the same side; and both reach the ground before the hind leg of the opposite side is raised. So that at one time there are three feet on the ground, at another two, but never less than two.

In Trotting, especially quick trotting, one foot is raised at the same instant that the opposite one is put down. This renders it difficult to make out the sequence of the movements.

5 In ancient times warriors were wont to cut off the great toes as well as the thumbs of their captives to disable them for further service (Judges i. 6, 7).

6 Why the Shoe pinches, a contribution to Applied Anatomy by Hermann Meyer, M.D. Professor of Anatomy in the University of Zurich, translated from the German by John Stirling Craig, L.R.C.P.E., L.R.C.S.E., price sixpence.

The preceding four figures and the two following are taken from this pamphlet with Mr Craig’s permission.

7 In deference to custom we call the palm the front of the hand; and, therefore, we speak of the thumb as the outer and the little finger as the inner digit: though it would better accord with the ordinary position of the part, with its correspondence with the foot and with comparative anatomy, to reverse these terms.

8 It has been suggested, probably by Punch, that it is called the “funny-bone” because it lies near the “humerus.”

9 In the tribe of Benjamin “there were seven hundred chosen men left-handed; every one could sling stones at an hair breadth, and not miss.” Judges xx. 16. When David was at Ziklag there came to him a company of men who “were armed with bows and could use both the right hand and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows out of a bow.” 1 Chronicles xii. 2.