The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence
Title: The Major Operations of the Navies in the War of American Independence
Author: A. T. Mahan
Release date: August 27, 2005 [eBook #16602]
Most recently updated: December 12, 2020
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Steven Gibbs, William Flis, and the Online
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THE MAJOR OPERATIONS OF THE NAVIES IN THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
BY
A.T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
CAPTAIN, U.S. NAVY
AUTHOR OF 'THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, 1660-1783,' 'THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE, 1783-1812,' 'THE RELATIONS OF SEA POWER TO THE WAR OF 1812,' 'NAVAL STRATEGY' ETC.
WITH PORTRAITS, MAPS, AND BATTLE PLANS
LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY, LIMITED
Overy House, 100 Southwark Street, S.E.
PREFACE
The contents of this volume were first contributed as a chapter, under the title of "Major Operations, 1762-1783," to the "History of the Royal Navy," in seven volumes, published by Messrs. Sampson Low, Marston, and Company, under the general editorship of the late Sir William Laird Clowes. For permission to republish now in this separate form, the author has to express his thanks to the publishers of that work.
In the Introduction following this Preface, the author has summarized the general lesson to be derived from the course of this War of American Independence, as distinct from the particular discussion and narration of the several events which constitute the body of the treatment. These lessons he conceives to carry admonition for the present and future based upon the surest foundations; namely, upon the experience of the past as applicable to present conditions. The essential similarity between the two is evident in a common dependence upon naval strength.
There has been a careful rereading and revision of the whole text; but the changes found necessary to be made are much fewer than might have been anticipated after the lapse of fifteen years. Numerous footnotes in the History, specifying the names of ships in fleets, and of their commanders in various battles, have been omitted, as not necessary to the present purpose, though eminently proper and indeed indispensable to an extensive work of general reference and of encyclopædic scope, such as the History is. Certain notes retained with the initials W.L.C. are due to the editor of that work.
December, 1912.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE TENDENCY OF WARS TO SPREAD
Macaulay quoted on the action of Frederick the Great 1
Illustration from Conditions of the Turkish Empire 2
Lesson from the Recent War in the Balkans, 1912-1913 2
The War of American Independence a striking example of the Tendency of Wars to Spread 3
Origin and Train of Events in that War, Traced 3
Inference as to possible Train of Future Events in the History of the United States 4
The Monroe Doctrine Simply a Formulated Precaution against the Tendency of Wars to Spread 4
National Policy as to Asiatic Immigration 4
Necessity of an Adequate Navy if these two National Policies are to be sustained 4
Dependence on Navy Illustrated in the Two Great National Crises; in the War of Independence and in the War of Secession 4
The United States not great in Population in proportion to Territory 5
Nor Wealthy in Proportion to exposed Coast-Line 5
Special Fitness of a Navy to meet these particular conditions 5
The Pacific a great World Problem, dependent mainly on Naval Power 5
CHAPTER I
THE NAVAL CAMPAIGN ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN
1775-1776
Preponderant effect of Control of the Water upon the Struggle for American Independence 6
Deducible then from Reason and from Experience 6
Consequent Necessity to the Americans of a Counterpoise to British Navy 6
This obtained through Burgoyne's Surrender 6
The Surrender of Burgoyne traceable directly to the Naval Campaigns on Lake Champlain, 1775, 1776 7
The subsequent Course of the War in all Quarters of the world due to that decisive Campaign 7
The Strategic Problem of Lake Champlain familiar to Americans from the Wars between France and Great Britain prior to 1775 8
Consequent prompt Initiative by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold 8
Energetic Pursuit of first Successes by Arnold 9
Complete Control of Lake Champlain thus secured 9
Invasion of Canada by Montgomery, 1775 9
Arnold marches through Maine Wilderness and joins Montgomery before Quebec 10
Assault on Quebec. Failure, and Death of Montgomery 10
Arnold maintains Blockade of Quebec, 1776 10
Relief of the Place by British Navy 11
Arnold Retreats to Crown Point 12
Arnold's Schemes and Diligence to create a Lake Navy, 1776 13
Difficulties to be overcome 13
Superior Advantages of the British 13
The British by building acquire Superiority, but too late for effect in 1776 13
Ultimate Consequences from this Retardation 14
Constitution of the Naval Force raised by Arnold 14
He moves with it to the foot of Lake Champlain 15
Takes position for Defence at Valcour Island 15
Particular Difficulties encountered by British 15
Constitution of the British Lake Navy 16
Land Forces of the Opponents 17
Naval Forces of the Two at the Battle of Valcour Island 17
Magnitude of the Stake at Issue 18
Arnold's Purposes and Plans 18
Advance of the British 19
Arnold's Disposition of his Flotilla to receive Attack 20
The Battle of Valcour Island 21
The Americans Worsted 22
Arnold Retreats by night Undetected 23
Pursuit by the British 24
Destruction of the American Vessels 25
British Appreciation of the Importance of the Action, as shown 26
Criticism of the conduct of the Opposing Leaders 26
Arnold's Merit and Gallantry 27
End of the Naval Story of the Lakes 27
Effect of the Campaign upon the Decisive Events of 1777 28
CHAPTER II
NAVAL ACTION AT BOSTON, CHARLESTON, NEW
YORK, AND NARRAGANSETT BAY—ASSOCIATED LAND OPERATIONS, TO THE BATTLE OF TRENTON
1776
Necessity that Force, if resorted to, be from the first Adequate 29
Application to National Policy in peace 29
To the Monroe Doctrine 29
Failure of the British Government of 1775 in this respect 30
Consequences of such failure 30
General Howe evacuates Boston and retires to Halifax. Extent of his Command 30
Dissemination of Effort by British Government 30
Expedition against South Carolina 31
Local Conditions about Charleston 32
Description of Fort Moultrie 33
Plan of British Naval Attack 33
The Battle of Fort Moultrie 34
Failure of the Attack. British Losses 36
Comment upon the Action 37
The Expedition retires to New York 38
The Howes, Admiral and General, arrive in New York Bay 39
Operations about the City 39
Continuous and Decisive, but Inconspicuous, Part played by the British Navy 40
Description of Local Conditions about New York 40
American Preparations for Defence 41
Crucial Weakness of the Scheme 42
The Advance of the British 42
Washington withdraws his Army from the Brooklyn side 43
Success of this Withdrawal due to British Negligence 44
Subsequent Operations, and Retreat of Washington to New Jersey 45
Retreat continued to Pennsylvania, where he receives reinforcements 46
Slackness of Sir William Howe's actions 47
The British take possession of Narragansett Bay. Importance of that position 48
Washington suddenly takes the Offensive. Battle of Trenton 48
He recovers most of the State of New Jersey 49
CHAPTER III
THE DECISIVE PERIOD OF THE WAR. SURRENDER
OF BURGOYNE AND CAPTURE OF PHILADELPHIA BY HOWE. THE NAVAL PART IN
EACH OPERATION
1777
British Object in Campaign of 1777 the same as that in 1776 50
Part assigned to Burgoyne 50
Slowness of his Progress at the beginning 51
Sir William Howe, instead of coöperating, takes his Army to the Chesapeake 52
Criticism of this Course 52
Howe's Progress to Philadelphia, and Capture of that City 53
Admiral Lord Howe takes the Fleet from the Chesapeake to the Delaware 53
Surrender of Burgoyne and his Army 53
British Naval Operations in Delaware Bay 54
Brief Tenure—Nine Months—of Philadelphia by British 55
The general Failure of the British Campaign determined by Howe's move to the Chesapeake 55
General Results of the Campaign 56
Part played by the British Navy. Analogous to that in Spain, 1808-1812, and in many other instances 57
CHAPTER IV
WAR BEGINS BETWEEN FRANCE AND GREAT
BRITAIN. BRITISH EVACUATE PHILADELPHIA.
NAVAL OPERATIONS OF D'ESTAING AND HOWE
ABOUT NEW YORK, NARRAGANSETT BAY, AND
BOSTON. COMPLETE SUCCESS OF LORD HOWE.
AMERICAN DISAPPOINTMENT IN D'ESTAING. LORD HOWE RETURNS TO ENGLAND
1778
France recognizes the Independence of the United States, and makes with them a defensive Alliance 58
A French Fleet sails for America under Comte d'Estaing 59
Unprepared condition of the British Navy 59
Admiral Byron sails with a Reinforcement for America 59
Ill effect of Naval Unreadiness upon British Commerce; and especially on the West Indies 60
Admiral Keppel puts to Sea with the British Channel Fleet 61
First Guns of the War with France 62
Extreme Length of Byron's Passage 62
He turns back to Halifax 62
D'Estaing's slowness allows Howe to escape from Delaware Bay. Howe's Celerity 62
Evacuation of Philadelphia by British Army, and its precipitate Retreat to New York 63
Escape of both Army and Fleet due to d'Estaing's Delays 63
Rapid Action of Lord Howe 64
D'Estaing Arrives off New York 64
Howe's elaborate Dispositions for the Defence of New York Bay 65
Statement of British and French Naval Force 66
D'Estaing decides not to attempt Passage of the Bar, and puts to Sea 67
Anchors off Narragansett Bay 69
Forces the Entrance to Newport and Anchors inside the Bay 70
The British garrison besieged by superior American and French forces 70
Howe appears with his Fleet and anchors off the entrance, at Point Judith 71
Sustained Rapidity of his action at New York 71
D'Estaing Withdraws from Siege of Newport and puts to Sea 73
Manœuvres of the two Opponents 74
D'Estaing quits the Field, and both Fleets are scattered by a heavy Gale 75
Howe returns to New York and collects his Fleet 76
D'Estaing calls oft Newport; but abandons the Siege finally, taking his Fleet to Boston 77
Critical Condition of British garrison in Newport. D'Estaing's withdrawal compels Americans to raise the siege 77
Howe follows d'Estaing to Boston 77
Discussion of the Conduct of the opposing Admirals 78
Howe gives up his Command and returns to England 80
CHAPTER V
THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPE. THE BATTLE OF USHANT
1778
Admirals Keppel and D'Orvilliers put to Sea from Portsmouth and Brest 82
Instructions given to the French Admiral 83
Preliminary Manœuvres after the two Fleets had sighted one another 83
The Battle of Ushant 84
A Drawn Battle. The respective Losses 91
The Significance of the Battle in the fighting Development of the British Navy 93
The "Order of Battle" 93
The Disputes and Courts Martial in Great Britain arising from the Battle of Ushant 94
Keppel Resigns his Command 97
CHAPTER VI
OPERATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES, 1778-1779. THE BRITISH INVASION OF GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA
Influence of Seasonal Conditions upon Naval Operations in America 98
Commercial Importance of the West Indies 98
The French seize Dominica 99
D'Estaing Sails with his Fleet from Boston for Martinique 100
A British Squadron under Hotham sails the same day for Barbados, with Five Thousand Troops 100
Admiral Barrington's Seizure of Santa Lucia 101
D'Estaing sails to Recapture it 102
Rapidity and Skill shown in Barrington's Movements and Dispositions 102
D'Estaing's attacks Foiled, both on Sea and on Shore 103
He Abandons the attempt and Returns to Martinique 104
Importance of Santa Lucia in Subsequent Operations 104
Byron Reaches Barbados, and takes over Command from Barrington 105
D'Estaing Captures the British Island Grenada 105
Byron goes to its Relief 106
The Action between the two Fleets, of Byron and d'Estaing, July 6, 1779 106
Criticism of the two Commanders-in-Chief 110
D'Estaing returns to Grenada, which remains French 112
Byron returns to England. British North American Station assigned to Admiral Arbuthnot, Leeward Islands to Rodney 113
British Operations in Georgia and South Carolina. Capture of Savannah 113
Fatal Strategic Error in these Operations 114
D'Estaing's attempt to Retake Savannah Foiled 115
His appearance on the coast, however, causes the British to abandon Narragansett Bay 115
D'Estaing succeeded by de Guichen in North America. Rodney also arrives 115
CHAPTER VII
THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPEAN WATERS, 1779. ALLIED FLEETS INVADE THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. RODNEY DESTROYS TWO SPANISH SQUADRONS AND RELIEVES GIBRALTAR
Spain declares War against Great Britain 116
Delays in Junction of French and Spanish Fleets 116
They enter the Channel. Alarm in England 117
Plans of the French Government 118
Their Change and Failure. The Allied Fleets return to Brest 119
Criticism of the British Ministry 120
Divergent views of France and Spain 120
Prominence given to Gibraltar, and the resulting Effect upon the general War 121
Exhaustion of Supplies at Gibraltar 121
Rodney with the Channel Fleet Sails for its Relief, with ultimate Destination to Leeward Islands Command 121
He Captures a large Spanish Convoy 122
And Destroys a Second Spanish Squadron of Eleven Sail-of-the-Line 123
Distinction of this Engagement 124
Gibraltar and Minorca Relieved 125
Rodney proceeds to the West Indies 126
The Channel Fleet returns to England 126
CHAPTER VIII
RODNEY AND DE GUICHEN'S NAVAL CAMPAIGN
IN WEST INDIES. DE GUICHEN RETURNS TO
EUROPE AND RODNEY GOES TO NEW YORK.
LORD CORNWALLIS IN THE CAROLINAS. TWO
NAVAL ACTIONS OF COMMODORE CORNWALLIS. RODNEY RETURNS TO WEST INDIES
1780
Rodney's Force upon arrival in West Indies 128
Action between British and French Squadrons prior to his arrival 129
Rodney and de Guichen put to sea 130
Action between them of April 17, 1780 131
Cause of Failure of Rodney's Attack 133
His Disappointment in his Subordinates 135
His Expression of his Feelings 135
Discussion of the Incidents and Principles involved 137
The Losses of the Respective Fleets 140
They Continue to Cruise 141
The Action of May 15, 1780 142
That of May 19, 1780 144
The Results Indecisive 144
Contrary Personal Effect produced upon the two Admirals by the encounters 145
De Guichen asks to be Relieved 145
Rodney's Chary Approval of his Subordinates in these two instances 145
Suspicion and Distrust rife in the British Navy at this period 146
Twelve Spanish Sail-of-the-Line, with Ten Thousand Troops, Arrive at Guadeloupe 147
They refuse Coöperation with de Guichen in the Windward Islands 147
De Guichen Accompanies them to Haïti with his Fleet 147
He declines to Coöperate on the Continent with the Americans, and sails for Europe 148
Rodney Arranges for the protection of the Homeward West India Trade, and then proceeds to New York 149
Effect of his coming 150
The Year 1780 one of great Discouragement to Americans 151
Summary of the Operations in the Carolinas and Virginia, 1780, which led to Lord Cornwallis's Surrender in 1781 151
Two Naval Actions sustained by Commodore Cornwallis against superior French forces, 1780 153
The Year 1780 Uneventful in European seas 157
Capture of a great British Convoy 157
The Armed Neutrality of the Baltic Powers 158
The Accession of Holland to this followed by a Declaration of War by Great Britain 158
The French Government withdraws all its Ships of War from before Gibraltar 158