Every kind of porcelain was made at Buen Retiro, hard and soft paste, white china, glazed or unglazed, or painted and modelled in the style of Capo di Monte. A great many existed imitating the blue jasper ware of Wedgwood, and they also made flowers, coloured and biscuit, groups, and single figures, and painted porcelain of different kinds. Great quantities of tiles for pavements were also made there, which may still be seen at the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez; they are mentioned in the accounts which exist at the Ministry of Finance for 1807 and 1808. We find in these same accounts interesting details of the objects made monthly. In January, 1808, a large number of figures were made, including 151 heads for the table centre which was made for the king, 306 objects ornamented with paintings, 2,056 tiles, 577 objects of less artistic importance, such as dishes, plates, etc. The finest specimens which exist are in the Neapolitan style, and are two rooms at the Palaces of Madrid and Aranjuez of which the walls are completely covered with china plaques and looking-glasses, modelled in the most admirable manner with figures, fruits, and flowers. The room at Aranjuez is covered with a bold ornamentation of figures in the Japanese style, in high relief, painted with colours and gold with the most exquisite details. The figures unite the fine Italian modelling with the Japanese decoration. The chandelier is in the same style. Upon a vase on the wainscot to the right of the entrance door is the following inscription:
JOSEPH
GRICCI
DELINEAVit
ET
SCULit
1763.
This same date is repeated in the angles, and in some shields near the roof we find,
AÑO
1765;
probably the year the work was terminated. Antonio Conca, in his "Descrizione Odeporica della Spagna in cui spezialmente si da notizia delle cose spettanti alle Belle Arti," Parma, 1793, Vol. III., p. 310, says, "Il Gabineto abbelitto di porcellana della Fabbricca del Retiro ha meritato le bodi de curiozi viaggiatori." We also find in p. 119, "Un altro Gabinetto vien chiamato della Cina pel sud principal ornata di bei putti, di bassi relievi, e di altre opere di porcellana della nuova Real Fabbricca del Ritiro." Ponz, in his "Viage de España," Madrid, 1782, describes the room at the Palace of Madrid, saying, "it is covered with large plaques of porcelain made at Buen Retiro. In some are represented figures of children copied from models, and between each compartment looking-glasses are let in." (See woodcut.)
ROOM DECORATED WITH BUEN RETIRO PORCELAIN, IN THE PALACE AT MADRID.
From the establishment of the manufactory in 1759 by Charles III. until 1803 the styles adopted at Capo di Monte had been followed. At the beginning of this century Dn. Bartolomé Sureda went to Paris to learn the manner in which Sèvres porcelain was made. On his return in 1803 he was appointed director of the works at Buen Retiro and endeavoured to imitate the paste and brilliancy of decoration of Sèvres. Two workmen came over from Paris—Victor Perche, and Vivien.
Among the finest specimens of this period of the manufactory are a splendid clock and four vases, two mètres high, with porcelain flowers, which exist in one of the state rooms of the Palace of Madrid. The vases are placed in the four corners of the room. The clock is ornamented with large biscuit figures. A large number of vases exist at the royal Palaces of Madrid, Aranjuez, and Escorial, of Retiro china. They are often finely mounted in gilt bronze with muslin or porcelain flowers. The blue of the imitations of Wedgwood is not so pure, nor is the biscuit work so fine as the English. Gold is often added to these specimens.
We find at the archives of the Ministry of Finance interesting details of a dinner service made in 1798 for Charles IV., and a centre-piece, which probably is that now in the Casa del Labrador at Aranjuez.
When the French made their entry into Madrid in the spring of 1808 they took possession of the position occupied by the royal manufactory. In July of the same year it continued in the hands of the French, who forced open the doors of the laboratory. Porcelain continued, however, to be made there during the reign of Joseph I.; we find in "Travels through Spain and part of Portugal," London, 1808, p. 23, that, the author says, "the gardens of the Buen Retiro are open to the public. In the neighbourhood of these the royal porcelain manufacture is carried on in a large white building." Lord Blayney, in his "Narrative of a Journey through Spain and France in 1810-1814," London, 1814, says that "the royal manufactures of tapestry and porcelain have declined since the death of Charles III. and have now entirely ceased."
We find in "Paseos por Madrid," Madrid, 1815-8, p. 87, it stated that "The English, at the second entry of our troops in Madrid, ruined this building in order that it should not be used as a fortress by the French troops."
Richard Ford, in his "Handbook for Travellers in Spain," London, 1845, says, "Everything was destroyed by the invaders, who turned the manufactory into a fortification, which surrendered with 200 cannon, Aug. 14th, 1812, to the Duke of Wellington. Ferdinand VII., on his restoration, re-created La China, removing the workshops and ware rooms to the Moneloa."
The South Kensington Museum contains an interesting collection of Buen Retiro porcelain of different kinds, of which may be named:
No. 344-'66. A vase of biscuit porcelain, two-handled, with frieze of classic dancing figures and flowers.
Nos. 333, 4-'66. Two small vases for tea, white porcelain, covered with flowers in relief.
No. 892-'75. A pair of vases painted with young bacchanals in rose camaïeu, and gilt.
No. 893-'75. A pair of draped female figures, each holding a cornucopia, standing on an altar-shaped plinth.
No. 894-'75. A clock case, white porcelain, of rock and scroll work, with flowers and groups of amorini.
No. 332-'76. A group of Ariadne and the panther.
No. 1068-'73. A pair of tall vases, with gilt serpent handles, the necks fluted with gold, the upper part of the body painted with classic groups, and with coloured scroll foliage in relief, the lower part painted with leaves and scrolls on white ground. (See woodcut on next page.)
BUEN RETIRO VASE. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
MARKS USED AT THE PORCELAIN MANUFACTORY OF BUEN RETIRO.
Cayetano or Carlos Fumo. The initials and date are graved in the clay under the glaze; the fleur-de-lis is pencilled in blue. On a fine group of children playing with a goat.
1798, Sorrentini? These marks are pencilled in red on a pink cup and saucer, with landscapes painted en grisaille.
Pedro Antonio Georgi? The initials P. G. are gilt; the M crowned in red; the V and M graved in the clay; on a cup and saucer buff coloured.
Provinciale? The letters Po are graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue; on two saucers, beautifully painted with children.
Probably the initial of the king. On two jardinières; the interlaced C's graved in the clay, the fleur-de-lis in blue.
On a group of biscuit Retiro porcelain of two figures representing Painting. The same mark appears on a figure of Apollo, about one foot high. This mark is stamped on the porcelain; the letters are in relief tinted rose colour.
At the room decorated with Buen Retiro plaques at Aranjuez. It appears on a vase in relief, which is placed on the basement to the right on entering. The date 1765 appears on the ceiling, probably the year when the work was finished.
Graven on the clay on a white soft paste bracket painted with coloured flowers belonging to Count Valencia de Dn Juan.
On a cup at the Museo Arqueologico, Mad., painted with landscapes. The initials are of Pedro Antonio Giorgi, who painted from 1802 to 1808.
Engraved on the clay on a plaque of blue biscuit porcelain imitating Wedgwood jasper ware, representing a mythological subject.
On a dessert plate representing a vine leaf at the Museo Arqueologico. The initials appear to be those of Felipe Gricci, a son of the first modeller José, who came with Charles III. from Naples.
LIST OF DIRECTORS AND ARTISTS WHO WERE EMPLOYED IN THE ROYAL MANUFACTORY OF THE BUEN RETIRO FROM ITS FOUNDATION, IN 1759, UNTIL 1808:
DIRECTORS.
- Bonicelli, Juan Thomas, principal Director at the establishment of the manufactory in 1759.
- Bonicelli, Domingo. In 1786 he was Director; in 1796 he solicits his retirement, and died soon after.
- Cristobal de Torrijos, appointed Director in 1797, after the death of Don Domingo Bonicelli.
- Sureda, Bartolomé, Director in 1804, and continues in 1808.
PRINCIPAL MODELLERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS, POSSESSING THE SECRETS OF THE FABRICATION (SECRETISTAS).
- Schepers, Cayetano, first Modeller in 1759.
- Gricci, Carlos, son of Joseph Gricci, came to Spain, 1759. He appears in a list of artists employed in 1764: he died 1795.
- Gricci, Felipe, 1785. In 1802 he was first Modeller.
- Forni, Antonio, second Modeller in 1802.
SCULPTORS.
- Agreda, Esteban, born at Logroño, 1759. He obtained several prizes at the Academy of San Fernando; employed in 1797, and continued to work there in 1808.
- Avila, Ceferino de, employed 1799, and continued there in 1808.
- Avila, Juan de, 1771, and continued there in 1808.
- Bautista, Bautista de, 1759.
- Bautista, Cayetano, 1785.
- Bautista, Juan Lopez, employed from 1799 to 1808.
- Benedictis, Cayetano, 1785, 1802.
- Benincasa, Miguel, 1778, and continues to work in 1808.
- Benincasa, Vicente, 1785.
- Bergaz, Alonso, 1764.
- Bescia, Juan, 1759.
- Borbon, Geronimo, 1802
- Borbon, Genaro, 1784 and 1808.
- Caravielo, Miguel, 1785.
- Chaves, Alonso, born at Madrid in 1741. In 1760 was appointed Modeller, and in 1763 obtained a Second Prize at the Academy, and a First Prize in 1766.
- Chaves, Justo, 1785.
- Esplores, Felipe, 1759.
- Estebe, Antonio, 1778 and 1808.
- Flores, Josef, 1785.
- Forni, Pablo, 1759.
- Francholy, Angel, 1776 to 1808.
- Francholy, José, 1804 to 1808.
- Francholy, Luis, 1785.
- Frate, Carlos, 1785 to 1802.
- Frate, Josef, 1785.
- Frates, Juan, 1794 to 1808.
- Frate, Pablo, from 1759 to 1785.
- Frates, Mateo, 1797 to 1808.
- Frates, Mateo, born at Madrid in 1788. First Prize of the Academy in 1805; in 1829 was appointed Director of the China establishment at the Moncloa.
- Frates, Francisco, 1764 to 1808.
- Fumo, Basilio, in 1759 was Director of the China manufactory; in 1779 he was appointed a Member of the Academy of San Fernando; died in 1797.
- Fumo, Carlos, 1759.
- Fumo, Cayetano, 1759.
- Fumo, Joseph, 1759; died in 1799.
- Fumo, Macedonio, 1759, and continues in 1802.
- Fumo, Bernabé, 1802.
- Giorgi, Pedro Antonio de, 1759, and continues in 1785.
- Giorgi, Carlos, 1785 to 1808.
- Giorgi, Ambrosio de, 1759.
- Giorgi, Antonio, 1795 to 1808.
- Gricchi, Joseph, 1759. In 1766 was appointed Honorary Director of the
- Academy of San Fernando; died in 1769.
- Gricci, Esteban, 1759.
- Guijarro, Dionisio, 1798 to 1808.
- Llorente, Manuel, 1764 to 1785.
- Morelly, Antonio, 1759 to 1785.
- Nofri, Salvador, 1759 to 1785.
- Nofri, Justo, 1778 to 1808.
- Nofri, or Noferi, Juan, 1802.
- Ochogavia, Manuel, 1764. Born in Galicia in 1744; in 1760 won a Second Prize of Sculpture at the Academy, and in 1763 a First Prize.
- Palmerani, Domingo, 1795, 1808.
- Palmerani, Angel, 1799 to 1808.
- Penaba, Joseph, 1793 to 1808.
- Rodriguez, Antonio, 1797 to 1808.
- Sancho, Dionisio, 1788. Born at Cienpozuelos in 1762; won a Prize at the Academy in 1793; was appointed a Member of the Academy, 1796; in 1810 he went to Mexico, where he died, 1829.
- Santorum, Joseph, 1759.
- Sorrentini, Fernando, 1785 to 1808.
- Sorrentini, Rafael, 1785.
- Sorrentini, Francisco, 1802.
- Valentin, José, 1779 to 1808.
- Valentin, Miguel, 1785.
PAINTERS.
- Alonso, Francisco, 1764.
- Boltri, Genaro, 1756. Born in Naples in 1730; in 1759 he came to Madrid with Charles III.'s household, and worked at the Retiro; died in Madrid in 1788.
- Brancasio, Xavier, 1759.
- Brancacho, Domingo, 1762 to 1803.
- Branga, Ignacio de, 1800, painter of figures; he continues there in 1808.
- Camaron, Josef, 1802. Born at Segorbe in 1760; in 1776 he won a prize of painting at Valencia; he was pensioned to Rome, and appointed Painter in Ordinary to the King.
- Castillo, Fernando del, born at Madrid in 1740. He was appointed Painter at the manufactory, and worked there until his death in 1777.
- Coco, Joseph del, 1759.
- Cruz, Mariano de la, 1807, 1808.
- Domeu, Carlos, 1785.
- Donadio, Nicolas, 1759.
- Giorgi, Pedro Antonio, 1802.
- Martinez, Antonio, 1764.
- Martinez, Pedro, 1796 to 1808.
- Nani, Mariano, 1759. His wife received a pension from 1804, probably the year of his death.
- Peshorn, Jorge, 1788, and continues working in 1802.
- Provinciale, Antonio, 1759 and 1785.
- Quirós, Juan José, 1802.
- Rimini, Carlos, 1759.
- Romero, Juan Bautista, 1800. Flowers and fruit; appears in lists of 1802.
- Rubio, Joseph, 1799 to 1808.
- Semini, Francisco, 1759.
- Soriano, Joaquin, 1799. Landscape painter in 1800; continues in 1808.
- Sorrentini, Josef, 1756, probably from Capo di Monte. In 1802 he asks for a retiring pension.
- Sorrentini, Fernando, 1759.
- Sorrentini, Pablo, 1764 to 1808.
- Sorrentini, Gabriel, 1769 to 1808.
- Sorrentini, Manuel, 1785 to 1802.
- Torre, Joseph de la, 1759.
- Torre, Nicolas de la, 1759. In 1802 asks for a retiring pension.
- Torre, Raphael de la, 1759.
- Torre, Juan Bautista de la, 1759 and 1808.
- Torre, Josef de la, 1785 and 1802.
- Torre, Francisco de la, 1796 to 1808.
- Torre, Julian de la, 1802.
- Velasquez, Castor, 1807, and continued in 1808. Born in Madrid in 1768 and obtained a prize at the Academy in 1787.
VARIOUS ARTISTS EMPLOYED IN THE MANUFACTORY.
- Agreda, Manuel, Sculptor, a brother of Esteban Agreda; he superintended the making of biscuit china; born at Haro in 1773; won prizes at the Academy; and was employed at the Manufactory from 1805 to 1808.
- Bautista, Juan, employed to make porcelain flowers from 1785 to 1808.
- Bautista, Francisco, appears in 1802 as maker of porcelain flowers.
- Bautista, Sebastian, appears in 1802 as a maker of porcelain flowers.
- Chevalier, Pedro, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1759, and continued to work at the Manufactory in 1763.
- Escalera, Josef, mounter of snuff-boxes from 1781, and continued to work at the Manufactory in 1808.
- Perche, Jaime Victor, French workman brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.
- Vivien, French workman, brought from Paris to prepare porcelain, from 1803 to 1809.
At the same time that porcelain was made at Retiro and Alcora, other manufactories of a similar kind were established in Spain; but none of them could compete with these. The most important was established at Sargadelos, Galicia, in 1804. One of the finest specimens which have reached us of this manufactory is a large bas relief representing the massacres of the Spaniards by the French in Madrid on the 2nd of May, 1808.
GLASS.
SINCE the South Kensington Museum purchased the largest collection of old and modern Spanish glass in Europe, the taste for and study of this branch of industry has increased to a very great extent. It is evident that this manufacture attained great importance during the three last centuries, and possibly existed at an earlier period; and that glass objects made in Spain possess a special and distinct character, different to those made in other countries. Before the objects at the Kensington Museum were collected, the existence of this industry in Spain was comparatively unknown.
The earliest mention of glass works in Spain will be found in Pliny, who, while explaining the proceedings which were employed in this industry, says that glass was made in a similar manner in France and Spain: "Jam vero et per Gallias Hispaniasque simili modo harenae temperantur."—L. XXXVI. cap. 66.
The next allusion to this industry will be found in the works of San Isidoro. This eminent man lived in the 7th century, and after quoting the observations of the Roman author, gives us to understand that this industry existed before his time in Italy, France, and Spain: "Olim fiebat et in Italia, et per Gallias, et Hispaniam arena alba mollissima pila mola que terebatur." [Divi. Isid. Hisp. Etymologiarum, I. XVI. cap. 16.] It is evident, therefore, from this passage, that glass was made to a large extent in the Spanish Peninsula during the Roman period. This is confirmed by the number of specimens which are constantly found in ruins. We learn also that the manufacture had ceased to exist in the seventh century.
Glass vessels of the Roman period found in Spain are similar in form and manufacture to those which we know were made in France and Italy. This is not to be wondered at, if we remember that the Romans imposed their artistic forms on the countries they conquered. It is impossible to classify the specimens of this industry into determined localities. The study of the glass paste may, at some future period, give materials for such a classification.
One special characteristic of Roman glass may be taken into account to be applied to Spanish glass of a later period. We find ancient specimens constantly ornamented with a sort of thread or line which runs all over the vase. These lines are sometimes made of transparent glass, and sometimes of white opaque glass, termed in Italy latticinio from its milky whiteness. When the industry of glass making was revived in Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, classical forms were copied in this as in other industries; this line ornamentation was copied on a much smaller scale in Italy than in Spain, where it constituted the chief and constant characteristic of glass making. It is an interesting fact that objects of a traditional Moorish form have the greatest amount of lines of this style of ornamentation. We cannot, until this subject is more thoroughly investigated, do otherwise than infer either that the tradition of this industry was preserved in Spain, or that the Arabs imported this style of decoration from the same localities from which it had been copied by the Romans centuries before.
The comparison of these different styles of glass making can be carried out in a most satisfactory manner in London by examining the fine specimens of glass in the British Museum (Slade collection), and the old Spanish glass at South Kensington.
We have no specimens of glass of the Visigothic period. If, as is most probable, glass was used by the Visigoths, they may have imported it from the East, for the text I have quoted from the works of St. Isidore seems to prove that this industry had ceased to exist in his time. The glass paste of different colours must, however, be mentioned, which is set in gold in the Visigothic crowns found at Guarrazar, near Toledo. It imitates precious stones, and was very generally used during the Byzantine period; its occurrence here makes it appear probable that at any rate the tradition of this industry existed in Spain.
From the 8th to the end of the 15th century, during the Mahomedan domination, I infer that the industry of glass making became as important in Spain as that of pottery. No specimens, however, of the earlier period have reached us, and we must judge of what it was from the glass vessels in the Kensington Museum, belonging to the Renaissance period, which preserve their Oriental form, and are of a different style to that of Venice and other localities in Europe.
A most interesting fact, which confirms this theory, will be found in a translation made from Hebrew to Arabic of a work which treats of the virtues of precious stones, Lapidario [MS. Biblioteca del Escorial], quoted by Rico y Sinobas in "Almanaque de la Industria," 1873. We do not know exactly when the author Abolais lived, but in the prologue to this MS. it is mentioned that Dn. Alfonso el Sabio found this book at Toledo, and gave orders to a Jew called Juda Mosca, and a priest, Garci Perez, to translate it into Spanish. The translation was terminated in 1250. Technical details are given in this volume concerning the substances which are employed in glass making, and some of the minerals found in Spain which are used in painting or enamelling it, but as this work was written to explain the properties of minerals, as they were understood in the author's time, he does not enter into any interesting details, or describe the forms of these objects. Another allusion to glass making in Spain will be found in Al Makkari, the Arabian author of "Mohamedan Dynasties in Spain," [London, 1840, 2 vols. 4to], who quotes an Oriental writer of the 13th century, who says, "Almeria was also famous for the fabrication of all sorts of vases and utensils, whether of iron, copper, or glass." (Vol. I. p. 51.)
The tradition of this industry has been undoubtedly preserved at Almeria until the present day, for in this province, and in the adjoining villages of the province of Granada, we find that specimens are to be met with, which possess a marked Oriental form, and are completely free from the influence of Italian models which existed in other localities. The most characteristic specimens consist of jars of two, four and eight handles, bowls with ribs and handles, pilgrim's bottles, etc., of which interesting examples exist at the South Kensington Museum. Woodcuts of several of these are given.
All these objects are decorated with a serrated ornamentation of buttons, trellis-work, and the lines to which I have already alluded which were placed there after the object was made, in the Roman style. The paste is generally of a dark green colour, and when we find these same features in vessels of white clear glass, we may affirm that they are contemporary imitations made at Cadalso or elsewhere, for they are very seldom to be met with in the provinces of Almeria and Granada, and are generally found at Toledo and other localities; it is, moreover, a common condition of Oriental art that its general form complies with a geometrical tracery, and we never find as in Italian works of art, forms and capricious ornamentations which interfere with the symmetry of the general lines, and sacrifice them to the beauty of the whole.
GLASS VASE.—SPANISH, 16TH CENTURY.
I have been unable to find the glass industries of this period mentioned by any contemporary author, but I owe to the courtesy of Sr. Romero Ortiz some interesting details which have been taken from the archives of certain villages, which although of a more modern date prove that this industry existed in these localities. At about 14 miles from the Puebla de Dn. Fadrique, there is a locality called Pinar de la Vidriera, where traces of ovens and scoriæ exist belonging to an ancient glass manufactory, which is likewise mentioned in documents of the municipality as continuing to work in 1620. At Castril de la Peña, a manufactory yet exists where glass is still made, and which has existed from time immemorial in the village. The building itself is decorated with the escutcheon of the family of Hernando de Zafra, one of the secretaries of Queen Isabel, late in the 15th century, who must have purchased it with other lands which he possessed there, towards the year 1492. A gallery, one mile long, which exists at the entrance of the town from whence the sand has been extracted for this manufacture, gives an idea of the antiquity of this industry in this particular locality. It has been calculated that about two tons of sand were used at these glass works every month. At Royo Molino, in the province of Jaen, a very ancient building still exists, now half in ruins, which has been used until very lately as a glass factory. At Maria, in the province of Almeria, several glass manufactories have existed. The oldest, it is believed, was about two miles from the town, and is called traditionally "del Campo," but I have not found mention of it in any document. Three glass ovens existed inside the town: one was established by Vicente Botia, towards the year 1750, which lasted until 1790. Juan Martinez established at about this period an industry of a similar kind near the former one, which continued to work until 1854. The same green glass has been constantly made in these localities, the same forms have been copied, the only difference between the older and more modern specimens consisting in the coarser and heavier quality of the glass.
PILGRIMS' GLASS BOTTLE.—SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.
In treating of the glass manufactures in Spain, where Italian models were imitated to a very great extent, we find very few allusions in contemporary authors of the Middle Ages; it may be because glass vessels were chiefly used with wooden and pottery utensils by the poorer classes, and metal utensils of all kinds by those who were able to afford them. At any rate, it is only towards the end of the Middle Ages that we meet with information concerning this industry, which continues uninterrupted until the present day.
Barcelona is one of the towns distinguished for the antiquity and excellence of its glass. In a municipal edict of 1324, we find a special prohibition that the glass ovens should not be inside the city, owing to the danger they might cause to the rest of the population. In 1455, permission was granted to the vidrieros, glassmakers, to form a guild under the patronage of St. Bernardino, and from this period some of its members figure as holding municipal charges. Capmany, "Memorias," Vol. I. p. 134. According to this author, the special Ordinances of this corporation are not known, but only those which were given by the municipality in 1659. He adds that the master vidrieros required six years of apprenticeship and practice to be admitted to work.
From the 15th century several authors praise the glass made at Barcelona. In a MS. by Jeronimo Paulo, who writes in 1491, a description in Latin of the most remarkable things at Barcelona, he says, "they also send to Rome and other places many glass vessels of different sorts and kinds which may well compete with those of Venice." In the account of Philip le Bel's journey to Spain on his marriage with Queen Joanna we find the following mention of the town of Barcelona: "Et sont là faicts les plus beauls ouvrages de voires (verres) et de cire qui soient faicts au monde. Le Jordi (19 Janvier, 1503) Monsigneur alla au dehors de la ville vioir ung jour où on faict voires (verres) de cristallin très beaus." ["Collection des Voyages," Bruxelles, 1876, Vol. I., p. 257.] Marineus Siculus, who writes early in the 16th century says, "the best glass made in Spain is that of Barcelona," and Gaspar Barreiros in his "Chorographia," [Coimbra, 1569,] tells us, "they made excellent glass at Barcelona, almost equal to the Venetian." At the beginning of the 17th century the authors, Jaime Rebullosa, in his "Descripcion del mundo," [Barcelona, 1603, 8vo,] and Luis Nuñez in "Hispania," [Antverpiæ, 1607, 8vo, p. 279,] continue to praise the glass made at Barcelona, and from that period we find its merit and the vast quantity which was exported constantly alluded to. The fame of Spanish glass must have been justified, for in the "Viage del Cardinal Infante," by Aedo, printed in 1639, we find it stated that when the Infant Cardinal was at Barcelona, in 1632, he went with his galleys to Mataró, four leagues from Barcelona, to see the "glass made there which was so abundantly sold all over the country." The Spanish translator of "La Piazza universale di tutte le professioni," [Madrid, 1615,] adds the name of Barcelona to the Italian author's mention of glass objects made in Venice, saying, "This industry has reached such a degree of excellence at Murano and Barcelona that nothing can be compared to it; there is nothing now which cannot be made of glass and crystal, even cabinets have been made, and castles with their towers, battlements, artillery, and fortifications." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion de España, [Madrid, 1654, p. 243,] repeats the same idea when he says they made at Barcelona, "fine glass which might compete with the Venetian." This industry continued in Cataluña to a great extent in the last century, and was praised by the following writers. The author of the "Atlante Español," [Vol. IV., Madrid, 1778-1795,] tells us that "they continued to make excellent glass at Barcelona, in imitation of the Venetian, with which it might compete," and that this industry was carried out to a great extent at Mataró, Cervelló, and Almatret, all three towns of Cataluña; he says that in this last mentioned town the glass made was "so excellent, and the number of workmen employed was so large, that an oratory had been built in order that the workmen should hear mass there."
The constant comparisons which we find between the glass made at Barcelona with that of Murano suggests two things—that Spanish glass must have been of a first-rate order, and that the form of the glass vessels was similar to those made at Venice. It is highly probable that a great part of the specimens of glass of different kinds which are classified as Italian in several collections, are really Spanish, although it is extremely difficult to point out the difference. In this, as in other branches of industry, the mania for classifying has gone too far, and comparative studies of a more concrete order are necessary; until these are made, the principal fact to be borne in mind in classifying glass vessels is to compare them with objects of a similar manufacture which have been made until very lately in Cataluña, and of which an extremely interesting collection exists at the South Kensington Museum, proceeding from Barcelona, Mataró and Cervelló, (Nos. 149 to 193) which will enable the amateur to see how the industry of glass-making has continued traditionally to be preserved in that province. See woodcut opposite representing a glass bottle, also the central vessel in woodcut on p. 238.
Among the specimens of old Spanish glass we may consider to have proceeded from Cataluña the following examples, forming part of the collection acquired in 1873. Bottles, Nos. 249 to 262, cups, Nos. 336 to 339, and tumblers, Nos. 303 to 305, 312 to 314, and 328, '29. Among these, there are some which are undoubtedly still made in the locality. The most characteristic are the arruxiadós, or borracha, a vessel spirally ribbed with several narrow spouts, used by the peasant girls of the villages to sprinkle rose water in the festival of the patron saint of the district; the porrones, a bottle with a long spout, used by the peasantry for drinking wine; the cantaro, a jug, funnel shaped with wide mouth, handle and curved spout, and the pilas de agua bendita, a holy water vessel of different shapes.
Very few details have reached us of the famous glass works which existed at Cadalso, in the province of Toledo; we know, however, that the glass made there was as excellent as that made at Cataluña, and was compared in a similar manner to the Venetian. The unknown author of "El Crotalon," published by the Spanish Bibliophiles, from a rare MS., in 1871, writing in the time of the Emperor Charles V., mentions "the fine glass made at Cadalso." Marineus Siculus also writes in 1517 in his "De las Cosas Memorables de España," [Alcala de Henares, 1539, fol., Vol. I.,] that "Glass was made in several towns of Castile, the most important of them being Cadalso, which supplied the whole kingdom." It would appear therefore that this glass manufactory was already established in that locality in the 16th century, and we frequently meet with allusions to the excellence of its productions in contemporary authors. The town itself has continually been called "Cadalso de los vidrios." Mendez Silva in his "Poblacion general de España," [Madrid, 1645, p. 40] says: "They make in three glass ovens fine glass of beautiful colours and forms, which can compete with the Venetian." At the South Kensington Museum, there are two fine specimens of glass made at Cadalso—No. 1068, '73, a drinking vessel of white glass, the upper part in form of the Spanish vessel called "bucaro," ribbed and streaked with colours; the stem pineapple shape, with remains of gilding (this is represented in the woodcut); and No. 1082, '73, a bowl of plain glass, the lower part spirally waved, and decorated with scale pattern in gold and coloured dots. Both these objects proceed from a nunnery in a village near Cadalso.
GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
Larruga says in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1791, Vol. X., p. 53,] that "two glass ovens existed at Cadalso, which belonged to the Marchioness of Villena; they are worked by the inhabitants of this town. One of the ovens has fallen into disuse from the beginning of the present (18th) century, and the fame of the glass made there, formerly so renowned for its clearness and variety of the objects made, has declined. In examining the state of this industry during the reign of Charles II. we find how much it had fallen off, for Dn. Antonio de Obando in 1692, undertook to reestablish it, and to make glass vessels, and window glasses as had been made there formerly. It appears that 200 dozens of objects of different kinds were sent out from there yearly." The vase, No. 333, '73 represented in the woodcut is an example of the coloured glass of Cadalso.
GLASS VASE.—SPANISH (CADALSO), 17TH CENTURY.
Glass ovens existed from a very early period in the central provinces of Spain, which probably imitated from the 16th century the productions of Cadalso. We know from papers at the Archives of the Convent, of two of these which paid a yearly rent to the monastery of San Jeronimo de Guisando, from 1478 to 1480. One of these glass works was situated at the Venta del Cojo on the borders of Escalona, and the other at the Venta de los Toros de Guisando.
It is evident that a glass manufactory existed at Toledo, from some accounts which I have found in the Archives of the Cathedral, in which Bartolomé Lopez, vidriero, is mentioned in 1546—Pedro Fernandez in 1590, and Tomas Nuñez in 1660; as furnishing glass vessels, principally lamps for the cathedral. Tomas Nuñez is also paid for "three crosses of crystalline glass." In a letter written in 1690 to Count Gondomar, the celebrated ambassador to James I., (Archives of the Palace at Madrid), I find a glass manufactory mentioned which existed at Cebreros in the province of Segovia. The writer says, "Your lordship knows we have a glass oven here; this week we have made the glass called crystalline, of which I send in a basket sixteen specimens for my lady Dna. Costanza."
Larruga tells us in his "Memorias," [Madrid, 1792, Vol. XVI., p. 222,] "That in 1680 a glass manufactory was established at San Martin de Valdeiglesias, where glass in the Venetian style was made—the glass was excellent. This manufactory was under the direction of Diodonet Lambot a native of Namur. He was succeeded by Santiago Bandoleto, who was by no means as skilful. Glass ovens were also established at the Torre de Estevan, Hambroz, under the direction of Guillermo Torcada." At Recuenco, in the province of Cuenca, glass works existed at the beginning of the 16th century; but in 1722 Don Fernando Lopez de Aragon established a manufactory on a large scale. The glass made there was used by the king and the greater part of the rich people at Madrid. In 1739 two other glass works existed there, which continued their operations during the rest of the century. In the same province several glass ovens existed towards the middle of the last century. The principal ones were established in the villages of Arbetota, Vindel and Armallones; only coarse specimens were made there, but at an earlier period their productions had been, Larruga tells us in the nineteenth volume of his "Memorias," very important. The glass works which we find mentioned in the "Atlante Español," [Madrid, 1795,] were also of a very inferior quality; they were established at the end of the last century at Busot, in the province of Alicante, Hinojares and Carolina, province of Jaen. The "Correo de España," [Vol. I. Madrid, 1771,] mentions an important glass manufactory which existed at Andorra near Alcañiz, and one where glass of an inferior quality was made at Cabra, in the province of Cordova. Cabanilles, "Historia y descripcion del reino de Valencia," Barcelona, mentions the existence from a very early period of glass works at Olleria, a village of the kingdom of Valencia.
The only mention which I have found in which Seville appears as a centre of this industry, is an interesting allusion to the village of Cala, which was represented in a festival which was given to Philip II. in 1578, "with a crystal glass in its hand, and several others at its feet, because a famous glass oven existed there." ["Recibimiento que hizo Sevilla al Rey Don Phelipe." Por Juan de Mallara, Sevilla, 1570, p. 89.]
In the 17th century, during the reign of Philip IV., the glass made at Valdemaqueda in the province of Avila was very celebrated. In a royal schedule, dated 1680, which states the price at which things were sold at Madrid, "the glass made at Barcelona, Valdemaqueda, and Villafranca" are mentioned. We find the glass of Valdemaqueda was sold for a higher price than that made at the other localities.
The principal value of these extracts is to prove that the industry of glass-making existed in these localities; none of the authors mentions the principal characteristics by which the vessels made may be classified. Those made at Almeria and Barcelona are more easily known, for they have kept until very recently their general character; while at Cadalso and other localities of the centre of Spain, the tradition of the Italian models has quite disappeared. In one fact every author agrees, namely, that the glass made in those provinces closely resembled the Venetian, and was completely different to the system followed by the Arabs. It is, therefore, highly probable, as I have already stated, that a large number of objects of glass of different kinds, which have been hitherto considered Italian, were made in Spain.
VASE OF GREEN GLASS, WITH BLACK HANDLES AND RIBS.—SPANISH, 17TH CENTURY.
The following observations may serve as a guide in the difficult task of classifying this group. The specimens of glass vessels most generally met with in the neighbourhood of Cadalso are:—
Objects of white transparent glass, sweetmeat dishes ornamented with ribs, buttons, and reticulated rims with touches of gold.
Objects of clear greenish glass of a paler hue than is made in the province of Almeria, decorated with blue, or some opaque colour (see woodcut); in some instances part of the object is decorated with a rough crackled surface.
Objects of opaque glass with different colours, vases, glasses, cups and saucers, of thin milk-white texture with blue spots, or imitations in the Japanese style of different colours. Vases for holding flowers, and other objects, of dark blue glass, milk-white cups, glass and other objects ornamented with lines of red or blue of a thicker paste than the preceding ones.
Although these objects are copied from Venetian models, they are coarser in every detail, they are heavier and thicker, and the delicate and elegant ornamentation which we find on Italian specimens is almost always wanting, we seldom find examples of the beautiful millefiori chalcedony or tortoise-shell paste, and the outline of these objects is symmetrical and Oriental in style.
The royal glass manufactory at La Granja de San Ildefonso, was founded on the remains of an important one which had been established some years before, under the protection of Philip the 5th, at the Nuevo Bastan, in the province of Madrid.
Towards the years 1712 to 1718, this king commissioned Dn. Tomas del Burgo and Dn. Juan B. Pomerague to establish glass-works at the Bastan; twenty foreign workmen were brought over with this purpose, with their families, and the necessary implements. These gentlemen did not carry out the undertaking to the king's satisfaction, and in 1720 his majesty gave Dn. Juan de Goyeneche special privileges that he might "make every kind of glass manufacture up to the height of twenty inches, and have these glasses worked and polished, embroidered and covered with metal; to make looking-glass and similar decorations, and every kind of glass vessels, and white glass for window-panes, and every sort of glass vessel of different kinds and forms which have been invented in the present time, or likely to be invented in this art." In order to carry this out, the king allowed them to have as many foreign masters and workmen as they might require, with the sole condition that a fourth part of the workmen employed should be Spaniards. It was prohibited that any industry of a similar kind should be established in Spain for thirty years, or that glass made abroad should be imported into the country.
After a long series of annoyances of every kind, Goyeneche succeeded in meeting with the king's approbation, but as fuel was very scarce at the Bastan, he removed the glass works to Villanueva de Alcorcon, in the province of Cuenca. From the ruins of this glass manufactory, Larruga says in his "Memorias," [vol. xiii., p. 274], "was founded the splendid glass manufactory of San Ildefonso."
Ventura Sit, a native of Catalonia, constructed an oven there, which worked from 1728 to 1736 with great success. Queen Doña Isabel encouraged Sit, and the king ordered him to make some glasses which might serve for mirrors. Those he made at first were small, but Sit began by making them 30 inches long and ended by making them as large as 145 inches. The machine for polishing them was invented by a Catalan called Pedro Fronvila.
The section of glass vessels of a superior quality began to work in 1771. Glasses, bottles, and objects of all kinds were made there under the direction of a glass worker called Eder, a Swede, and Sivert, a Frenchman. Another section where the same quality of glass was made was directed by Don Segismundo Brun, a native of Hanover, but who had been brought up from a very early age at La Granja. It was this artist who invented gilded glass a feu. A large number of foreign artists worked at this manufacture; they impressed their special style on the objects they made, which were similar to those of the same kind manufactured in France, England, and Germany.
From the time of Ventura Sit, towards the year 1734, the manufactory of glass at La Granja belonged to the crown, and continued under the protection of the Spanish kings, who spared no expense to obtain its development. Early in the present century this industry began to decay. Towards 1828 it passed into private hands, and continued to work until 1849. The manufactory is now closed, although there is some talk of reviving this industry.
GLASS VESSELS FROM SPAIN, IN THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM.
The glass objects made at La Granja possess a very marked French style, which renders them liable to be mistaken for French and German productions of a similar kind. The greater part of the objects which were made were of white clear transparent glass, richly cut and engraved, or ornamented with gold (see woodcut). The cut glass is generally engraved with inscriptions, views, flowers, and devices, and until very lately has been made there in a rougher style. Coloured and enamelled glass has also been made there, but not to so great an extent. Glass for window panes and mirrors were ordered for the Royal palaces. Lustres of all kinds of white and coloured glass were also made there in the Venetian style, richly ornamented with coloured flowers. A small chandelier of this kind is in the South Kensington Museum (No. 998, '73), the only example I have seen of a lustre of latticinio glass. In the collection of old Spanish glass at the Museum will be found a sufficient variety of specimens of this manufacture to give an idea of the different styles made at La Granja. A fac-simile of one of the engraved mirrors and a fine cut glass will be found in "Museo Español de Antiguedades, vol. IX."
Besides glass vessels and objects of a similar kind, painted glass windows have been made in Spain from a very early time, of which most important specimens exist at Toledo, Leon, and other Spanish cathedrals. The proceedings employed in this industry are too well known to require repetition in this volume. The industry was undoubtedly imported by foreign workmen from France and the north of Europe, and as was the case with other industries it took root in the country, and a large number of Spanish artists followed and took part in this industry.
In order to convey an idea of the height of this industry in Spain, I give a list of the painters who worked on glass which I have collected from the following works, to which I refer the student who may wish for further details on the subject. Cean Bermudez, "Dicc. Hist. de los mas ilustres Profesores de las Bellas Artes en España. Madrid, 1800." Villanueva, "Viage á las Iglesias de España." Piferrer, "Recuerdos y Bellezas. Mallorca." "Documentos Ineditos." Zarco del Valle.
GLASS PAINTERS IN SPAIN.
| Years in which they worked | Artists. | Residence. |
| 1682. | Alcalde | Francisco. |
| 1504. | Aleman | Cristoval. |
| 1458. | Aleman | Pedro. |
| 1645. | Alonso | Francisco. |
| 1544. | Arce, Juan de | Burgos. |
| 1581. | Arce | Burgos. |
| 1613. | Argete, Luis de | Leon. |
| 1424. | Aragan, Maestro Joan | Leon. |
| —— | Arfian, Antonio | Sevilla. |
| —— | Arteaga, Matias | Sevilla. |
| 1516. | Ayala | Francisco. |
| 1605. | Babel | Jorge. |
| 1442. | Baldovin | Maestro. |
| 1519. | Bernal | Juan. |
| 1533. | Borgoña | Jorge. |
| 1439. | Bonifacio | Pedro. |
| 1562. | Bruges | Carlos. |
| 1602. | Campo, Diego del | Madrid. |
| 1522. | Campa | Juan. |
| 1674. | Chilberri, Pierres de | Segovia. |
| 1509. | Cuesta, Juan de | Toledo. |
| 1513. | Cordova, Gonzalo de | Toledo. |
| 1538. | Cotin, Gaspar de | Burgos. |
| 1459. | Cristoval, El Maestro | Toledo. |
| 1566 to 1573 | Dangles, Sebastian | Mallorca. |
| 1676. | Danis | Juan. |
| 1565. | Diaz | Diego. |
| 1418. | Dolfin, El Maestro | Toledo. |
| 1485. | Enrique | Maestro. |
| 1566. | Estaenheyl | Ulrrique. |
| 1565. | Espinosa, Francisco de | Escorial. |
| 1565. | Espinosa, Hernando de | Escorial. |
| 1551. | Ferrera, Rodrigo de | Leon. |
| 1526. | Fernandez | Pedro. |
| 1557. | Flandes, Arnao de | Sevilla. |
| 1494. | Fontanet | Gil. |
| 1459. | Frances | Pedro. |
| 1571. | Galceran, Il Maestro | Escorial. |
| 1518. | Gelandia, Bernardino de | Sevilla. |
| 1608. | Guillermo | Maestro. |
| 1571. | Guasch | Juan. |
| 1674. | Herranz | Francisco. |
| 1520. | Holanda, Alberto de | Burgos. |
| 1548. | Holanda, Geraldo de | Cuenca. |
| 1535. | Holanda, Nicolas de | Burgos. |
| 1509. | Jacques | Juan. |
| 1427. | Juan | Maestro. |
| 1510. | Juan, Hijo de Jacobo | Sevilla. |
| 1458. | Juanico | Toledo. |
| 1428. | Loys | Maestro. |
| 1600. | Ludeque, Diego de | Madrid. |
| 1569. | Menandro | Vicente. |
| 1538. | Ortega, Alonso de | Toledo. |
| 1534. | Ortega, Juan de | Toledo. |
| 1458. | Pablo | Fray. |
| 1459. | Pedro | Maestro. |
| 1639. | Perez | Sebastian. |
| 1559. | Pesquera, Sebastian de | Sevilla. |
| 1600. | Pierres | Antonio. |
| —— | Resen, Pelegrin | —— |
| 1565. | Resen | Renerio. |
| 1500. | Rolando, Alberto de | Avila. |
| 1500. | Rolando, Nicolas de | Avila. |
| 1624. | Ruiz | Valentin. |
| 1625. | Ruiz | Simon. |
| 1368—1369. | Sacoma, Francisco | Mallorca. |
| 1420 to 1447. | Sala, Antonio | Mallorca. |
| 1542. | Salcedo, Diego de | Palencia. |
| 1512. | Santillana | Diego. |
| 1498. | Santillana, Juan de | Burgos. |
| 1392. | San Amat, Juan | Lerida. |
| 1503. | Troya, Vasco de | Toledo. |
| 1579. | Valerio | Octavio. |
| 1562. | Valdivieso, Diego de | Cuenca. |
| 1497. | Valdivieso | Juan. |
| 1538. | Vergara, Arnao de | Sevilla. |
| 1521. | Vergara, Nicolas de | Burgos. |
| 1606. | Vergara, Nicolas de, El Mozo | Toledo. |
| 1590. | Vegara, Juan de | Toledo. |
| 1518. | Vivan | Juan. |
| 1605. | Volui | Gil. |
| 1509. | Ximenez | Alexo. |
| 1458. | Ximeno. | Toledo. |
TEXTILE FABRICS.
THE silence of San Isidoro on the subject of textile fabrics in Spain would lead us to suppose that this industry only became important during the Arab domination; the Moors probably imported this industry into Spain from the earliest times of their conquest. A great number of provinces were famed then for the excellence of their textile fabrics; the most important of them, according to the testimony of Moorish and Christian writers, was Almeria. The Cordovese historian, Ash Shakandi, who wrote at the beginning of the 13th century, says: "Almeria is an opulent and magnificent city, whose fame has spread far and wide; the inhabitants are very elegant in their dress. Almeria is the greatest mart in Andalus, Christians of all nations came to its port to buy and sell, and they had factories established in it. From thence the Christian merchants who came to its port travelled to other parts in the interior of the country, where they loaded their vessels with such goods as they wanted. Costly silken robes of the brightest colours are manufactured in Almeria," [Moh. Dyn. in Spain, I. 52]. Almakkari adds, [p. 51]: "But what made Almeria superior to any other city in the world was its various manufactures of silks and other articles of dress, such as the dibaj [silken stuff of many colours], a sort of silken cloth surpassing in quality and durability anything else manufactured in other countries; the tiraz or costly stuff on which the names of sultans, princes, and other wealthy individuals are inscribed, and of which no less than 800 looms existed at one time; of more inferior articles such as the holol (striped silks) and brocades, there were 1000 looms, the same number were continually employed in weaving the stuffs called iskalátón (scarlet). There were also 1000 for weaving robes called Al jorjáni (Georgian), and another 1000 for weaving robes called Isbahani, from Isfahan, and a similar number for Atabi. The manufacture of damask for curtains and turbans for the women, of gay and dazzling colours, employed a number of hands equal to that of those engaged in the manufacture of the above mentioned articles."
An oriental author asserts that Abd-ul-Rahman II. A.D. 825-852 was the first sultan of his race who introduced into Spain the use of the tiraz [ib. Vol. II. 434]. Another explains that Atabi took the name of a suburb of Bagdad "where were made the stuffs called otabi, composed of cotton and silk of different colours." [Consult Dozy, 'Dict. des vêtements.']
Ash Shakandi also mentions Malaga as famous for its textile fabrics; he says—"Malaga is also famous for its manufactures of silks of all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a suit made out of them will cost many thousands; such are the brocades with beautiful drawings, and the names of khalifs, amirs, and other wealthy people, woven in them." [Moham. Dynast. Vol. I. 49.] Further on the same writer adds, "As at Malaga and Almeria, there are at Murcia several manufactures of silken cloth called al washiu thalathat, [variegated, of many colours.] It is likewise famous for the fabric of carpets called tantili, which are exported to all countries of the east and west; as also a sort of mat, of the brightest colours, with which the Murcians cover the walls of their houses." [ib. p. 69.]
Arabic texts are frequently met with which allude to the manufactures of textile fabrics of Granada, Seville, and other towns, in which their productions are praised, and there is no doubt that they were very remarkable; for Christian authors of the middle ages refer to them so continually. Students who wish for a more extensive idea of this subject must remember the quotations and information given by Francisque Michel concerning Spanish stuffs, [Recherches sur le Comm., la Fabric. etc., des Etoffes, etc. Paris, 1852.] He tells us—"Nous trouverons tout d'abord les pailles d'Almérie, ville de la côte meridionale d'Espagne, qui jouissait d'une réputation proverbiale pour la beauté et la finesse de ses tissus de soie, vantés dans mille endroits de nos vieilles chansons de geste, de nos anciens poëmes" [Vol. I. p. 284]. Further on he continues [Vol. I. p. 286], "à l'époque à laquelle appartiennent les textes, et même auparavant, la culture et la fabrication de la soie étaient des plus prospères à Almérie et en général dans le royaume de Grenade. 'Du royaume de Grenade vient cire, soie, figues, etc.' ... ce qu'il y a de bien certain, c'est que les étoffes d'Espagne étaient célèbres dès le 9e siècle. Anastase le Bibliothécaire en parle en quatre endroits sous le nom de spaniscum; et en placant ce tissu à la suite de fundatum et du stauracin il nous donne suffisamment à entendre qu'il était de grand prix, et de soie comme eux. Un biographe de Saint Ansegise, mort en 835, placé de même une couverture d'Espagne, stragulum, Hispanicum unum, à la suite de tapis ou teintures.
"Il est malaise de déterminer la matière des étoffes qu'un écrivain byzantin du 12e siècle nous dit fabriquées en Espagne et aux colonnes d'Hercule—tout nous permet de croire qu'elles étaient de soie de tout ou en partie, ou du moins qu'elles étaient comptées parmi les tissus précieux.... Saragosse produisait aussi des draps d'or—et nous trouvons au 13e siècle que le géographe Edrisi pouvait dire qu'il y avait dans le seul territoire de Jaen 3000 villages où l'on élevait des vers de soie. Nous savons qu'à Seville, sous la domination des Maures, elle comptait 6000 métiers pour ces étoffes de soie. Les règlements municipaux dont les royaumes de Grenade et de Seville ont été l'objet suffisaient pour nous apprendre que l'industrie de la soie fut florissante durant le moyen âge. Nous signalerons les draps d'or et de soie que D. Pedro de Luna en 1327 apporta à l'infante Léonore, sœur d'Alphonse XI., à l'occasion de son mariage, et nous savons qu'un ministre de Pedro le cruel possédait à Toledo 125 coffres de drap d'or et de soie."
Edrisi in his "Déscrip. de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne," [Leyde, 1866,] writing in the 12th century, says p. 239: "Almérie était la ville principale des Musulmans à l'Espagne des moravides. Elle était alors très industrieuse, et on y comptait entre autres 800 métiers à tisser la soie, où l'on fabriquait des étoffes connus sous le nom de holla, de debady, de siglaton, d'espahani, de djordjani: des rideaux ornés de fleurs, des étoffes ornés de clous, de petits tapis, des étoffes connus sous les noms de attabi, de mi djar."
To complete this historical information, and especially in order to add details as to the technical character of this manufacture, the Rev. Daniel Rock's interesting introduction to "Textile Fabrics, a Descriptive Catalogue, London, 1870," must be consulted; although, notwithstanding the learned author's remarks, it is extremely difficult, in my opinion, to classify textile fabrics proceeding from Syria, Sicily, or the Spanish Arabs, as all, whether imitations or originals, are similar in manufacture.
M. Michel and Dr. Rock enter into numerous details concerning the ancient names of stuffs, and in order further to illustrate this subject I venture to propose a different etymology than the one given by these writers of the word Samit, Samitum, or Xamet, which, although slightly different in orthography, is met with everywhere in Europe. My opinion is that it means stuff made at Damascus, for the word Sham is applied to the name of this town as well as to that of Syria, and the appellative Shami and Shamit appears in the lexicon to express what comes from Damascus or Syria.
The oldest specimen which I know of Spanish Arab textile fabric, is a woollen fragment of very fine quality embroidered in colours, which is at the Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid. It is about 1½ yards long, by 18 inches wide. In medallions embroidered in silks are represented seated figures which appear to be a king, a lady, lions, birds, and quadrupeds. In two borders occurs the following inscription, repeated in cufic characters: "In the name of God, clement and merciful: The blessing of God and happiness for the caliph Iman Abdallah Hixem, favoured of God, prince of believers."
Hixem reigned from A.D. 979 until the first years of the 11th century. This fragment was found inside a small casket on the altar of a church in the town of San Esteban de Gormaz, province of Soria, where it was probably taken as a war trophy: it may be classified as a stuff called tiraz the skirt of a robe. An oriental author tells us that among the customs which contribute to give splendour to sovereignty is that of putting the name, or some other sign belonging to kings on the stuffs of their robes; that these inscriptions are woven into the material with gold or coloured thread of a different hue to the ground, and that royal robes were always made of tiraz. The caliphs of Cordova had a place set apart in their palaces where this stuff was kept: this custom lasted until the 11th century when it disappeared, and was re-established in the 13th century with the kings of Granada. (Moh. Dyn. vol. i., pp. 356 and 397; Mus. Esp. de Ant. vol. vi. pp. 464 and 465.)
Another most important object, although less ancient than the former one, is an Arabian banner which is traditionally believed to have been taken from the Almohades at the battle of Las Navas, A.D. 1212. This banner, which is preserved at the monastery of Las Huelgas of Burgos, is ten feet high by seven feet three inches wide. It is made of a crimson stuff, covered with an ornamentation woven and embroidered in gold and colours. In the centre is a large circle, placed within a square, which is enlarged in parallel bands. The four largest bands, which are also the last, are covered with inscriptions in blue African characters. The upper part of this banner is prolonged with several bands, one of which has inscriptions of a similar kind to those already mentioned; other borders contain several sentences in small African letters. The lower part is also prolonged and is terminated by eight points cut in a semicircle, inside which there are discs with illegible inscriptions. Three violet coloured lions, similar in form to those which appear on the arms of Leon, may be seen on three of the sides of the square. In the large circle in the centre of this banner, appears eight times repeated the word "The Empire," This inscription is embroidered or woven in Cufic characters, in a similar style to those at the Alhambra; it is a strange circumstance that the letters appear on the wrong side, as if this was the back of the stuff; the word which seems to be required to complete this sentence, "God," is also wanting. The large inscriptions in blue of the five bands reproduce Suras of the Koran, and pious sentences in one of the small ones on the upper part. Sr. Fernandez, who has published an article on this banner in Mus. Esp. [vol. vi., p. 469], thinks he finds a date which corresponds with the year A.D. 1140. I am not, however, satisfied with his interpretation of the inscription contained in the large centre circle, or the date he gives; for comparing the ornamentation of this specimen with other textiles, and the designs used in Moorish architecture, it appears to me that it must be considered as belonging to the 14th century. This may be easily accounted for by some historical mistake in the tradition respecting it at the convent of Las Huelgas. It is highly probable that King Alfonso XI. may have given this banner to the convent, and have been mistaken for King Alfonso VIII.; the conqueror of the battle of Las Navas.
The specimens of Spanish moresco stuffs in the Kensington Museum, will be found numbered 51, 121, 124, 125, 152, 160, 180, 241, 244. (V. Dr. Rock's Catalogue.)
The artistic industry of silk manufactures which was initiated in Spain by the Arabs, continued to flourish during the Middle Ages and a great part of the Renaissance. Malaga and Almeria were important centres, but later on this industry was chiefly centred at Granada. The silk fabrics made at Seville, Toledo, Murcia and Valencia were much esteemed. The Moorish style of ornamentation in embroideries and stuffs must soon have fallen into disuse. Owing to the materials of similar kinds imported from Italy, France, Flanders, and other countries, these manufactures were imitated to a great extent, as may be gathered by the immense number of specimens which are still to be met with in Spanish churches. The cathedral of Toledo is quite a museum of objects of this kind, but all the textiles there are woven in the European manner.
The Moorish style in stuffs was preserved at Granada longer than in any other town in Spain. In 1502, ten years after its conquest by the Christians, we find it stated in the "Voyage of Philip le Beau," the father of the Emperor Charles V.: "Grenade est fort marchande, principallement de soyes, car les marchans y achattent la pluspart des soyes que l'on maine en Italie, pour faires les draps de soyes. Le lieu où on les vendt est nommé le Sacquatin. Auprès de ce lieu est une place appellée l'Allecasserie, où on vendt les draps de soyes ouvrés à la Moresque, qui sont moult beaus pour la multitude des couleurs et la diversité des ouvrages, et en font une grande marchandise." ["Collect. de Voyages, par M. Gachard, Bruxelles," 1870, i. 205.] Navagiero, who visited Spain twenty years after, tells us in his "Viaggio fatto in Spagna" [Vinegia 1563, p. 21]: "One enters a place called Alcaiceria which is enclosed within two doors, and full of alleys where the Moors sell silks and embroideries of every kind" [p. 29]: "All sorts of cloths of silks are made there; the silks made at Granada are much esteemed all over Spain; they are not so good as those which come from Italy. There are several looms, but they do not yet know how to work them well; they make good taffetas, sarcenet, and silk serges. The velvets are not bad, but those that are made at Valencia are better in quality."
Dr. Rock considers the following specimens in the Kensington Museum to have been made at Granada: Nos. 26, 27, 60, 65, 73, 128, 161, 166.
Larruga tells us in his "Memorias" [vol. vii. 205], that the silk manufactures established at Toledo consumed in 1480 about 450,000 pounds of silk: they decreased about forty years afterwards. In the ordinances issued from that town in 1494, which were confirmed by the Emperor Charles V. we find that the following stuffs were made at Toledo: