The Library of Work and Play: Home Decoration

PROBLEM: RE-FINISHING AN ANTIQUE MAHOGANY TABLE

The table with which this problem deals was found in an old furniture shop among a large number of pieces probably of equal antiquity but of poor design; for all old furniture was not conceived on beautiful lines. Much of it was quite as ugly as some of the modern furniture. This table, however, when separated from the rubbish which almost concealed it, was found to have good proportions, with simple but graceful elements designed to make it useful as well as attractive. It was a drop-leaf table, the leaves being cut in with a double curve at each of the four corners. The legs were of turned stock and fluted, terminating in brass thimbles with casters. One leg was broken off, one of the leaves had broken away entirely from its hinges and the other was partly broken, the table top had received some hard knocks, and the entire surface was so begrimed with dust and dirt that it was with difficulty that one could tell the kind of wood of which the table was made. It took some imagination to conceive the possibilities which lay in this much abused and dilapidated old relic.

The first thing to do was to wipe off the dust and dirt as well as possible with a damp sponge. The part of the top that remained on the frame was then removed so that the repairs could be easily made. The broken leg was replaced by boring each of the broken parts and setting them together with a ³⁄₄-inch dowel, glued in. The brass tips and casters were removed and set aside to be burnished. The missing parts of the top were replaced by new pieces of baywood, fitted in, glued, and stained to match the original wood. After the necessary repairs had been made the entire table was treated with varnish remover and the old finish scraped off with a putty knife. This part of the process was completed by washing all the surfaces thoroughly with turpentine, carefully picking out with a pointed knife from corners, cracks, and openings of any kind, all remnants of the old finish and of the varnish remover. After carefully wiping off the results of this treatment with clean cheese cloth all the broad surfaces were then smoothed off with fine sand-paper. It was found that the wood was well filled, so that all it now needed was a final finishing with wax. The transformation from the begrimed old table found in the shop to a graceful and beautiful article of antique furniture was complete.

IX

HAND WEAVING

Among the home industries which the arts and crafts societies have lately revived, perhaps none invite more interest or deserve greater honour than weaving with the hand loom. Weaving is an ancient art. If we were to seek its origin we should have to go back to the time when men adopted homespun clothing in place of rude coverings made from the skins of animals. That was a great change, for it meant the beginning not only of the textile industries but of civilization itself. It is no wonder that the distaff and the loom were highly honoured in ancient mythologies. Not less honour is due the spinning wheels and looms of our grandmothers, which played an important part in the early beginnings of our own history. The New England colonists spoke with pride of communities which showed progress in the weaving of cloth; and this was then largely a home industry in the hands of honourable women. It was a work of necessity, but not without love and devotion. Many evidences remain in beautiful coverlets or bedspreads, in towels of homespun flax, in durable linen sheets and table-cloths—examples of unfailing patience, great ingenuity, and marvellous skill—handed down from generation to generation to their present fortunate and proud possessors.

Warp and Woof.—The fundamental process in all weaving is essentially the same; and it is exceedingly simple. It consists in passing one set of threads between two other sets of threads which cross each other alternately and are moved first up and then down to allow the passage of the shuttle with its bobbin and thread. The set of threads which cross each other and which, by being moved up and down, interlock the thread which is passed between them, is known as the warp. The thread which the shuttle carries across and between the warp threads is called the woof. By careful selection of materials, by skilful design in the dyeing and arrangement of these materials, and by proper management of the warp and woof to express the design, the most beautiful Oriental rugs are fashioned; and, though we may not be able to reproduce these in our homes, very beautiful and very useful things may be made upon the hand loom by those who have the necessary enthusiasm and patience.

What the Hand Loom is.—The hand loom consists of four uprights or posts, joined on two sides at the top and bottom by cross pieces. Attached to the lower cross piece are two other uprights, one on each side of the loom, bolted in such a manner as to give free play back and forth. This is the beater. These cross pieces are grooved on their inner edges, and into this groove is slipped the reed, which is a frame divided into sections by short, stiff wires, making from 10 to 25 or more sections to the inch. It is called a reed because it was formerly made from reeds. The sections of the reed are called dents, and through each one is to be threaded a single strand of the warp. From the upper cross pieces extend two other uprights, one on each side, to a height of about two feet above the general framework. They are united at the top by a round piece called the roll, over which, near each end, are passed cords attached to pulleys which in turn carry other cords fastened by means of screw eyes to inch-wide sticks extending across the width of the loom. These sticks are in pairs and carry cords or wires of uniform length through the centre of each of which a thread of the warp is passed by means of an eye in each wire, as through the dent of the reed. This is called the harness. There must be at least two of them, and there may be more. Two are necessary for the simplest weaving of a plain surface, and more than two if the work is to be more complex, as is required for scarfs with fancy borders, cushions, or any figured products of the loom. Near each end of the loom are two rollers to which the two ends of the warp threads are attached when the loom is set up for weaving. These rollers are called beams. Over one of them the woven product passes as the loom is operated, while the other holds the unwoven warp. At the back of the loom is still another cross piece, underneath which pedals are fastened. These pedals connect by chains with the harnesses in such a manner that when the foot is placed on one of them the cords attached to it play over the pulleys, throwing the harness and the warp threads which it carries below the level of the other set or sets of warp threads. An ingenious device of cogs at the side of the loom holds the work taut and enables the worker to let out fresh warp and also to roll up completed work.

THE PROCESS

Preparing the Warp.—When the essential parts of the hand loom and their uses are understood, the amateur weaver is prepared to make ready the warp and attach it to the machine. The thread or warp is taken from spools or cones, four threads at one time, which constitute what is called a bout. After determining how many threads will be required, allowing so many threads to form one inch of the woven cloth, the operator must decide how wide her warp is to be and how long. With the width, the length, and the number of threads to the inch in mind, she proceeds to wind upon her warping bars or frame the requisite amount until she has it all in one great skein. In putting this upon the bars or frames she should be very careful to cross each bout—i. e., each four threads—so that one bout shall go above and one below, in order to allow the introduction of a pair of sticks, called lease-sticks or leash-sticks. These attachments keep the order of the threads so that they may be drawn into the harness in the same order in which they are wound on the beam.

Warping the Loom.—To warp the loom the operator loosens one end of the skein and, passing it from the warping bars to the loom, attaches it to the roller or beam at the back of the loom, after carefully dividing it so that it may be evenly distributed. At this point an attachment called a rake is firmly fastened to the loom by cords and a certain number of threads placed in each division. By the aid of the lease-sticks, which are inserted, and with the assistance of a second person to hold the skein firm, the threads are wound upon the beam. The rake is now removed and the worker proceeds to set up the piece.

Drawing in the Warp.—As has already been explained, two harnesses only will need to be used for simple weaving. Taking the first bout of four threads, the weaver draws the first thread through the centre of the first loop in the first harness, or the one to which the right-hand pedal is attached. The next thread is put through the centre of the first loop of the second harness, or the one attached to the left-hand pedal. The third is drawn through the second loop of the harness connected with the right-hand pedal, and the fourth, in turn, through the second loop of the harness attached to the left-hand pedal. Great care must be exercised that no mistakes are made; for a single misplaced thread means that the work of drawing in must be all done over again. A special kind of hook is used to assist in drawing in the warp. When the drawing in is completed properly, the operator begins at the right-hand side of the loom and, measuring the reed, allows one half the width of web from the centre of the reed and draws each thread through each dent in regular order. When this is done it is only necessary to connect the warp threads to the canvas of the beam by means of heavier threads which hold the warp out in the loom, test the work, and proceed joyously with the weaving.

Beating Up the Woof.—The weaver presses the right-hand pedal, and every alternate thread separates from the other, leaving a space between the two sets of warp threads for the shuttle to be thrown from right to left, carrying the woof threads through. The operator then draws this thread up at the side to make a good selvedge and brings home the beater, thus pressing the woof into the warp. A sheer fabric requires a light stroke of the beater, while firm cloth requires more force. Releasing the right pedal, the operator presses the left, which causes the warp threads to cross, holding more firmly the woof threads just thrown. The shuttle now passes from left to right, carrying through another woof thread which, in turn, is beaten up as before. So the work goes merrily on with the throws of the shuttle alternating from right to left and from left to right, interspersed with the strokes of the beater.

The Design.—This problem, like all others in house decoration, involves in its initial stages questions of design. Before planning the rug it is necessary to know what use the rug is to have—whether it is to be for a hall, a living room, a dining-room, or a chamber, and whether it is to be used upon hard wood floors or with a carpet. This is a question of colours, and of materials; for the designer must avoid too sharp contrasts in colour, not only in the rug itself but in its relation to the other colours with which it should harmonize, and the materials used must not display glaring inconsistencies of texture. Unless the beginner has special talent as a colourist it is not wise to attempt the introduction of too many colours in one piece of work. If the warp is dark it is usually better to use light or medium woof. If several shades are used in the body of the rug, better results are obtained by using for the border or end decoration one or more plain colours which match or readily blend with the principal colours of the body of the rug.

Materials: Denim.—There are many materials suitable for rug making. Denim in moss or forest green makes a rug fit for a queen. This should be woven on a blue or green warp thread of carpet size. In preparing the woof it will be necessary to cut the denim on a true bias into strips from ¹⁄₂ to ³⁄₄ of an inch wide. The latter width is better. In cutting, the best method is to fold back one corner of a square cut end along the selvedge, forming a fold across the cloth at an angle of 45 degrees. Crease this fold carefully and make the first cut along the fold. With a yardstick or a straight edge of some kind rule off lightly with a piece of chalk or soft pencil strips of the proper width for the succeeding cuts, taking great pains to maintain a true bias. When a sufficient amount has been cut, the pieces should be ravelled or fringed on each edge by drawing them quickly through a button hook. There is a certain knack in this, but it is soon acquired. The fringed strips should then be fastened together at the ends by means of overhand stitching, trimming off neatly all projecting corners. The moss-like effect when woven is improved if the woof, as soon as it is prepared, is not rolled into balls but left in suitable lengths for filling the shuttle. A special form of shuttle without a bobbin or spool is used for carrying the woof cloth for rug weaving. Its simple construction is shown in the illustration. The woof is wound endwise and unwound in weaving by turning the shuttle.

Another good material for rug making is found in various kinds of woollen cloth. Warm, durable, and handsome effects may be obtained by using a gray wool with catawba or some other warm shade of red as the end decoration, with set figures for the body of the rug. Geometric designs, arrows, swastika, the pine tree, and many other forms are possible. Very dainty colours also may be combined in rugs for chamber use. Materials for these may be obtained from worn lawn dresses, discarded silkaleen and mull, which work up beautifully with one or two plain colours reserved for use in the borders.

Combination of Blue and White.—Blue and white is always a happy combination; and exceedingly dainty creations may be woven, to be placed perhaps in the guest chamber, by using a woof of old blue with a white warp, combined with white borders and a white knotted fringe. A vine-like effect may be obtained in the border by twisting blue and white together in opposite ways and weaving in a plain thread of white or blue between the two. Another happy combination of blue and white results from weaving on a blue warp a woof of white outing flannel, cut and fringed as described for the moss rug of denim, with a border of old blue and figures of the same colour. For a chamber or for a bath room in white such a rug as this will leave nothing to be desired.

A Weaving Design.—It has just been said that design in rug making is a question of colours and of materials. It is already apparent that it is more than that. It is largely a question of procedure in the process of weaving. That this is so may be shown in the following account of the making of a blue and white rug. The thought was to produce a rug with five stripes of blue running lengthwise, with white figures at regular intervals through the middle of the rug. To accomplish this result two threads of white warp were removed from the reed and harness every two inches for a space of ten inches on each side, thus making what may be called a weaving design; for the blue stripes, it will be easily seen, had to appear to the number of five on each side when the rug was woven. The white figures were formed by first throwing the blue cloth or woof through the warp by the usual throw of the shuttle and, before beating it up, threading into the warp white cloth in the desired pattern, after which the woof and pattern were beaten up together. For the pattern five threads or pieces of white cloth were used, two of which were 6 inches in length and three 2 inches, the two longer ones being placed between the shorter ones as illustrated. A space of 7 inches was left between the white figures, the location of which was carefully determined by counting the threads, both of warp and of woof, so that in weaving the figures should appear at the right place. The result of this weaving design was a very beautiful rug.

Another Example of Weaving Design.—This feature of rug designing is capable of indefinite expansion. Perhaps one more example may be given. The object was to produce a rug of medium dark centre with an 8-inch border all around of a darker colour. This effect was produced by first weaving 8 inches of the dark end border, which was of mixed goods showing several dark colours contrasting happily. Having reached the place where the medium centre was to begin, a woof thread of this medium colour and of the right length was joined each time to short pieces of woof of the border colour so that, as the weaving progressed along the length of the centre, not only the centre colour appeared in its proper place but 8 inches of border on each side. When the proper length of the centre had been woven, the rug was finished by weaving another 8 inches of the border colour. The result was a rug of individuality and charm.

Great Variety of Material.—Endless combinations will occur to any one who becomes interested in this captivating art. The field for colour design is almost without limit. No material is so old and useless as to be despised by the clever rug maker. Old bed ticking with its blue and white stripes cut on the bias makes a very desirable combination when woven on a blue warp with a plain blue border. A charming mottled effect in one instance was produced by a yarn which was ravelled from an old raw silk portière of a mahogany shade and wound into balls with finely cut strips of tan cloth, the balls being rewound several times. This was used as the woof for the centre of the rug. The border was made of a weaving thread of the unravelled mahogany yarn, doubled several times to give thread of a size equal to that of the tan cloth. Discarded clothing in which the prevailing colours are red, when made up into woof threads and woven on a white warp, gives a charming effect which may be strengthened or toned down by a border combination as desired. Dyes may, of course, be used if the colours of the weaving threads made up from old cloths and discarded clothing are not suited to the design that is to be worked out.

Weaving the Rug.—When the design for the rug has been thoroughly worked out, determining the colours, materials to be used, and the method of procedure, the warp and the woof threads should be prepared and the warp attached to the loom, as already explained in the discussion of the general process of weaving. Further details of procedure are not needed here. The thing to do is to weave a rug as designed. The next thing to do is to design and weave another rug, and then another and so on. As in most crafts so in weaving, experience is the great teacher—a teacher who demands faithful work, who finds lessons of value in every failure and abundant satisfaction in every success. Some of these successes were found in the rugs illustrated opposite page 252.

Rug weaving is probably the simplest of all weaving and therefore a good problem with which to begin. After serving a satisfactory apprenticeship in this field the amateur will have acquired sufficient knowledge of design and sufficient skill in the art to pass to more difficult problems. This will take her out into a large field of opportunity. Portières, window draperies, table scarfs, bedspreads, and covers for pillows and cushions in endless variety will suggest themselves to the ambitious worker. In all these, as has been seen in the case of rug making, design is all important. The management of the loom is much the same in all plain weaving. What differences there are will be found, for the most part, in the weaving designs. In the following problems are described some of the special features involved in the other forms of weaving.

PROBLEM: PORTIÈRES AND COUCH COVERS

Suggestions for the Design.—If the loom is wide enough these may be woven in one piece; but usually it is necessary to weave them in sections or breadths. In this case, of course, they must be afterward neatly joined. The possibilities in colour design are naturally varied. They may be woven with a woof of plain colour contrasting with the colour of the warp, in stripes, or with plain centres with striped ends. Harmony of colour effects is always to be sought. Depth and richness may sometimes be obtained to a highly satisfactory degree by a generous use of black. Materials may be yarns, bits of silk or velvet, or pieces of fine, soft woollen goods. The warp may be silk or linen or mercerized cotton. Beautiful portières have been woven by leaving out two threads of warp at regular intervals, giving a loose and fluffy effect. Silk and wool pieces may be used in the woof, alternating with one or more threads of wool yarn of any desired shade; and, if of the same colour as the warp used, they will impart a very decided tone to the whole product. In portières, the general appearance is much improved if the woof is not beaten up hard into the warp. The soft beating gives a resulting texture that is more pliable and more suitable for hanging in easy folds such as is demanded in portières. Couch covers, however, which will have to resist more wear and tear, should be beaten up harder. In preparing the silk and wool pieces the cloth should be cut into very fine strips, joined by carefully lapping the ends, and, by cutting away a part of the cloth, making the joint uniform in size. If the material is cloth of ordinary thickness ¹⁄₂ an inch is quite wide enough for strips. The length of the pieces used may vary greatly, though they may be somewhat different in colour. They may vary all the way from a few inches to a length long enough to weave an inch in the portière or cover. This makes it very easy to secure a source of supply for the material in saving old garments and short pieces of cloth for the specific purpose of making up the woof threads for these products of the loom. Almost any household will be able to save enough in a short time to furnish the material for a beautiful pair of portières or a couch cover which will be durable in quality, easy to clean, attractive in colour, and satisfactory from every point of view.

PROBLEM: WINDOW DRAPERIES AND CURTAINS

The Design.—Curtains of one colour or of several are woven on the simple loom with two harnesses. They may be of the soft cream tint, the material for which is easily obtained and the effect of which, in softening the light passing through them, leaves little to be desired. But if a little colour be required, the weaving design may be easily changed to secure this result. One may, for example, weave at first 7 inches of the plain cream. This will give woven material enough for a 2-inch hem at the bottom of the curtain and 5 inches before the beginning of a coloured border. The border may consist of two threads of colour alternating with two threads of the cream, thus making a stripe of about 7 inches in width. Following this may come 8 to 10 inches of the plain cream, followed in turn by a narrow stripe of the same colour as the border, 3 inches wide, in turn followed by another 10 inches of the plain cream and another narrow stripe, and so on, alternately, until the required length of the curtain has been woven. If desired, a top border may be woven in, though it is well to make it somewhat narrower than the one at the bottom—say about 5 inches—and it must be added so that it will show below the hem. In any case the top of the curtain should be woven plain, allowing for hemming, and also for shirring if a rod is to be inserted for hanging the curtain. Vertical stripes are often desirable in curtains, especially if the room is so low studded as to invite the employment of every possible means for making it seem higher. Such stripes may be made by using two colours for the warp—as, for example, blue and white or green and white—with one of these colours as woof.

Importance of Selecting Good Warp.—The successful working out of this problem depends very largely upon the proper selection of materials. While many things may be used for warp with a certain degree of success, there are fine points to be observed in weaving as in all the art-crafts, and the real beauty of the result depends upon giving due attention to these points. It is always well to remember that in all weaving the warp plays a most important part. Mercerized cotton warp works out effectively with silk or linen woof or with a combination of both, and retains its beauty after being laundered many times. In the soft cream shade it has almost the appearance of silk, at a much less cost. But silk may often be obtained at a low price if the weaver lives in the neighbourhood of a silk mill. Bargains in small lots of unsalable colours may be secured with which the weaver may do wonders; and if the colours are not good the silk may be dyed at small expense. Our grandmothers saved their tea grounds for a week or more, boiled them, and made a dye which gave a beautiful gray warp. They were, in fact, very particular about their warping threads. Not everything would suit them. They learned from experience that the wearing quality of goods is improved by having the warp stronger and harder twisted than the filling. It was common for them to spin a certain thread for this purpose. Exquisite results follow the use of a fine linen warp in white or natural colour with linen or silk for filling. Striking and beautiful also, in its way, is the very coarse linen warp.

Variety in Woof Threads.—A very pleasing effect in sash curtains or in full length window draperies is produced by weaving heavy threads alternately with fine threads, using two shuttles or bobbins, one holding the heavy thread and the other the fine one. Two or more threads may be alternated in this way as the fancy of the designer prompts; and this style of weaving may be confined to borders, leaving the body of the fabric plain, or the borders may be woven of the solid, heavy threads and the body of the curtains or draperies ribbed with the alternate coarse and fine threads. Such curtains are very beautiful in cream white; but colour may be used if the colours are fast so that the curtains may be successfully laundered.

PATTERN WEAVING

Before undertaking more difficult problems in weaving it will be necessary to explain in general two important processes. The first one is the process of pattern weaving; the second, dyeing. Among the heirlooms treasured by many families are the beautiful blue and white coverlets or bedspreads and the hand-woven table-cloths and towels. No one with strong domestic tastes who has been fortunate enough to see these products of home industry can have failed to be charmed with the wonderfully wrought designs and with the quaint names by which they were once well known; for our grandmothers designated these designs by such names as Spring Flowers, Governor's Garden, the Path of the Roses, Flowers of Lebanon, Ladies' Delight, Fairies Ring, and doubtless by many more names which have been lost. This work in pattern design is wrought by the use not of two pedals and harnesses, right and left, as used in the first three problems, but by the use of several additional harnesses.

To Be Learned by Experimenting.—If the beginner in weaving has mastered the use of the simple loom with two harnesses it is possible to extend her knowledge and skill to the successful operation of a pattern weaving loom. But the procedure is too technical and too varied to be described in detail as directions for a practical problem for amateurs. It is far better to experiment with a loom of this kind under the guidance of some person competent to point out the way step by step. Nor will it be possible, in a brief description of this somewhat intricate subject, to suggest ideas for original weaving designs to ambitious beginners who wish to take up pattern weaving. Copies of the traditional designs may be obtained as material for study and practice. After a little it will be possible to make variations and so lead to the delight of originating simple and perhaps more elaborate new patterns.

How Patterns Are Written.—Complete working directions for pattern weaving will therefore not be attempted in this chapter; but it may be possible to point out a few leading facts and principles which will be of assistance to the experimenter who ventures to take up by herself this interesting application of the art of weaving. Patterns for this work are plainly written out from right to left on cross section paper, as shown in the upper part of the accompanying illustration, each horizontal section of which corresponds to one of the harnesses of the loom and the pedal attached to it. If we have a four-harness loom, as would be required for working the pattern and weaving the figures illustrated, the right-hand pedal and the harness connected with it, which is the one farthest from the operator, are designated by the number 1, and correspond to that harness number in the pattern. Following in order, the next three pedals and connected harnesses are numbered 2, 3, and 4 to correspond with the same numbers in the pattern. Turning now to the vertical sections of the pattern, we shall find that each one corresponds to a certain warp thread, so that when the pattern is "drawn in"—i. e., when the warp for weaving the pattern is attached to the loom—we shall find the thread of the warp which is to be drawn through the first loop or wire indicated by a mark on the section of the pattern corresponding to that warp thread and to the number of the harness through which it is drawn. Thus, according to the pattern shown in the illustration, the first thread is to be drawn into the 3d harness, the 2d thread into the 4th harness, and 3d thread into the 3d harness, and so on alternately until we reach the 8th thread, which is drawn into the 2d harness; the 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th threads are drawn alternately into the 2d and 3d harnesses, and the 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, and 17th are drawn alternately into the 1st and 2d harnesses. This process is now continued, as will be clearly understood by reference to the pattern, up to and including the 42d thread, when one drawing in of the pattern will have been completed. A further study of the pattern shows that the marks on lines 3 and 4 form a continuously alternating series; and similarly that those on 2 and 3, 1 and 2, and 1 and 4 form also a continuously alternating series. But these numbers, however paired, correspond to the harnesses into which the warp threads, indicated by the numbers 1 to 42, are drawn. It thus appears that after we have drawn in as many warp threads as the pattern calls for once around in the order indicated in the pattern, we have prepared the loom for weaving one of these patterns. We must therefore draw in the rest of the warp threads in the same order as those already drawn in, thus repeating the drawing in of the pattern as many times as required for the width of the piece to be woven. The illustration shows two "repeats" of the pattern.

Operation of the Harnesses.—Having explained the method of drawing in the pattern, we may now study the movement of the harnesses necessary to guide the warp properly for the weaving of the pattern. It has been noted that, with the pattern under consideration, harnesses 1 and 3 hold a continuous line of alternating warp threads, leaving harnesses 2 and 4 to take up all the intervening warp threads. If then the operator should throw down pedals 1 and 3 together, and alternately 2 and 4 also together, the warp threads would be crossed exactly as in plain weaving. Bringing out a pattern in weaving must, of course, require a variation of the pedal movement from that used in plain weaving. Now, upon reference to the illustration it will also be noted that in writing the pattern, or in drawing it in, no two threads have ever come together on the same harness. If the 1st thread has been drawn into the 3d harness, and the 2d thread into the 4th harness, as shown in the pattern illustrated, the operator begins the weaving of the pattern by throwing down the 3d and 4th pedals together and throwing the shuttle which carries the pattern thread. This operation is what weavers call a "pick." Each pick of the pattern thread is represented in the diagram (page 268) by a broken black line running across the pattern. Thus the diagram of the first design shown indicates that there are 6 throws of the shuttle alternately over and back, or 6 picks of the pattern thread, for each corresponding section of this design. But between every two picks of the pattern thread there must be a pick of the plain weave, requiring, as has already been explained, the pressing down of either the 1st and 3d pair of pedals together when the shuttle is thrown from the right side, or of the 2d and 4th if thrown from the left side. It is evident, then, that there must be two shuttles prepared for carrying the woof threads. One of these is to be used for the plain weave and the other for the pattern weave. The shuttle used for the plain weave is usually threaded with a fine thread of linen, though this, of course, is subject to variation according to the design of the weaver. The pattern weaving shuttle should carry a coarser thread, which may be of silk, linen, wool, or mercerized cotton.

Variations in Pattern.—From the fact that a carefully written pattern is necessary in preparing a four-harness loom for pattern weaving, one would naturally infer that the pattern must be closely followed in the weaving process. And so it must if the pattern be woven as written; but, after the drawing in, it is by no means necessary to follow the written pattern. As the weaving progresses it is easy to see many variations in pattern which may be woven upon one drawing in—patterns so varied as to seem to hold very little relation to each other. In fact, one of the delights of weaving with a pattern loom is to devise ways of modifying simple patterns, elaborating them into new weaving designs, producing unique and sometimes very interesting original figures. We have only to remember that patterns are made by the order and number of the overshots—i. e., the throws of the shuttle carrying the pattern threads—and that the overshots in the same horizontal and vertical lines are produced by the same pair. In the pattern illustrated the overshots are made by 2 and 3, by 1 and 2, by 1 and 4, or by 3 and 4, not counting 1 and 3 and 2 and 4, which are the pairs for plain weaves. We should also remember that the last end in one overshot is usually the first one in the next. Examples of two variations in design that may be woven from the original written pattern, to which we have already referred, are illustrated in the diagram and probably at least a dozen more variations are possible.

PROBLEM: A BORDERED TABLE SCARF

This problem will require the use of the four-harness loom. The first thing to do is to procure the written pattern for the border and draw it in. When the drawing in is completed and the weaving is begun, the first step in the process is to weave a few inches of the plain cloth. In doing this, however, we shall, of course, find that the pressing of the right-hand and left-hand pedals as in simple weaving will not accomplish the desired result; for it has already been explained that the pedals of a four-harness loom must be worked in certain pairs to produce a plain weave. It will be remembered that to do plain weaving with the warp drawn in as required by the pattern illustrated on page 268, it is necessary to press pedals 1 and 3 together alternately with 2 and 4—i. e., both pedals of each pair must be pressed at the same time to produce the same effect as that produced by the alternate movements of the right and left pedals in simple weaving.

When a sufficient length of plain cloth has been woven, the written pattern for the weaving of the border design must be faithfully consulted and the right pairs of pedals pressed down in proper order for the weaving of the pattern. The second or weaving shuttle carries the bobbin, which is filled with the colour required in the pattern. Any changes of colour required by the design are easily produced by inserting a new bobbin filled with the desired colour.

The Design.—A great variety of design is possible in table scarfs. It is common to weave in a narrow beading of whatever colour may have been chosen, following this by a few threads of white, and this in turn by a narrow band of the colour of the border with some slight suggestion of the pattern, then more of the plain white and finally the full pattern of the border. The centre of the table scarf is simply a matter of plain weaving in white or possibly in some solid colour, while the other end of the scarf must be woven with the same border and bands as were woven at first, but in the reverse order.

Variations in Design.—One pleasing style of decoration is found in repeating the border several times with inch-wide spaces between. Another variety requires a heavy border at the ends, with narrow ones at short intervals throughout the length. Shadow borders, so-called, are also common, and may alternate with borders of colour or may constitute the entire decoration. Shadow borders are heavy borders woven in the cream or body colour of the scarf instead of being in a contrasting shade. In order to make them stand out well it is necessary to use a coarser thread than is required for the colour borders. A gray linen plain weave is often embellished in white with delicate effect. There is also a heavy linen thread which is good for scarf borders. It is obtainable in dainty colours, and the heavy thread seems to bring out the patterns in greater perfection. Darning silks in fast colours are also employed, but these should be woven double in order to obtain the best effect. They are found in the market in short lengths and in such attractive colours as Delft blue, reseda green, pink, and catawba. The last two colours, used with linen in the natural shade, make a happy combination.

Scarfs should be woven from 20 to 24 inches wide and about 1¹⁄₂ yards long, unless some special use requires that they should be of different length. Not only do they make pleasing table covers, but they are useful as tray cloths, and from them charming sewing or embroidery aprons may be fashioned by folding one end over, tying it with ribbons, and arranging pockets to hold the work. One scarf will make two aprons. Fancy bags are also woven on the same general lines as scarfs, but the width needs to be only 8 or 10 inches. These may be woven of the pattern throughout, or they may be striped with bands or borders. Lined with silk and finished with ribbons or cords, they are very much admired for embroidery and other fancy work.

DYEING

In the discussion of the problem of hand weaving, frequent reference has been made to the use of coloured materials. While it is possible to obtain many good colours in the market, it is much more satisfactory to make these colours at home by the use of the dye pot. In former times, when hand weaving was general, there was no other way; and, in fact, dyeing and weaving may well be considered now, as they were then, sister arts. When the wool was washed, carded into rolls, spun into yarn, and again doubled and twisted, it was, generally speaking, still necessary to treat the yarn with some permanent dye before weaving it into cloth. One notable exception was found in the natural gray homespun, which was of yarn spun from the wool of both the black and the white sheep carded together. The modern worker with the hand loom will find almost the same necessity as our grandmothers did for a knowledge of the art of dyeing. Seldom will she find at hand just the shade or colour required by the design of the piece to be woven. Much of the material that is worked up for the woof of rugs, for example, will be found to be so faded or spotted that it would poorly repay one for the labour of weaving it up in that condition. And even the new material, which it is often necessary to procure for plain weaving, for pattern weaving, and for use in borders, will often need a bath in the dye pot in order to furnish the tone of colour needed.

Some Good Points in Dyeing.—Good results in dyeing are obtained by using the prepared dyes of the markets, mixing together more than one colour often, after some experimenting, in order to produce the desired shade. Instead of mixing the dye one may, if she chooses, dye first in one colour and top off with another. A fine permanent green is obtained by dyeing thread or cloth a good yellow and topping with a blue bath. Green and blue dye used together give neither green nor blue but a blending of both colours, which is exceedingly pleasing. In all cases it is better to make the dye bath weak, leaving the article to be dyed in the bath a long time rather than to keep it a shorter time in a stronger dye. The advantage is not only greater permanency of colour but also greater certainty in the result; for one can watch the process of dyeing more easily and guard against the colours becoming too dark. The material which remains in the dye bath until it takes practically all the colour from it may generally be depended upon neither to fade nor crock.

Some Common Dyes.—The dull, soft colours, made generations ago from barks and teas with alum as a mordant, had artistic qualities and were generally permanent. It is well worth while to experiment in this direction. Straw colour may be made from the old-fashioned herb saffron; orange comes from madder and fustic; yellow is obtained from powdered dock root; rusty nails boiled in vinegar with a bit of copperas give a good black dye, useful also in freshening black yarns that have acquired a dull or faded colour. White maple bark boiled in water makes a fine medium brown which may be made fast by first treating the cloth or yarn to be dyed in it with a solution of alum. A permanent and fine nankeen colour may be made from a pail of lye with a piece of copperas half the size of an egg boiled in it. In fact, nearly everything which possesses colour may be considered a dye. Vegetable substances are generally in themselves more permanent, but most dyes need to be fixed or "set" by the use of some mordant. All this will mean much experimenting, of course, unless one is fortunate enough to possess an old receipt book with its quaint allusions to mordants, kettles of brass, and vessels of pewter. The use of the prepared dyes, which may be easily obtained with explicit directions, is generally satisfactory and of course somewhat easier; and yet the interest which inspires one to cultivate the art of hand weaving leads to a desire to master all of the arts intimately associated with this ancient and fascinating home industry.

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POTTERY