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The lands of silence

Chapter 80: I. Arctic
By Sir Clements R. Markham
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About This Book

A sweeping historical account recounts how the polar regions were progressively explored and understood, tracing voyages from early contact through later systematic expeditions. It examines the physical environment of ice, icebergs, and polar seas alongside descriptions of indigenous communities and their lifeways. The narrative surveys reconnaissance, searches, and scientific campaigns, detailing advances in navigation, mapping, and observational techniques that expanded geographic and oceanographic knowledge. Illustrated plates, maps, chronological tables, and biographical sketches support chapters that balance adventure, logistical challenges, and evolving scientific aims in both Arctic and Antarctic contexts.

I. Arctic

Year Explorer Ship Nationality Locality213
1553 Willoughby and Chancellor Bona Esperanza and others British Sea N. of Europe
1556 Stephen Burrough Searchthrift „ Kara Strait
1576–78
(3 voyages)		 Frobisher Gabriel and others „ Baffin Land
1580 Pett and Jackman George and William „ Novaya Zemlya
1584 Brunel   Dutch „
1585–87
(3 voyages)		 Davis Sunshine, Moonshine, etc. British Davis Straits
1594–95
(2 voyages)		 Nai, Tetgales, Barents (1) Swan, Mercury;
(2) Griffin, Hope, Greyhound		 Dutch Novaya Zemlya
1596–97 Heemskerck, Rijp, Barents „ Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya
1606 Knight Hopewell British Greenland
1607–08 Hudson „ „ Greenland, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen
1609 „ Half-moon Dutch Novaya Zemlya, Hudson River
1610 „ Discovery British Hudson Bay
1610–14
(various voyages)		 Poole, Edge, Joseph, Marmaduke, Baffin Various „ Spitsbergen
1612 Button Resolution and Discovery „ Hudson Bay
1615–16
(2 voyages)		 Bylot and Baffin Discovery „ Baffin Bay, etc
1617 Edge   „ Spitsbergen
1619–20 Munk   Danish Hudson Bay
1631–32 Foxe and James Charles and Maria British „
1644–48 Stadukhin, Alexeief, Deshnef, Ankudinof   Russian N. Siberian coast
1664 Vlamingh   Dutch Novaya Zemlya
1676–77 Wood Speedwell and Prosperous British „
1707 Gillis   Dutch N.E. Spitsbergen
1710 Permakof   Russian N. Siberian coast
1734–42 Paulof, Mlyagin, Owzin, Minin, Sterlegof, Laptef, Chelyuskin   „ „
1742 Middleton Furnace and Discovery British Hudson Bay
1746–47 Moore and Smith Dobbs and California „ „
1770 Liakhof   Russian New Siberia Islands
1773 Phipps Racehorse and Carcass British Greenland Sea
1776–7 Pickersgill, Young Lion „ Baffin Bay
1805–10 Hedenström, Sannikof, etc.   Russian New Siberia Islands
1815–18 Kotzebue Rurik „ Bering Sea
1818 Ross (John) Isabella and Alexander British N.W. Passage
1818 Buchan and Franklin Dorothea and Trent „ Greenland Sea
1819–20 Parry Hecla and Griper „ Melville Island
1819–22 Franklin and others (land) „ Arctic Canada
1820–23 Wrangel and Anjou   Russian Siberian Polar Sea
1821–23 Parry Fury and Hecla British American Archipelago
1821–24 Lütke Novaya Zemlya   Russian Novaya Zemlya
1822 Scoresby Baffin British E. Greenland
1824–25 Parry Hecla and Fury „ American Archipelago
1825–28 Beechey Blossom „ Point Barrow, etc.
1827 Parry Hecla „ Sea N. of Spitsbergen
1829–33 Ross (John and James C.) Victory „ N.W. Passage and Magnetic Pole
1833–34 Back (land) „ Great Fish River
1837–38 Dease and Simpson   „ Baffin Bay, etc.
1845–51 Franklin Erebus and Terror „ N.W. Passage
1848–51 Kellett Herald and Plover „ Franklin Search
1848–49 Ross (James C.) with M’Clure and M’Clintock Enterprise and Investigator „ „
1850–51 De Haven (Grinnell Exp.), Advance and Rescue American „
1850–51 Austin, Osborn, Ommanney etc. Assistance, Intrepid, Pioneer, Resolute British „
1850–54 M’Clure and Collinson Investigator and Enterprise „ „
1852–53 Inglefield Phoenix „ Beechey Island
1852–54 Belcher, Osborn, M’Clintock, Richards, Pullen Resolute, Pioneer, Intrepid, Assistance, North Star „ Franklin Search
1853–54 Rae   „ „
1853–55 Kane (2nd Grinnell Exp.) Advance American Smith Sound
1857–59 M’Clintock Fox British Franklin Search
1858–62 Torell, Nordenskiöld, etc. Various Swedish Spitsbergen and Greenland
1860–61 Hayes United States American Grinnell Land and N. Greenland
1864–69 Hall Monticello „ American Archipelago
1868 Nordenskiöld (A. E.) Sofia Swedish Bear Island and Spitsbergen
1868 Koldewey Germania German E. Greenland
1869 Palliser Laurel Anglo- Norwegian Kara Sea
1869–70 Koldewey and Hegemann Germania and Hansa German E. Greenland
1871–73 Hall Polaris American Smith Sound and Robeson Channel
1872–74 Weyprecht and Payer Tegetthoff Austrian Franz Josef Land
1874–95 Wiggins Various British Sea route to Siberia
1875–77 Nares and others Alert and Discovery „ Grant Land and N. Greenland
1875–76 Allen Young Pandora „ Lancaster and Smith Sounds
1878–80 Nordenskiöld (A. E.) Vega Swedish N.E. Passage
1879–82 De Long Jeannette American New Siberia Islands, etc.
1880–82 Leigh Smith Eira British Franz Josef Land
1881–84 Greely Proteus American Lady Franklin Bay, etc.
1885–86 Bunge and Toll   Russian New Siberia Islands
1888 Nansen (land) Norwegian S. Greenland
1891–92 Peary Kite American N. Greenland
1893 Toll   Russian New Siberia Islands, etc.
1893–95 Peary Falcon American N. Greenland
1893–96 Nansen Fram Norwegian Across Polar Basin
1894–97 Jackson Windward British Franz Josef Land
1896–97 Conway Express „ Spitsbergen
1897 Peary Hope American Cape York Meteorite
1898–99 Amdrup   Danish E. Greenland
1898–1902 Peary Windward American Sea N. of Greenland
1898–1902 Sverdrup Fram Norwegian American Archipelago
1899 Makarof Yermak Russian Kara Sea, etc.
1899 Nathorst Antarctic Swedish Jan Mayen and E. Greenland
1899–1900 Duke of Abruzzi Stella Polare Italian Franz Josef Land and Sea to North
1900 Amdrup Antarctic Danish E. Greenland
1900–1901 Baldwin (1st Ziegler Exp.) America American Franz Josef Land
1900–1902 Toll Sarya Russian New Siberia Islands
1903–1905 Amundsen Gjöa Norwegian N. Magnetic Pole and N.W. Passage
1903–1905 Fiala (2nd Ziegler Exp.) America American Franz Josef Land
1905–1906 Peary Roosevelt „ Ocean N. of Greenland
1906–1907 Bernier Arctic Canadian American Archipelago
1906–1908 Mikkelsen Duchess of Bedford Anglo- American- Danish Beaufort Sea
1906–1908 Mylius Erichsen Danmark Danish N.E. Greenland
1908–1909 Peary Roosevelt American N. Pole
1908–12 Stefansson and Anderson (land) Icelandic Canadian Arctic Canada
1909–12 Mikkelsen Alabama Danish N.E. Greenland
1912 Rasmussen (land) „ N. Greenland
1912 De Quervain „ Swiss S. Greenland
1913 Koch „ Danish Central Greenland
1913 Vilkitski Taimuir and Vaigach Russian Siberian Arctic Ocean
1913–17 Macmillan Erik American Greenland, Ellesmere Island and Sea to north
1913–17 Stefansson, Anderson, and Bartlett Karluk, Mary Sachs, Polar Bear, etc. Canadian American Archipelago and Beaufort Sea
1914–15 Vilkitski Taimuir and Vaigach Russian N.E. Passage (E. to W.)
1917 Rasmussen (land) Danish N. Greenland
1918 Storkersen (ice) Canadian Beaufort Sea

II. Antarctic (including near approaches to Antarctic Circle)

Year Explorer Ship Nationality Locality214
1772–75 Cook Resolution and Adventure British Southern Ocean
1819–21 Bellingshausen Vostok and Mirnyi Russian „
1819–20 Smith Williams British South Shetlands
1820 Bransfield Andromache „ „
1820–22
(2 voyages)		 Pendleton, Palmer, etc. Frederick, Hero, etc. American South Shetlands, Palmer Land, Powell Islands
1821–22 Powell Dove British South Orkneys
1822–23 Weddell Jane and Beaufoy „ Weddell Sea, etc.
1822–23 Morrell Wasp American Southern Ocean
1837–40 D’Urville Astrolabe and Zelée French Southern Ocean and lands to South
1838–39 Balleny Eliza Scott British Balleny Islands, etc.
1839–40 Wilkes Vincennes and others American Wilkes Land, etc.
1839–43 Ross (James C.) Erebus and Terror British Ross Sea and Victoria Land
1873–74 Dallmann Grönland German Graham Land, etc.
1874 Nares Challenger British Southern Ocean
1892–93 Fairweather, Bruce, etc. Balaena, Active and others „ Graham Land, etc.
1893–94 Larsen and others Jason, etc. Norwegian -German „
1894–95 Kristensen and Bull Antarctic Norwegian Victoria Land
1897–99 Gerlache and others Belgica Belgian Graham and Alexander Lands
1898–1900 Borchgrevink Southern Cross British Victoria Land
1901–03 Drygalski Gauss German William II Land
1901–03 Nordenskjöld Antarctic Swedish Graham Land, etc.
1901–04 Scott Discovery British Victoria Land
1902–04 Bruce Scotia „ Weddell Sea and Coats Land
1902–04 Charcot Français French Graham Land, etc.
1907–09 Shackleton Nimrod British Towards South Pole
1908–10 Charcot Pourquoi-pas? French Graham Land, etc.
1910–12 Amundsen Fram Norwegian South Pole
1910–13 Scott Terra Nova British South Pole
1911–12 Filchner Deutschland German Weddell Sea and Luitpold Land
1911–13 Mawson and Davis Aurora Australian Lands south of Indian Ocean
1914–16 Shackleton Endurance and Aurora British Weddell Sea