Panelling.—To avoid the difficulties which would result from the swelling, shrinking, and warping of wide surfaces in furniture it is common practice to make use of the panel. The design of the panel is easily understood. It consists of a framework of ordinary thickness, put together usually with mortise and tenon joints. The inside edges of this framework are grooved, and into the groove is fitted a piece of stock generally thinner than the frame which fills the space between the sides of the frame. The panel board may be in one piece of wide stock or it may be glued up. It may be of very thin stock inset on both sides of the panel, or it may be of thicker stock inset only on one side, and perhaps not inset on either side, in which case only the edges of the board are made thin enough to run in the groove of the panel frame. In this problem the panel board is to be made of 1⁄2-inch stock, flat on the outside, and inset 1⁄4 of an inch. The back of the panel board is flush with the frame and is chamfered off to give the necessary tongue all around to run in the groove. The narrow stock of the framework is not likely to swell or shrink appreciably and, if well constructed, cannot become warped or twisted. The panel, on account of its greater width, may and generally does swell and shrink considerably; but it should be fitted to move easily in the grooves so that its changes may not be noticeable. Should it be desired to finish the panels with a moulding this should be nailed to the rails, not to the panel board.
Danger in the Power Saw.—The panel frame may be constructed by hand, but if a circular saw be available it will be found of great service. Beginners, however, should employ the services of an expert sawyer and not assume the great risk involved in the use of a circular saw or even a band saw, especially if these saws are without guards. The necessary operations should be carefully laid out on the partially finished stock, with a good square and gauge. A combination plane is quite essential for cutting the grooves; and this carries its own gauge. Care should be taken to make all measurements from the centre of the piece, and gauge and square always from the face sides and from the face edges of the joints. The cuts that it is necessary to make for the joints are indicated in the drawing. In gluing up, the directions already given in the section on gluing should be followed.
Sand-papering.—There is a legitimate use for sand-paper in the finishing stages of the work on this desk, as there is, in fact, in almost every kind of fine woodwork. Its use has already been advised in the directions for furniture making. In furniture manufactories sand-papering machines are among the most expensive machines to be found in the shops; and their high cost is of course justified by their productive value. It is quite impossible to work down large pieces to a good surface by the process of planing. If a sand-papering machine is within easy reach of the amateur cabinet-maker, it will be very desirable for him to send all large pieces like the tops of tables and panel boards to the factory in order to have them run through the machine. The expense is very slight. In sand-papering by hand considerable pressure should be applied as evenly as possible and always along the grain. Any movements directly across the grain or at an angle are sure to show through the finish. The process is facilitated by wrapping the sand-paper around a block of wood about 2 × 4 inches in diameter or, better still, a block of cork of the same dimensions.
A MORRIS CHAIR
History of the Design.—Among furniture designs the Morris chair has become a classic. It takes its name for its originator, William Morris, the great English designer and reformer, to whom, perhaps more than to any other person, we are indebted for sane and honest work in furniture design and in all forms of household decoration, not only in England but in other European countries and in America. And probably no one of his creations has done more to teach the lesson of simplicity, comfort, and utility in furniture than the Morris chair.
It may be well to add, however, that like many other famous works of art, the original design of William Morris has suffered much in countless imitations. The furniture shops display carved and otherwise embellished monstrosities under the name of Morris chairs which are nothing less than an insult to the great name they bear. But the life of all imitations of original and really great ideas is bound to be short. Only the good and true, which are the original, survive. The really valuable features of the original Morris chair design, combining beauty of material with simplicity of form and construction, have taken a lasting hold upon the hearts of all people who have found solid comfort in these chairs. The chairs contemplated in this problem are illustrated on page 50, chapter II. Both are in quartered oak. The one on the right is stained in dark brown and has a box cushion for the seat and a pillow cushion for the back, in medium brown leather. The one on the left is in light fumed oak with cushions of mahogany velour. On account of its smaller dimensions it is somewhat lighter in weight than the one on the right, and the dimensions of the smaller one will be followed in this problem. This chair is an exact copy of one in ash which, with a centre table and stool, were designed and made for a college girl's room; and a large part of the work of constructing the three pieces of furniture was done by the girl herself.
By careful examination of the dimensioned drawing shown on the preceding page the young woodworker who undertakes this problem should select his stock according to the following list: 4 legs 21⁄2 × 21⁄2 × 24 inches; two arms 3 × 51⁄2 × 38 inches; two bottom side rails 11⁄8 × 6 × 26 inches; two top side rails 5⁄8 × 21⁄4 × 26 inches; two bottom rails (front and back) 11⁄8 × 6 × 24 inches; one top rail (back) 5⁄8 × 21⁄4 × 24 inches; two back uprights 11⁄8 × 17⁄8 × 25 inches; three cross pieces for back (lower) 3⁄4 × 25⁄8 × 20 inches; one cross piece for back (top) 3⁄4 × 6 × 20 inches; one bracket 1 × 3 × 18 inches; four pins 41⁄2 × 41⁄4 inches square.
In sawing up the stock, allowance should be made of course, for necessary waste in working down to the drawing dimensions. The arms are drawn with a curve and may be fashioned by band sawing them out of 3-inch stock. There will be a considerable saving in material and labour, of course, if the arms are made flat; but the effect of the curve is very pleasing. The back slats may be sawed to a slight curve, which is another attractive feature; but flat slats are easier to make and just as serviceable.
The process of construction does not differ in general from that already described in some of the foregoing problems, and need not be repeated here in detail. The method of finishing this and all other furniture referred to in the problems will be explained in the following chapter.
Since the Morris chair is a heavy piece of furniture, it will be necessary to provide casters for it. The Acme Pin caster, so-called, was used in the chair referred to in this problem. It makes use of a steel ball turning upon ball bearings, and is set up into the legs so as to leave only about 1⁄4 of an inch of the ball exposed.
A HALL CLOCK
Note.—The original of the hall clock was designed and made by Mr. Egbert E. MacNary.
Design.—This clock was designed and built to conform to the requirements of the space allotted to it. The lines of the case are all straight; there are no spires or gables or fantastic curves on the top. A hall clock is indoors, and the top should be horizontal; for all the other lines such as tops of window casings, picture moulding, etc., are horizontal. If the clock stood out of doors under the stars, then the top might be spired or pointed.
The construction, as indicated in the sketches, is simple and substantial. The long sides extend the entire height of the clock, being firmly joined into the base and head. The works are supported between these sides. The wood is 3⁄4-inch quartered oak, hand dressed, and stained a warm brown. The dial, hinges, catches, pendulum, and weight are of brass.
Cutting Glass with a Wheel Cutter.—The long door has a panel of transparent leaded glass. This leaded glass work is a most fascinating process. The lead strips required for it were purchased of a dealer in lead specialties. Stained glass window concerns are usually willing to sell this lead. A full-size drawing was made of the design for the glass panel and the glass cut in pieces to match the pattern. A ten-cent wheel glass cutter was used. One caution, kept in mind, will enable one to use a wheel cutter of this kind without injuring it. It should never be used twice in the same cut. One stroke of a few inches over a cut previously made will ruin the wheel; but if the wheel is not abused by tracing over a cut, it will last a long time. The glass should be laid on a level table and the cutter used with a firm hand, making a continuous cut against a straight edge.
Soldering.—The long lines of the design are in one piece; and there is a strip around the entire outside edge. To solder the pieces together, the glass and lead strips are laid in position on a board, and brads (about 1 inch long) are driven part way into the board close against the outside strips, so as to hold the pieces in position. A small bead of soldering paste is placed on each joint. A small soldering "iron" (which is really copper) and wire solder are used. The copper may be "tinned" by filing the point bright, heating it, dipping it in the soldering paste, and then quickly touching it to the solder wire. The point will become coated with the solder, or, as we say, "tinned." The iron will need frequent heating. A quick, light touch of the iron and solder wire to the joints will give the best result.
The two rings in the brass dial were "raised" by driving the brass into a groove in a piece of oak with a hard wood wedge. The piece of oak was revolved around the dial by means of a nail driven through the centre of the dial into the oak piece. When a short arc of the ring had been raised, the grooved piece was swung around about 1 inch and the groove continued.
The length of the pendulum depends upon the number of teeth in the escape wheel. It was necessary in the case of this clock to take out the escape wheel, which had 32 teeth, and substitute one of 22 teeth to accommodate the length of pendulum desired.
OUTDOOR FURNITURE
The greatest charm of home life in the summer season is rarely found within the house. This is especially true in the village or in the country, where nature is at her best; but even in city homes that are fortunate enough to include in their surroundings a small yard, a bit of garden, or any means of connecting the home with "God's great out-of-doors," though it be but a sheltered balcony or a window garden, the touch of nature is not lost. It is possible, however, for art to assist nature; and in many cases her assistance is very much needed. It is certainly true that nature cannot be left wholly to herself in the neighbourhood of the village or city home. If there be a garden, as much forethought must be exercised in planning it and as much pains taken in developing and caring for it as is called for in working out any form of interior decoration. There are problems of design and construction suggested by the need of suitable chairs and settles for the piazza, comfortable hammocks and couches for the balcony, awnings for the windows on the sunny side, and the right furniture, perhaps, for an out-door dining-room. The more decorative features are found in the rose arbours, the trellises, the garden screens, the lawn tent, the pergola, and the garden gate; and all these offer problems that easily come within the reach of enterprising and capable young craftsmen.
General Types.—In the designing of out-door furniture there are two suggestions from nature that may appropriately find expression. On the one hand large masses, as seen in the hills and rocks, suggest solidity, weight, and permanence. This idea is embodied in walls of masonry, stone posts, iron gates, stone or concrete pedestals, or in some other kind of heavy construction. On the other hand, there are the suggestions of lightness, delicacy, and growth, seen in the growing vines, shrubbery, and small trees, which are carried out in the so-called rustic furniture, trellises, arbours, and garden screens.
An Example of Heavy Furniture in Wood.—A settle designed for comparatively permanent use in some cool or retired corner of the garden may be made of native pine, white wood, or spruce, well protected by several coats of paint. A suggestion is here given for such a design, laid out on substantial lines. Ordinary 4 × 4 spruce, planed, may be used for the posts, pine or white wood for the rest of the construction, 2-inch stock being used for the back pieces and arms, and 7⁄8-inch boards for the rails and seat. Mortise and tenon joints should be used in the framing. The illustration shows also a simple design cut in the back pieces and repeated in the two front posts. It is a decorative feature which seems to counteract, somewhat successfully, the general severity of the lines on which the settle is designed to be built.
Concrete Furniture.—Still more substantial out-door furniture may be made of concrete cement. This material has come into use for sidewalks and pavements and as a substitute for brick and stone masonry in retaining walls, bridge abutments, and in a great variety of heavy building construction. Concrete is, in fact, an artificial stone, made by mixing Portland cement with sand or pulverized rock in the right proportions, thoroughly wetting the mixture with water, and allowing it to harden. It is so commonly associated with heavy, crude work that it is not easy to believe that it may be also fashioned into anything of an artistic or decorative character; and yet it is capable of a wide range of out-door decorative uses. Gate posts, pedestals, fountains, window boxes, urns, and other forms of garden pottery in great variety, tables, and garden seats, have been successfully moulded in this material. Its natural stone gray colour and surface are well suited to many of these uses; but it may be given a variety of colour effects in bold design if occasion requires it. In weight and durability it leaves nothing to be desired.
The Wire Form.—Concrete cement cannot be modelled like clay. In its formative state it is too soft for such manipulation. It must be supported in some way while it is being worked into the desired shape and until it has hardened. In general there are two methods of giving the necessary support: viz., by employing an interior framework or skeleton, generally of wire lath, which is permanently encased in the cement; or by using a plaster or wooden mould into which the material in a soft and plastic state is poured and from which it is removed when hardened. The latter method has been elaborated quite extensively for commercial purposes, because it readily yields an indefinite number of marketable results from the same moulds. The simpler wooden moulds may be easily made by a clever boy; and after a little experience he can soon learn how to mix the cement properly and mould a form successfully. For single pieces of concrete work, however, the wire forms are to be preferred. A suggestive illustration of this method is found in the following problem:
A CYLINDRICAL GARDEN VASE
The dimensions called for in this design are a diameter of 10 inches and a height of 8 inches. The wire form must therefore be made to approximate quite closely to these dimensions. A good material for the form is galvanized wire lath of 1⁄2-inch mesh. This problem will require a piece about 8 inches wide and 34 inches long for the convex side, and a piece about 10 inches square for the base. From the square piece a circle 10 inches in diameter should be cut out. A strong pair of tinners' shears will be needed for this purpose. In bending the long piece into the cylindrical form it is well to proceed slowly in order to produce an evenly curved surface—i. e., one free from angular bends. A good way to accomplish this result is to lay the piece down on a bench top and bend it up over a cylindrical wooden block. If nothing better is available a rolling pin will serve this purpose. When the bending is nearly complete, the two ends of the piece should be brought together, lapped over about an inch, and bound together with free ends of the strands of wire. A pair of pliers will be of great assistance. If this part of the process has been carefully done, there will result a cylindrical form 10 inches in diameter. The circular piece should now be attached to one end of this form by means of the free ends of the strands found there, bending the projecting wires over and clinching them at convenient points on the circumference of the circular piece where there are uncut meshes of the wire. The form is now ready for covering with the cement.
The first step is the mixing of the cement for what is known as the scratch coat. This is made by mixing Portland cement with fine, clean sand in the proportion of one part cement to two of sand. These ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together in the dry state, and then there should be added a small quantity of goats' hair, well picked apart. For the problem at hand about five pounds of cement will be needed and as much goats' hair as can be held in the hand. The whole should be thoroughly wet down with just the right amount of water. It is important that the mixture should not be made too soft. A scratch coat should be given a consistency that will enable it to be easily spread over the wire form and, at the same time, to hang well together.
When a sufficient amount of the right mixture has been obtained, it should be spread upon the wire form by means of a small mason's trowel or a large knife. It is well to begin at the bottom of the convex side of the cylinder, working upward, taking no pains to make this first coat smooth, since roughness is desirable, and paying no attention whatever to the inside of the cylinder, excepting to see that the cement is forced well through the meshes so that the whole mass will be held together firmly when dry. The inside is given a smooth coat as a part of the later finishing process. When the convex surface has been well covered, the form should be turned bottom up and the cement spread upon the base of the cylinder in the same way. After the wire has been completely covered, the form, which is likely to be somewhat distorted, should be corrected by careful manipulation till a true cylinder has been obtained. This is allowed to stand for about five hours until the cement has thoroughly hardened. It is then ready for the finishing coat.
The next step in the process is to make the cement for the finishing coat. Considerable variety is possible here, depending upon the colour and other surface effects that are desired. In this design a light, sparkling surface when finished is required. To produce this effect a mixture of one part Portland cement and two parts marble dust will be needed. This should be mixed without hair to a consistency like that used for the scratch coat.
Before applying the finishing coat the surfaces should be thoroughly moistened by means of a brush well filled with water. There are various methods of applying this coat. The simplest is carefully spreading it on with a trowel and smoothing it with the moistened hand. When the surface has hardened sufficiently it is sometimes possible to improve the finish by the judicious use of sand-paper or a coarse file. It is not possible to produce perfectly even surfaces in this way; and yet the method has the characteristic freedom of handwork in general, and yields very satisfactory results.
The Decoration.—A great variety of decorative effects may be obtained in concrete pottery and in other articles made of this material for out-door use. In pottery these decorations may take the form of raised figures or ornaments, of borders or designs cut in the surface, and of inlays in colour. Whatever the form of design, the necessary cutting for it is best made when the cement has become well set but not very hard—i. e., from 6 to 10 hours after the finishing coat is applied. A stout, sharp, pointed knife blade is all the tool that will be required. A narrow chisel, however, may be found desirable for deepening the cuts. The knife should be guided by means of a ruler, which should be flexible if used on curved surfaces; and the depth of the cut will depend somewhat upon the size of the piece. In work similar to that described in the problem just given, a depth of 3⁄16 or 1⁄4 of an inch is sufficient. This cutting, of course can be made after the cement has hardened, by the use of hammer and chisel; but it will be much more difficult.
The Colours.—Colour cement for inlaid designs is made by using the best quality of white Portland cement as a base, colouring it with dry mineral pigments which are sold by dealers under the name of lime or cement-proof colours. Among the pigments suitable for this purpose are red oxide of iron, which produces a red; oxide of cobalt, which gives a good blue; chromate of lead, which produces yellow; carbonate of copper, which gives a good dark green; and burnt umber, which yields a good brown. These come as dry powders and should be mixed with the dry cement and marble dust, making a mixture of uniform colour, before the water is applied. In order to determine the right colour it is well to experiment with a small quantity of the various ingredients until a satisfactory shade has been found. Then with this as a guide a sufficiently large quantity should be mixed, in the same proportions, to the consistency of a thick paste, and applied to the design, which has been previously cut in the surface to be decorated. To insure thorough adhesion of the paste to the concrete, the cutting should be well moistened with a wet brush. A number of suggestive designs are shown in the accompanying drawings.
Rustic Furniture.—The lighter out-door furniture can be easily made up in a great variety of designs. The form of rustic settles and chairs is determined largely by the material which is available. Very useful and ornamental effects are produced by using sticks cut from the tops or from branches of small trees. Birch saplings, easily found in the second growth of some wood lots, afford a good supply of material. It is not necessary that the sticks be straight; the natural crooks and notches are often very useful in bracing the framework. Chairs, settles, tables, standards for flower boxes, and other articles of furniture may be made out of this rough and unfinished material.
Lattice Work.—Trellises and garden screens have been made in an almost endless variety of forms. Among the most satisfactory is the plain lattice work in squares and rectangles. Its simplicity and evident durability are points in its favour. Experience proves also that vines and other plants needing support are readily adjusted to this form of trellis. The size of the stock required in making the right-angled lattice work depends upon the uses to be made of it. For a garden screen the uprights need to be of 2 × 2 inch stock and of any convenient length. End posts of 3 × 3 inch stock will be required, to give necessary stiffness; and, if the screen be a long one, intermediate posts of the same size should be placed at intervals of ten or twelve feet. The horizontal pieces may be strips of 7⁄8-inch stock, 2 inches wide, set their full thickness into the uprights. Spruce furring, which lumber dealers supply in 2-inch widths, is suitable for the small rails; but if chestnut be used for the uprights it is well to use the same wood for the rest of the construction. The top and bottom rails should be of heavier stock, not less than 2 by 3 inches. The best foundation is a line of concrete posts, firmly set into the ground at intervals of 6 feet, to which the bottom rail or the uprights are fastened by means of irons set into the cement when the posts are formed. Two coats of dull green paint will protect the wood and properly subordinate the lattice work to the trailing branches which it supports.
VIII
FINISHING AND RE-FINISHING
'Tis toil's reward that sweetens industry—Ebenezer Elliot
In the commercial production of furniture the cabinet-maker has nothing to do with the finishing of his work. This essential part of furniture making is turned over to artisans who are finishers by trade. In a separate part of the factory they attend to the cleaning and filling of the wood and to whatever finish is applied to the work of the joiner. It is hardly necessary to add that the finishing of all kinds of woodwork is quite as important as any other feature in its production; for, however good the lines of design may be and however thoroughly the design may be carried out in the construction of any piece of furniture or other woodwork, it may be and often is spoiled as a work of art in the finishing.
But the amateur cabinet-maker should be his own finisher. He should familiarize himself with the various kinds of finish that may be applied to the different woods. He should know the object of filling wood and how it is done. He should understand the processes of fuming, staining, and varnishing so well that he can produce with certainty the results desired.
CLEANING, SURFACING, AND FILLING
First Steps in Finishing.—The first step in finishing woodwork is to clean it up and prepare it for the filler. Too great care cannot be taken in examining all surfaces for slight oversights that have occurred in the joinery work or for blemishes that have been acquired in any part of the process of construction. Light planing, chiselling, or scraping, and perhaps a little sand-papering, always with the grain, may be needed to remove these faults and blemishes. The most serious of these generally result from gluing. All surplus glue should be carefully removed, even to the film that soaks into the surface of the wood. The slightest spot of glue remaining will keep the filler out of the wood and show through any kind of finish.
Importance of Filling.—As soon as the furniture is thoroughly cleaned, if it is to be finished in the natural color, the grain of the wood must be filled with a light, transparent, semi-liquid substance, known as the filler, which, after standing from five to seven minutes, should be thoroughly rubbed off with a piece of coarse cloth or a handful of shavings. This process, as its name indicates, fills the pores of the wood and protects them against the absorption of moisture and the consequent swelling. But this is by no means its chief purpose. Strictly speaking, filling is the ground-work of all subsequent finishing processes and, for that reason, it may be said to be the most important operation connected with wood finishing. If improperly done, no amount of good work with the varnish brush will remove the fault. In fact, good work is impossible after a bad beginning. Good varnishing or good finishing of any kind requires that, before the final finishing processes begin, the surface should be made perfectly level and smooth, free from all unevenness or roughness or minute openings of any kind that might allow the varnish or other finishing material to penetrate the wood. If the filling has not been so thorough that no part of the subsequent finishing material can be absorbed by the wood, a rough surface will be sure to follow. This may, of course, be rubbed down and re-finished, but never with that perfection of result which is assured by laying a good foundation in correct filling. It may be set down as a fundamental principle of wood finishing that the best result is obtained when the filling or surfacing has been so thoroughly done that the thinnest of finishing coats, few in number, are required to produce the desired result.
Liquid Fillers or Surfaces.—There are many kinds of fillers in common use, but they may all be considered as belonging to one or the other of two classes. They are either liquid fillers or paste fillers. Woods differ greatly in the coarseness or fineness of their grain. The coarse or open-grained woods require a filler with body enough to close up the pores of the wood and give that perfectly even surface necessary as a foundation for good finishing. The close-grained woods, on the other hand, do not present the same filling problem. They could not absorb a paste filler. In fact, it is hardly too much to say that the fine, close-grained woods, like maple, gum wood, and birch, do not need a filler at all; and there are some coarse-grained woods, like southern or hard pine and cypress, the pores of which are naturally filled with gummy or resinous substances and will not absorb an artificial filler. But all such woods do need to be given a finishing surface which will prevent the finishing coats from soaking into the fibre of the wood. This is the office of the so-called liquid fillers, which are very properly called "first coaters" or "surfacers."
How to Make a Liquid Filler.—A standard formula for the preparation of a liquid filler is as follows: Mix four parts by weight of carbonate of soda with six parts of china clay, and grind this mixture in about eight parts of japan, thinning the product with turpentine or benzine to the consistency of linseed oil. Laundry starch may be used in place of china clay, giving a filler which is somewhat easier of application than the clay filler because it does not settle. It lacks in durability, however, especially if it is not well covered. The finest grained woods do not require the addition of any material to the filler to give body. A great variety of liquids may be easily obtained which, without being mixed with anything, will give the necessary surface.
Glue size, water glass, and the cheaper grades of varnish, thinned if necessary with benzine or turpentine, are often used for this purpose. But these are all inferior to the standard surfacers and never should be used on the best grades of woodwork. Shellac is always preferred as a first coater for hard pine, as it keeps the resinous sap in the pores of the wood and preserves the natural colour of the grain. If oil is applied to hard pine without first applying this protecting coat of shellac, the wood blackens with age. Shellac is an excellent first coater for other woods also. It is commonly used in house finishing as the surfacer for the interior trims. But it dries rapidly, and generally with a rough surface. The first coating of shellac, therefore, requires careful sand-papering before the varnish is put on.
Time Needed for a Shellac Coat to Dry.—It may be well to caution the amateur finisher as to the time required for the thorough drying of shellac. While it may be truly said to dry very rapidly, the first drying is necessarily upon the outer surface, forming a hard coating which delays somewhat the drying throughout, so that a shellac filling is not really dry enough to sand-paper a half hour or so after it has been applied, though it may appear to be. It is a good rule to allow at least twenty-four hours for thorough drying; and it may be well to add that all methods of filling, rubbing off, etc., require for the best results more time than energetic workers sometimes allow.
Cost of Surfacing.—A practical question that the amateur finisher will ask is, how can one know in advance how much filler is needed for given pieces of work, and what will be its cost? For a good quality of liquid filler it is safe to say that one pint will cover eight square yards with one coat. The cost varies greatly, depending upon the quality of the filler and whether it is home-made or obtained of a dealer. A good commercial filler or surfacer can be bought for $1.50 per gallon, making the cost per square yard of one-coat surfacing about 21⁄2 cents. A small can costs 15 cents. Good work cannot be done with the cheaper grades of filler. Shellac, which is, all in all, the best of surfacers, can be bought for $1.85 a gallon, which would make the cost of surfacing somewhat under 3 cents a square yard.
How to Make a Paste Filler.—A good paste filler, such as is required for the open-grained woods like oak, ash, baywood, and poplar or white wood, may be made from pulverized and floated silica as a base, thoroughly mixed with raw linseed oil, turpentine, and japan in equal parts, with enough silica added to the liquid mixture to form a good paste of a consistency somewhat thicker than paper-hangers' paste. If the mixture should prove to be a little too thick, it may easily be thinned with turpentine. The final mixing of this filler requires grinding in a hand mill. Unless a considerable quantity of it is needed it is quite as well to purchase a can of the paste filler of a dealer in painters' or finishers' supplies, though commercial fillers are not generally quite so good as a one made on this formula. They often contain wax and whiting and other materials as a base which are not so satisfactory in the long run as the floated silica.
How a Paste Filler is Applied.—Paste fillers should be spread on the surface to be filled very liberally with a wide, stiff brush, allowed to stand from five to seven minutes, and then rubbed off with a piece of burlap or a handful of fine shavings or excelsior. But it must not all be rubbed off or drawn out of the grain. This is an easy mistake for an inexperienced worker to make. The thing to do is to rub it in and at the same time leave the surfaces smooth. The surfaces should then be allowed to dry for about twenty-four hours before receiving the final finishing coats.
VARNISHING
The importance of a good foundation surface—even, smooth, and free from unsealed pores that would absorb and thus undermine the first coat of varnish—has been explained in the section on filling and surfacing. If this foundation has been well laid, the amateur finisher may enter upon the varnishing stage of his work with confidence; but he will soon learn that there is much call for skill in order to produce the desired results in this part of the finishing process. The selection, preparation, and application of varnish is a special calling, and great skill comes only as the result of experience; but certain main facts and principles are easily learned.
How a Good Varnish is Recognized.—It is hardly necessary to say that a superior varnish must be clear, transparent, and brilliant. These qualities are always associated with this kind of finish. But durability is also a necessary quality. An expert will, with his eyes shut, recognize a high-grade varnish by its peculiar odour, which is to him an agreeable one. He will at once detect inferior grades by the rank, sharp odour of resin and benzine used in their manufacture. The range of quality and cost in varnishes is probably greater and more varied than in any other finishing material. For fine, artistic work only the best varnish is allowable; and this may be bought for $3.00 a gallon.
"Sag" and How Corrected.—A good varnish flows easily from the brush, spreads evenly, and dries slowly, thus allowing plenty of time for its proper distribution over the surface. And time enough should be taken to apply an even coat which will not dry unequally and lead to cracking due to irregular contraction in the process of hardening. It is of the utmost importance that each coat be spread evenly over the surface when first applied. Great care should be taken not to brush long in one place. Re-brushing after a brief interval leaves brush marks which are objectionable. Unequal spreading on broad surfaces often causes the varnish to run or "sag." A tendency to sag may be brushed out if attended to promptly. But, if it is not noticed until the varnish has begun to set, the only way to prevent a bad blemish is to absorb the thickening parts of the coat by means of a partly dried brush; and this must not be attempted three or four minutes after the varnish has been put on. By that time it will have become quite well set and a sag will be beyond repairing by any simple means.
Time Required Between Varnish Coats.—The best varnishes, as has been stated, dry quite slowly, and they seem to dry and harden not, as shellac does, on the top first, but from the under surface outward. This peculiarity emphasizes the need of allowing sufficient time between coats. And it should be added that mere drying is not all that is required. Each coat must harden; and during the process of hardening slight movements take place throughout the mass of the coat until it becomes permanently set or hardened. The time required for this permanent setting or seasoning, as it may be called, varies with the character of the under coat, with the temperature of the room in which the finishing is done, and with the thickness of the varnish coat itself. Five days is usually thought to be a short seasoning period. As many weeks would not be too long for the best results. It is folly to attempt to hurry up a job of varnishing. In the nature of the case it cannot be hurried without yielding disastrous results. There is no other kind of work in which "haste makes waste" with the certainty that it does in varnishing. Great pains must be taken with each coat. Least of all should the under coats be slighted, for solidity and depth in the appearance of the finished surfaces depend upon there being plenty of evenly laid and well hardened varnish before the final or finish coat is applied. All this work should be done in a well-lighted room, free from dust, and with a good supply of fresh air, kept at an even temperature, of about 70 degrees—certainly not colder than this, since a lower temperature prevents varnish from spreading evenly.
Number of Coats Needed.—The number of coats of varnish required vary with the character of the work. What is known as piano finish requires from three to seven under coats of good elastic rubbing varnish, each well hardened and rubbed down to give under surfaces more even than the best brushing can give. In addition to these under coats a final finish coat is needed to give brilliancy and lustre.
How to Rub Down Varnish.—Rubbing down varnish is a unique and important part in the process of finishing. The beginning of the operation consists of long and persistent rubbing with pulverized pumice stone mixed with oil or with water, if the work is such that water would have no chance to soak into the pores of the wood. Whichever liquid is used, a rubbing pad will be found necessary. This is a block about 4 inches square, made of thick, loose cloth like felt or hair cloth. In use it is first moistened in the oil or water and then dipped into a box containing a quantity of powdered pumice. With this the varnished surface is rubbed vigorously, giving a circular movement to the pad in rubbing down the broad surfaces. As the smoothing progresses, less and less of the pumice powder is used. Near the end of the process enough will be found on the surface or adhering to the rubbing pad. What remains on the surface is finally all wiped off carefully with chamois skin, when it will be found that the surface has been levelled down but that it is covered with fine scratches due to the grains of the pumice. These are removed by a second rubbing in rotten stone and oil or water.
Dull Finish and Flat Varnish.—For many purposes good finishing requires but one under coat rubbed down and covered with a finish coat; and this finish coat is often not allowed to retain its natural lustre. For furniture a dull finish is much to be preferred. It is more durable, it harmonizes better with its surroundings, and it is more in keeping with the idea of simplicity and usefulness. In working for a dull finish it is not so essential to secure depth and evenness of surface as it is when a high lustre is required, and therefore fewer coats are necessary. In fact, a dull finish may be given to furniture without any varnish at all. Two or three coats of shellac, each well rubbed down, give a very satisfactory result. Wax finish, to be described later, gives beautiful effects. There are varnishes known as flat varnishes which give a dull finish without rubbing. They are made by dissolving beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two ounces of the solid to a pint of the liquid, using moderate heat and mixing the wax solution while warm with four times the quantity of warm varnish. What is known as the old Dutch finish is obtained by using over the proper stain one coat of wax varnish. But there is no kind of dull finish so durable as that given by several coats of high-grade varnish, each well rubbed down.
WAX FINISH
How to Prepare and Apply Finishing Wax.—The simplest and at the same time one of the most attractive methods of finishing woodwork is rubbing it with finishing wax. This is one of the old processes which has of late years been revived by the arts and crafts societies and is becoming deservedly popular. Finishing wax may be purchased ready for use or it may be made by dissolving yellow beeswax in turpentine in the proportion of two parts wax and one of turpentine. To do this the wax should be cut into small pieces or shavings, placed in a dish, and covered with the liquid. The solution may be hastened by heating in a water bath; but, if a gas flame be used for heating the water, care should be exercised to extinguish the flame before bringing the turpentine near, on account of the inflammable character of turpentine vapor. This mixture, which is too thick to spread with a brush, may be applied either hot or cold by means of a piece of soft cloth. Soft cloths, like clean cheese cloth, should be used also in rubbing. The rubbing should be continued for a considerable time, but it is by no means so tedious a process as the rubbing down of the several coats of varnish. Less rubbing is required if the wax is applied hot. One of the greatest advantages of the wax finish is that it may be quickly applied and immediately rubbed down, after which the furniture is ready for use. Filling and finishing are accomplished together. It is also easy to apply a fresh coat of wax at any time. In fact, it is desirable to re-finish new pieces of furniture in this way several times during the first few months of their use, and after that about once a year.
STAINING
Object of Staining.—Up to this point the processes of finishing considered have assumed that the wood treated is to retain its natural colour, excepting that it may darken with age. But it is often desirable to give artificial colours to woodwork—i. e., to dye or stain it. This is done for a variety of purposes—to reduce to one tone the different shades of the natural colour often found in the same kind of wood, to bring out the natural beauty of the grain and texture, to give an entirely new colour to the cheaper kinds of wood in imitation of the more expensive kinds, and to produce tones that will harmonize with various colour schemes. To accomplish this great variety of results, scores of different kind of wood dyes or stains have been put upon the market in almost countless shades and tints, but they are all easily classified under three heads. They are oil stains, water stains, or alcohol stains.
A Perfect Stain.—A perfect stain, if it could be obtained, would be a clear, limpid liquid, free from all solid particles or specks of colouring matter that might clog the pores of the wood and interfere with the absorption of the filler—so clear and transparent that it would in no way obscure the grain of the wood, which in many varieties is the chief element of beauty—so limpid that it would easily soak deep into the pores of the wood, carrying to a considerable depth below the surface an artificial colour which will not fade on exposure.
Water, Alcohol, and Oil Stains Compared.—The water and alcohol stains on the whole meet these requirements better than the oil stains do. They are clear, and without body, and they have great penetration. But they are not free from faults. Many of the water stains are made from aniline dyes which are not durable. The alcohol stains, however, are generally permanent. Both the water stains and the alcohol stains raise the grain of the wood and are liable to show darker in corners and on end grains and to show laps from re-brushing. The oil stains, on the other hand, are free from these faults. They spread easily and evenly, they do not raise the grain, they do not double up or show laps or streaks, and they do not fade; but they have a few defects which overbalance these good qualities. They have considerable body which prevents them from penetrating equally all parts of the surface, so that they do not carry in the colouring as either the water or the alcohol stains do. Their oily nature causes them partly to close up the filaments of the wood and thus interfere with the subsequent process of filling. This is so bad a defect that oil stains are not to be recommended for open-grained woods, the fine finish of which depends so much on correct filling. They are more successful with the close-grained woods, which need only to be surfaced with shellac or the ordinary liquid filler.
How Stain is Applied.—If furniture or any kind of woodwork is to be artificially coloured, staining is the first of the finishing operations to be attended to. The stain should be spread upon well-cleaned surfaces by means of a brush, a cloth, or a sponge, and allowed to stand for a few minutes so that it may penetrate well into the wood. The surfaces should then be carefully wiped off with clean, soft cloths or cotton waste to remove any stain that may not have soaked into the wood, and thus prevent a streaked or painted effect. After the stained surface is thoroughly dry, a filler, coloured to match the stain, should be applied and rubbed well into the pores, as already explained in the section on natural finish. The beginner will need to be cautioned again and again not to rub the filler all off or draw it out of the grain, but to rub it in as much as possible. He will also need to be on his guard against the presence of moisture or grease, which will interfere with good results.
Excellent prepared stains in great variety may be easily obtained of dealers in painters' supplies. They will not always produce the effects claimed for them, but with a little experimenting it is possible to find prepared stains that will give almost any desired result. They are somewhat expensive, however, and the amateur finisher may prefer to develop his own stain. Following are some suggestions along this line:
Asphaltum and Golden Oak Stain.—A good chocolate brown stain may be produced on almost any light-coloured wood by a very thin varnish made by colouring turpentine with asphaltum and applying with a brush. A considerable quantity of asphaltum should be used, but not enough to make a sticky liquid. This will need to be finished with shellac or finishing varnish. When applied to quartered oak it produces the beautiful effect known as golden oak. It may also be used on white wood to give an imitation of black walnut; and Georgia pine under this stain takes on a very attractive tone without obscuring the natural figure of the wood.
Mahogany.—A clever imitation of mahogany may be made by staining birch of the right grain with logwood stain. The stain is made by boiling together equal parts of logwood chips and water for about three hours. While the mixture is hot, chloride of tin is added gradually until the right shade of colour is produced. The stain should be allowed to cool before it is applied, and then several coats may be needed to secure the right depth of shade. The filler used should be coloured with burnt umber and sienna. The finish may be a brilliant or a flat varnish, or wax.
Baywood as Mahogany.—Mahogany stain is also applied to baywood, resulting in what commonly passes for real mahogany. The genuine article, however, is an imported wood coming from South America, Mexico, and Africa in several varieties; and it is a much harder wood than the American baywood imitation. Both the birch and the baywood imitations of mahogany may be so well stained and finished that it is difficult to distinguish them from the imported varieties.
Flemish Oak.—The various oak stains are worthy of special mention. Flemish oak finish is very dark, almost black. It is prepared by first applying a stain made of bichromate of potash dissolved in water in the proportion of one half pound of bichromate to a gallon of water. The solution should be strained and applied with a stiff brush. After drying, the surface is well sand-papered and a coat of thin black stain is applied, made by dissolving japan drop-black in turpentine. This is allowed to stand a few minutes, then wiped off, and when the surface is thoroughly dry a coat of thin shellac is applied. After a thorough drying and hardening the surface is smoothed down with fine sand-paper and finished with wax.
Mission Oak.—The so-called mission oak finish may be in several colours, but as a rule it is of a dull gray with the flakes slightly reddish. The stain is made from drop-black in oil, tinged with a little rose pink, and thinned with japan and turpentine. The mixture should be strained through cheese cloth and applied with a staining brush. Wax finish is invariably used for mission oak.
Forest Green Oak.—Forest green oak is among the best of the green effects in this wood. The stain is made by mixing two parts of chrome green with one part of chrome yellow for the colouring material. This is added to a mixture of three parts turpentine and one of raw linseed oil, with a little white japan. The resulting stain should be somewhat thinner than linseed oil. After this has been applied to the oak surface, rubbed in and dried, it is given a coat of thin shellac coloured with tumeric and a very little green aniline. This should have a wax finish.
Gray Oak.—A gray stain may be given to oak by a solution of iron sulphate, made by dissolving a small quantity of chemically pure crystals in water, and giving the solution a strongly acid quality by adding a little sulphuric acid. This solution is most conveniently used by placing it in a box tank large enough to contain the pieces of wood to be stained, as they must soak in the solution until they are thoroughly saturated. The pieces may be kept separate by stout cords tied around them, and they may be held under the solution by means of weights. When taken out they should be allowed to dry before they are rubbed down.
Weathered Oak.—Weathered oak stain is made by taking two ounces of copperas and the same quantity of dry tannin, dissolving them separately in about a quart of water, and when thoroughly dissolved mixing them together. When applied to oak it gives it the natural weathered tone with a slight bluish cast. It may then be oiled, shellaced and finished with a flat varnish or wax.
Fumed Oak and Chestnut.—But the most satisfactory method of giving a brown tone to furniture or other woodwork, is without question, by fuming with ammonia, though this process is limited to two woods, viz., white oak and chestnut. All other woods, including red oak, are deficient in tannic acid, the essential element to combine with the ammonia gas in the production of the stain. This method requires a fuming box of sufficient dimensions to contain the article of furniture to be fumed. It must be carefully constructed with all its joints made vapour proof by pasting over them strips of paper and covering them with shellac. The top or one side of the box should be fastened with screws, so that it may be vapour proof when the box is in use and yet easily removed. The operation of fuming consists simply in placing the furniture in the box with one or more shallow pans filled with the strongest ammonia—not the household ammonia, which is too weak—screwing the top or cover on, and allowing the apparatus to stand from 12 to 24 hours, according to the shade desired. If the fuming box be provided with small glass windows in its adjacent corners, a good light will be thrown across the furniture so that the development of colour may be observed without opening the box. When the desired shade has been obtained and the furniture removed, it is best to give it a good wax finish which will develop a beautiful velvety texture.
Peculiarities of Fumed Finish.—It will be observed that the toning of quartered oak by the fuming process develops the beauty of the grain far better than any other process of staining; and there should also be noted the still more remarkable fact that the contrasts of tone are the reverse of those given by staining; i. e., the parts that appear lighter in the one case are the darker parts in the other. This gives a certain distinction to the fumed finish and furnishes a means of detecting that which is not genuine.
WHITE ENAMEL
A vivid and very effective finish for furniture as well as for the trim of some rooms is white enamel. It is used on new work and also in re-finishing old furniture and other woodwork. In the latter case the old finish, whatever it may be, must be removed and the surfaces thoroughly sand-papered. But whether the wood be old or not, a satisfactory enamel finish cannot be produced by using the white varnish alone, since, like all other varnishes, it is somewhat transparent. It is necessary, first, to coat the wood with flat white—a paint made of white lead with some zinc oxide for hardening and thinned with turpentine. Oil should not be used in any part of the process. Three coats of this paint will generally be needed to produce the right surface for the final finish. Each of these coats should be allowed to dry and become well hardened. Two or three days, better still a week, should be allowed for hardening between coats, since insufficient hardening leads to cracks in the subsequent coats and develops a tendency to chip off. When a surface is ready for the enamel, only one coat of it should be applied, and that should be given not less than one week to harden before it is exposed to wear. Enamel is simply a good varnish coloured with zinc oxide ground in varnish. It may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, and it is applied with a brush like any other varnish.
PROBLEMS
Problems in filling and finishing were developed in the series of furniture making problems in Chapter VII. It is only necessary to bring forward the unfinished work there described and apply to it the finishing methods outlined in this chapter. Our problems are, therefore, the following:
The Knock-down Bookcase.—If made up in white wood it may, like its original, be stained in imitation of black walnut and waxed. It may, however, be of oak, ash, or cherry, and finished to harmonize with the furniture with which it is to be used.
The Hanging Book Rack.—In the design for this rack it was suggested that it might be made of white wood and given a white enamel finish, or of baywood with a mahogany stain and varnish.
The Umbrella Stand.—Oak was advised for this piece of furniture. It needs to be treated with a paste filler and given two coats of varnish, well rubbed down.
The Magazine Stand.—Oak was suggested for this stand. The color will depend upon the surroundings. Filling and varnishing will be required if it be given a liquid stain, and wax finish if it be fumed.
The Light Library Table.—Oak was mentioned as a very appropriate wood for this table, but some lighter wood like ash may be used. It will be remembered that all open-grained woods require treatment with a paste filler before they are finished.
The Heavy Library Table.—As this was designed in the mission style, oak was chosen as the most suitable wood. It may be given the so-called mission oak stain and a wax finish.
The Round Centre Table.—This may be made in any of the woods commonly used for furniture, but quartered oak was mentioned. A golden oak finish will be found very satisfactory.
The Bookcase with Glazed Doors.—This may be made up in ash, in quartered oak, or in gum wood. The finish will depend upon the kind of wood used and the furniture with which it is to be associated.
The Library Desk and the Morris Chair.—The originals were made in quartered oak, fumed, and waxed.
The Hall Clock.—This may be made in quartered oak and given a weathered oak stain and wax finish.
RE-FINISHING OLD FURNITURE
There is nothing that affords more satisfaction to one looking for pleasing effects in household fittings than the occasional piece of genuine old furniture repaired and re-finished. Some of the rare old colonial designs are of exceptional merit. This is proved by the high prices which they often command. These designs originated in the days of the genuine hand crafts, before the invention of machine-made, cheap furniture. The work of the older designers was characterized by a certain individuality which gave it artistic value; and the craftsmen who worked out these designs did their work with such care and thoroughness that what they produced has had a lasting quality. It is for these reasons that we find it still in existence and so much desired.
Caution as to Repairs.—In the work of renovating old furniture, problems are met which are very different from those which have to be considered in the production of new work. All questions of design are settled. There is generally enough of the original article to show what the design was. The problem is one of restoration; we must supply the missing parts and re-finish the whole. The first thing to do, therefore, with any piece of genuine antique furniture is to look it over carefully from the point of view of the cabinet-maker, note its defects, supply the missing or loosened parts, and mend the breaks. It will be found that the wood is generally exceedingly dry and brittle on account of its age, and that it will therefore need to be handled more carefully than new wood; and, in matching up, it will often be found desirable to make use of parts of other old pieces rather than to add new wood to the old. This is especially true of veneering, which cannot be well matched in any other way. Old bits of veneer, on the other hand, may be so deftly fitted into the spaces where they are needed that the grafting is entirely obscured by subsequent finishing.
Scraping.—After the necessary repairs have been made, the next thing to be done is to remove the old finish. If the varnish is dry and brittle and somewhat cracked, it may be removed by means of a well-sharpened scraper, great care being taken, however, not to injure the wood surface, especially at the corners and edges. If the scraper does not take off the varnish well at certain points, fine sand-papering may be resorted to. It is generally wise, also, to give the entire surface a light sand-papering before it is cleaned up for finishing.
The Varnish Remover.—It often happens, however, that the scraper will not accomplish the desired result. In that case the liquid varnish remover is necessary. This may be found at the paint stores. The best formulas for producing these varnish and paint removers are known only to the manufacturers. It is therefore not wise for the young finisher to attempt to make his own remover. He should provide himself with a can of it and a bristle brush with which to apply it to the furniture. After putting on a good coat he should let it remain a few minutes and then try to scrape off the softened finish with a putty knife. If it doesn't come off readily, it should stand a little longer. The amount of time required depends entirely upon the hardness of the old finish. But in due time it will become soft and can be very quickly and effectually removed. A putty knife, however, will not remove it all. After scraping off as much as possible from the plain surfaces and from the corners, a careful washing with turpentine or benzine will clean off what remains. It is of the greatest importance that none of the old varnish nor any of the varnish remover should be permitted to remain. Either of them will show through the finish as stains on the broad surfaces and collect in the corners when the new finish is put on.
Re-finishing.—The re-finishing process is much like that described for new work, the chief exception being that there is generally no need of filling unless it has been found necessary to add new wood in making the repairs. Generally speaking, the re-finishing begins with the surfacing, which may be done with thin shellac coloured to match the stain of the furniture. This is sand-papered lightly before receiving the one or more coats of finishing varnish necessary to produce the desired effect. Very often all that is needed is a well rubbed down wax finish.