The Making of Species

These islands are very hilly, and Gulick found that each of the varieties is confined not merely to one island, but to one valley. “Moreover,” writes Romanes, on p. 16 of Darwin and after Darwin, “on tracing this fauna from valley to valley, it is apparent that a slight variation in the occupants of valley 2, as compared with those of the adjacent valley 1, becomes more pronounced in the next, valley 3, still more so in 4, etc., etc. Thus it was possible, as Mr Gulick says, roughly to estimate the amount of divergence between the occupants of any two given valleys by measuring the number of miles between them. . . . The variations which affect scores of species, and themselves eventually run into fully specific distinctions, are all more or less finely graduated as they pass from one isolated region to the next; and they have reference to changes of form or colour, which in no one case presents any appearance of utility.”

Hitherto three different attempts have been made to explain this and allied phenomena:—

1. That it is the result of isolation.

2. That it is the result of natural selection.

3. That it is the result of the action of the environment on the organism.

Let us consider these in inverse order.

Local Species

In the case of some organisms, more especially plants, invertebrates, and fish, the environment does exert a direct influence on their colouration. But, as we have seen, the changes in colour, etc., thus induced appear never to be transmitted to the offspring of the organisms so affected. They disappear when the offspring are removed to other surroundings.

On the other hand, local races or species—as, for example, the white-cheeked variety of sparrow found in India—usually retain their external appearance when the environment is changed. In the one case the peculiarity is not inherited; in the other it is inherited.

The Wallaceian explanation is, of course, that the phenomenon is the result of natural selection. There must, say Wallace and his followers, be some differences in the environment, differences which we poor human beings cannot perceive, that have caused the divergence between the various isolated sections of the species. In the case of some local species this explanation is probably the correct one, but we have no hesitation in saying that natural selection is unable to offer a satisfactory explanation in a considerable number of instances. Take, for example, the case of the land mollusca of the Sandwich Islands. Mr Gulick worked for fifteen years at them, and states that so far as he is able to ascertain the environment in the fifteen valleys is essentially the same. “To argue,” writes Romanes, on p. 17 of vol. iii. of Darwin and after Darwin, “that every one of some twenty contiguous valleys in the area of the same small island must necessarily present such differences of environment that all the shells in each are differently modified thereby, while in no one out of the hundreds of cases of modification in minute respects of form and colour can any human being suggest an adaptive reason therefore—to argue thus is merely to affirm an intrinsically improbable dogma in the presence of a great and consistent array of opposing facts.”

Men of science not infrequently charge the clergy with adhering to dogma in face of opposing facts; it seems to us that many of the apostles of science are in this respect worse offenders than the most orthodox of Churchmen.

The example of the mollusca of the Sandwich Islands is by no means a solitary one. D. Dewar cited some interesting cases in a paper recently read before the Royal Society of Arts (p. 103 of vol. lvii. of the Society’s Journal):

“The Indian robins present even greater difficulties to those who profess to pin their faith to the all-sufficiency of natural selection. Robins are found in nearly all parts of India, and fall into two species, the brown-backed (Thamnobia cambaiensis) and the black-backed Indian Robin (Thamnobia fulicata). The former occurs only in Northern India, and the latter is confined to the southern portion of the peninsula. The hen of each species is a sandy brown bird with a patch of brick-red feathers under the tail, so that we cannot tell by merely looking at a hen to which of the two species she belongs. The cock of the South Indian form is, in winter, a glossy black bird, with a white bar in the wing, and the characteristic red patch under the tail. The cock of the northern species, as his name implies, has a sandy-brown back, which contrasts strongly with the glossy black of his head, neck, and under parts. In summer the cocks of the two species grow more like one another owing to the wearing away of the outer edges of their feathers; but it is always possible to distinguish between them at a glance. The two species meet at about the latitude of Bombay. Oates states that in a certain zone, from Ahmednagar to the mouth of the Godaveri valley, both species occur, and they do not appear to interbreed.

“It seems impossible to maintain that natural selection, acting on minute variations, has brought about the divergence between these two species. Even if it be asserted that the difference in the colour of the feathers of the back of the two cocks is in some way correlated with adaptability to their particular environment, how are we to explain the fact that in a certain zone both species flourish?

“A similar phenomenon is furnished by the red-vented bulbul. This genus falls into several species, each corresponding to a definite locality and differing only in details from the allied species, as, for example, the distance down the neck to which the black of the head extends. There is a Punjab Red-vented Bulbul (Molpastes intermedius), a Bengal (Molpastes bengalensis), a Burmese (Molpastes burmanicus) and a Madras (Molpastes hæmorrhous) species.

“It does not seem possible to maintain the contention that these various species are the products of natural selection, for that would mean if the black of the head of the Punjab species extended further into the neck the bird could not live in that country.”

Thus, natural selection clearly is unable to explain some cases of divergence of character due to geographical isolation.

There remains the third explanation, that the divergence is the result of the simple fact of isolation.

We have already shown how insuperable are the objections to the view held by Romanes and Gulick.

It seems to us that explanation must lie in the fact that mutations occur every now and again in some species. If two portions of a species are separated and a mutation occurs in one portion and not in the other, and if the mutating form succeeds in supplanting the parent form in that isolated portion of the species in which it has appeared, we should have the phenomenon of two races or species differing in appearance although subjected to what appear to be identical environment.

This, of course, is pure conjecture. All that can be said of it at present is that it is not opposed to observed facts. That mutations do occur must be admitted. At present we are totally in the dark as to what causes them. They arise at the most unexpected times.

In favour of the explanation based on “mutation” there is the interesting fact that geographical isolation does not by any means always cause divergence of character. This Romanes, with great fairness, freely admits. “There are,” he writes, on p. 133 of vol. iii. of Darwin and after Darwin, “four species of butterflies, belonging to three genera (Lycæna donzelii, L. pheretes, Argynnis pales, Erebia manto), which are identical in the polar regions and the Alps, notwithstanding that the sparse Alpine populations have been presumably separated from their parent stocks since the glacial period.” Again, there are “certain species of fresh-water crustaceans (Apus), the representatives of which are compelled habitually to form small isolated colonies in widely separated ponds, and nevertheless exhibit no divergence of character, although apogamy has probably lasted for centuries.”

Cormorants

To these examples we may add that of the cormorants. These birds have an almost worldwide range. One species—our Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)—occurs in every imaginable kind of environment. Isolation has not effected any changes in the appearance of this species. Yet in New Zealand there exist no fewer than fourteen other species of cormorant. New Zealand is a country where climatic conditions are comparatively uniform, nevertheless it boasts of no fewer than fifteen out of the thirty-seven known species of cormorant. A possible explanation of this phenomenon may be found in the comparatively easy conditions under which cormorants live in New Zealand.[10] Under such circumstances mutants may be permitted by natural selection to survive, whereas in other parts of the world such mutants have not been able to hold their own.

Prof. Bateson has likened natural selection to a competitive examination to which every organism must submit. The penalty for failure is immediate death. The standard of the examination may vary with the locality.

Isolation, then, is a very important factor in the making of species, for without it, in some form, the multiplication of species is impossible.

Let us, in conclusion, briefly summarise what we now know of the method in which new species are made. We have studied the various factors of evolution—variation and correlation, heredity, natural selection, sexual selection, and the other kinds of isolation. How do these combine to bring new species into being, and to establish the same?

Natural Selection

Let us first consider the factor known as natural selection, since this is the one on which Darwin laid such great stress. Natural selection, although a most important factor in evolution, is not an indispensable one. Evolution is possible without natural selection.

Let us suppose that there is no such thing as natural selection; that the numbers of existing species are kept constant by the elimination of all individuals born in excess of the number required to maintain the species at the existing figure, and that the elimination of the surplus is effected, not by natural selection, but by chance, by the drawing of lots. Under such circumstances there may be evolution, existing species may undergo change, but the evolution will be determined solely by the lines along which variations occur.

If mutations take place along certain fixed lines, and tend to accumulate in the given directions, evolution will proceed along these lines quite independently of the utility to the organism of the mutations that occur. An unfavourable mutation will have precisely the same chance of survival as a favourable one.

If, on the other hand, mutations occur indiscriminately on all sides of the mean, then those mutations which happen to occur most frequently will have the best chance of survival, and they will mark the lines of evolution. But suppose that no mutation occurs more frequently than the others. Under such circumstances there will be no evolution, unless, by some cause or other, portions of the species are isolated, because in the long run the mutations will neutralise one another.

Let us now suppose that natural selection comes into play. The old method of determining by lot which forms shall persist is replaced by selection on the fixed principle that the fittest shall survive. The mutations appear as before, and as before, of the large number that occur, only a few are permitted to survive. But now the survivors, instead of being a motley crowd, are a selected band, composed of individuals having many characteristics in common—a homogeneous company. Thus one result of natural selection is to accelerate evolution, by weeding out certain classes of individuals and preventing them breeding with those it has selected. On the other hand, natural selection will tend to diminish the number of species which have arisen through mutation, inasmuch as it weeds out many mutants which would have perished had their survival been determined by lot.

Origin of the Fittest

From this the kind of work performed by natural selection should be obvious. Natural selection does not make new species. These make themselves, or, rather, originate in accordance with the laws of variation.

“You can,” runs an old proverb, “bring a horse to the drinking fountain, but you cannot make him drink.” You may be able to bring a child into the world, but you cannot secure its survival. Variation brings into being mutants, which are incipient species, but variation cannot determine their survival. It is at this stage that natural selection steps in.

But because natural selection allows certain mutations to persist, it is not correct to say that natural selection has caused these mutations or made or originated the species to which they give rise.

The Civil Service Commissioners do not make Indian civil servants: they merely determine which of a number of ready-made men shall become civil servants. Similarly, natural selection does not make new species, it simply decides which of a number of ready-made organisms shall survive and establish themselves as new species. Nor does natural selection always do as much as this; for it is not the only determinant of survival. Its position is sometimes comparable to that of the Medical Board which inspects and rejects the physically unfit of the candidates which have already been selected by some other authority.

The examination conducted by natural selection may be compared to a competitive one. A separate, independent examination is held for each particular locality; consequently the severity of the competition will vary with the locality.

In each competition some candidates pass with ease: they gain an unnecessarily high total of marks. So in nature do certain organisms, as, for example, the Leaf-butterflies (Kallimas), appear to be over-adapted to their environment. Other candidates manage to pass only by a very narrow margin: these are paralleled in nature by those species which are barely able to maintain themselves, which become extinct the moment the competition increases in severity.

The great bulk of the candidates fail to obtain sufficient marks to gain a place among the chosen few; these unsuccessful candidates correspond to the mutating forms which perish in the struggle for existence, to those individuals which happen to have mutated in unfavourable directions.

Even as many candidates have acquired knowledge of subjects in which they are not examined, so do many organisms possess characteristics which are of no utility to them in the struggle for existence.

Wallaceians expend much time and energy in misguided attempts to explain the existence of such characters in terms of natural selection.

Nature’s examination, like that held for entrance to the Indian Civil Service, is a liberal one, so that the qualifications of the successful candidates vary considerably. Provided a candidate is able to gain more marks than the other candidates for a vacancy, it matters not in what subjects the marks are gained. So is it in nature. Natural selection takes an organism as a whole. One species may have established itself because of its fleetness, a second because of its courage, a third because it has a strong constitution, a fourth because it is protectively coloured, a fifth because it has good digestive powers, and so on.

We thus perceive the part played by natural selection and other forms of isolation in the making of species. It is obvious that these do not make species any more than the Civil Service Commissioners manufacture Indian civil servants.

The real makers of species are the inherent properties of protoplasm and the laws of variation and heredity. These determine the nature of the organism; natural selection and the like factors merely decide for each particular organism whether it shall survive and give rise to a species.

The way in which natural selection does its work is comparatively easy to understand. But this is only the fringe of the territory which we call evolution.

We seem to be tolerably near a solution of the problem of the causes of the survival of any particular mutation. This, however, is merely a side issue. The real problem is the cause of variations and mutations, or, in other words, how species originate. At present our knowledge of the causes of variation and mutation is practically nil. We do not even know along what particular lines mutations occur.

We have yet to discover whether one mutation invariably leads to another along the same lines—in other words, whether mutating organisms behave as though they had behind them a force acting in a definite direction. The solution of these problems seems afar off. The hope of solving them lies, not in the speculations in which biologists of to-day are so fond of indulging, but in observation and experiment, especially the last.

The future of biology is largely in the hands of the practical breeder.

FOOTNOTES

INDEX

A

Accentor, 1

Accipitcr cooperi, 243

Acorn, 49

Acquired characters, 10, 14, 15, 18-24, 60, 107-10

Acræeidæ, 175, 215, 228

Ægilops speltæformis, 118

Ægithina tiphia, 244

Æsthetic sense in birds, 306

“African Nature Notes and Reminiscences,” 192, 195, 199

Aggressive resemblance, 173

Aguara-guazu, 181

Aitken, E. H., 64

“Albany Review, The,” 43, 48, 195, 204

Albinism, 64, 65, 99, 283, 284, 362

Alcedo ispida, 289

Alcock, Col., 216, 217

Alcohol, 152, 153

Alexander, 181

Allen, Grant, 66

Allotrophy, 159

Alternating characters, 143

Alternative inheritance, 127

Amadavat, 311

Amandina erythrocephala, 122

A. fasciata, 122

“Amazement,” 93

Amazon parrot, 103

Amazonian dolphin, 99

Ammonites, 67

Ammonium sulphate, 151

Amœba, 35

Amphidasys betularia, 101

Anas boscas, 123, 334

A. obscura, 334

A. pœcilorhyncha, 315, 334

A. superciliosa, 315, 334

A. undulata, 334

Anastomus oscitans, 282

Ancon sheep, 95

Anemone magellanica, 118

A. sylvestris, 118

Anemophilous flowers, 261

“Animal Colouration,” 194, 205, 211, 213, 218, 222

“Animal Life and Intelligence,” 368

“Animals of New Zealand,” 382

Anous, 278

Anser cygnoides, 114

Anseranas melanoleucus, 281

Antarctic fauna, 191

Antelope, 48, 199, 334

Anthracoceros, 220

Anthropoides paradisea, 279

A. virgo, 279

Antilope cervicapra, 363

Ape, 101

Apogamy, 370

Appenzeller, 340

Apus, 381

“Archiv für Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen,” 325, 330

Arctic fauna, 173, 174, 190, 191

Arctic regions, 173, 189

Ardea asha, 317, 318

A. gularis, 318

Ardeola grayii, 250, 254

Argali, 120, 130, 131

“Argentine Ornithology,” 361

Argynnis pales, 381

A. paphia, 103

Aristotle, 1

Artemia milhausenii, 156

A. salina, 156

Aseel, 364

Asexual reproduction, 135

Asiatic, 140

Ass, 117, 127, 128, 140

Astur badius, 235

Atavism, 136, 293

Athene chiaradiæ, 97

A. noctua, 97

Atoms, biological, 158

“Auk, The,” 190

Aularches militaris, 216

Avebury, Lord, 205, 260

“Avicultural Magazine, The,” 98

Avocet, 80

B

Babbler, 244

Bactrian camel, 121

Bailey, 88

Baillon’s crake, 251

Balanced characters, 143

Balearica chrysopelargus, 105

B. regulorum, 105

Bassaris astuta, 242

Batesian mimicry, 177

Bateson, 26, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 102, 103, 302

Bats, 42

Bear, 101, 119, 190, 216, 282

Beddard, 180, 188, 194, 205, 211

Bee, 178, 179, 214, 221, 263, 264, 269

Beech, purple, 87

Bee-eater, 220, 278

Beetroots, 71

Belt, 216

Beluga, 190

Bentham, 260

Bestiary, 125

Bicheno’s finch, 105

Bilateral symmetry, 252, 253, 257

Bingham, Col. C. T., 239

Biological atoms, 158-69, 280

Biological molecules, 157-69, 280, 285, 291, 293, 294, 295, 344

Biological radicles, 158-69

Biophors, 153

“Bird Book, the,” 207

“Birds of the Plains,” 233, 303, 309, 359

Bison, 119, 126

Blackcock, 129, 131, 249, 278

Blackberry, 118

Blackbird, 201, 203, 207

Black-buck, 363

Blakiston, 181

Bloodsucker, 220

Blue-bellied waxbill, 104

Blyth, 115, 251

Boisier, 263

Bombyx arrindia, 125

B. cynthia, 124

Bonhote, 126, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 337

Bontebock, 196

Boselaphus tragocamelus, 357, 363

Bos frontalis, 126

Boulenger, 88

Bower-bird, 306

Brain-fever bird, 235, 236, 248

Bramble, 261

Branchipus, 156

Brannam, 92

Brent, Mr, 307

British Museum, 129, 130, 187

Bubo virginianus, 221

Bubulcus coromandus, 254

Budgerigars, 101

Buffalo, 120, 199

Buffon, 2

Buff Orpingtons, 65

Buff-tip moth, 215

Bufo melanostictus, 219

Bulbul, 123, 220, 221, 244, 245, 255, 256, 279

Bull, 119

Bungarus cœruleus, 217, 247

Bunting, reed, 98, 190, 289

Buphus coromandus, 317, 318

Burbank, 118

Burnet moth, 102

Bush-buck, 196

Butcher-bird, 241, 253

Buttercups, 70, 267, 274

Butterfly, 45, 47, 102, 103, 196, 197, 203, 204, 209, 212, 216, 238, 239, 240, 250, 264, 280, 306, 381

Buzzard, 262

C

Cacomistle, 242

Cairina moschata, 127, 245

Californian currant, 119

Calœnas nicobarica, 65

Calotes versicolor, 220

Camel, 120, 357

Campophaga, 248

Canary, 100, 101, 102, 117, 120, 127, 280, 338, 362

Canis jubatus, 181

Capercailzie, 129, 131

Capuchin monkey, 216

Carbon, 153

Carduelis caniceps, 255

C. carduelis, 255

Carnation, 85, 86

Carnivores, 67

Carp, 102

Carrion crow, 123

Carrot, 71, 269, 270

Casarca cana, 129

C. tadornoides, 129

“Cassell’s Book of the Horse,” 69

Castle, 149

Castration, effects of, 335, 344

Cat, 61, 98, 99, 100, 206, 282, 283, 339, 350, 356, 361

Cat-rabbit, 125

Cataloe, 119

Cataract, 340

Caterpillars, 155, 175, 205, 211, 215, 221, 350

Cattle, 94, 95, 115

Centropus sinensis, 220, 244

Cephalophus doriæ, 243

Cephalopyrus flammiceps, 244

Cervulus muntjac, 101

C. reevesii, 114

C. vaginalis, 114

Cervus paludosus, 180

C. sika, 120

Ceryle rudis, 202

Chaffinch, 289

Chamba monaul, 104

“Champion Ladybird,” 91, 92, 93

Change of function, theory of, 36, 37

Chen nivalis, 282

C. rossi, 282

Chenatopex ægyptiaca, 316

Chenonetta jubata, 316

Chinese goose, 99, 114, 121, 130

Chinese pheasant, 123

Chloëphaga dispar, 105

C. magellanica, 105, 334

C. rubidiceps, 105, 334

Chromosomes, 145-7

Chrysæna victor, 333

Chrysolophus amherstiæ, 121

C. obscurus, 97

C. pictus, 97, 121, 337

Chrysomitris colombiana, 244

Chrysotis æstiva, 103

Ciconia alba, 282

C. boyciana, 282

Cinnabar moth, 227

Cissopis leveriana, 281

Civil Service Commissioners, 385, 387

Cleistogamous flowers, 260

Climate as check on multiplication, 349, 350

Clouded-yellow butterfly, 103

Clover, 69, 274

Clytus arietis, 178, 229

Cobra, 224, 225, 226, 358, 359

Colias edusa, 103

Colour-blindness, 340

Colouration of Flowers, Law of Progressive, 66

—— of Organisms, 170-296

Columbidæ, 331, 333

Concealing colouration, 184-7

Congenital characters, 18, 19

Conn, 47

“Contemporary Review,” 26

Cope, 15, 67

Copsychus saularis, 281

Coracias affinis, 123, 255

C. indica, 123, 220, 255

Cordon-bleu, 104

Cormorant, 190, 191, 277, 381, 382

Corn, Indian, 81

Correlation, 39, 40, 117, 162, 167, 223, 339, 340, 344, 356-65

Corvus corone, 123, 255

C. cornix, 123, 255

C. splendens, 353

“Country-Side, The,” 261, 265, 266, 273, 304, 311, 313

Courser, 362

Court-bec, 72

Cow, 119, 120, 126

Crab, 155

Crane, 105, 247, 248, 279, 282, 292

Crateropus bicolor, 242

C. canorus, 179

Crax globicera, 104, 304

C. grayi, 104

C. hecki, 104, 304

Crested newt, 124

Cretaceous reptiles, 67

Crinoids, 67

Crocodile, 187

Cross-fertilisation, 69, 258-60

Crotalus, 223

Crow, 47, 123, 206, 220, 247, 255, 281, 353, 355, 359, 361

“Crow-pheasant,” 220

Cryptic colouring, 173

Cuckoo, 220, 233, 235, 236, 243, 244, 247, 248, 289

—— shrike, 248

Cuculus canorus, 289

Cuénot, 149

Cunningham, Col., 225, 226, 358

—— J. T., 15, 19, 20, 324, 325, 329, 331, 332, 333, 336

Cupples, Mr, 308

Curassow, 104, 304

Currant, 119

Cut-throat finch, 122

Cypselus affinis, 243

Cytisus adami, 119

D

Dafila acuta, 122

Dahlia, 86

Daisy, 266, 274

Daltonism, 340

Damaliscus lunatus, 363

Damp as a check to multiplication of species, 350, 351

Danaidæ, 175, 179, 215, 216, 226, 228

Danais chrysippus, 179, 250

Danger signal, 183, 214, 253, 254

Darter, 277

Darwin, 1-12, 14, 25-27, 31, 35, 42, 52, 54-7, 59, 60-3, 68, 83, 96, 112, 114-7, 119, 123, 127, 130, 151, 171, 175, 182, 184, 233, 259, 299, 301-8, 316, 319-21, 325, 326, 347

“Darwin and after Darwin,” 370-5, 377, 381

Darwinian theory, 3, 5-8, 11, 13, 27, 28, 35, 42, 45, 52, 75, 111, 171

Darwinism, 1, 7, 8, 11, 14, 26

“Darwinism,” 40, 53, 112, 117, 178, 207, 213, 228, 322, 323

“Darwinism To-day,” 16, 45, 67

Dasyurus, 283

De Candolle, 86

Decorative plumage, 40

Deer, 101, 120, 180, 298

Deerhound, 304, 308

Deer-ponies, 125

Degeneration, 168

Dejerine, 340

Delage, 33, 147

Delbœuf, Law of, 373

Delias eucharis, 216, 220, 221

Demiegretta, 100

Demoiselle crane, 277

“Descent of Man,” 234, 299, 301, 302, 304, 305, 319, 320, 326

Determination of sex, 165

“Development and Heredity,” 17

De Vries, 26, 66, 69-72, 75-8, 82-9, 95, 105, 118, 151

Dewar, D., 43, 44, 47, 48, 195, 204, 206, 208, 210, 225, 233, 236, 303, 308, 309, 354, 360, 378

Dewar, G. A. B., 196, 197

Dicrurus ater, 179, 233

Didelphys nurina, 243

Dimorphism, sexual, 51, 200, 201

Dipsacus, 58

Disease as a check to multiplication of species, 351

Dissemurus paradiseus, 179, 220

Divergence of character, 367

Dog, 59, 68, 99, 100, 125, 225, 226, 282, 283, 304, 308, 352, 357, 364, 365

Dog-rose, 261

Dolphin, 99

Dominant characters, 142

Donald, Mr D., 256

Dragon-fly, 216, 264

Driesh, 136

Drongo cuckoo, 233

Drongo-shrikes, 179, 220

Drummond, 382

Duck, 51, 60, 68, 97, 99, 100, 122, 126-8, 190, 247, 249, 282, 292, 314, 315, 334, 337, 338, 365

Duiker-buck, 243

Dyer, Sir William Thistleton, 26

E

Eagle, 65, 190, 350

Eagle-owl, 221

East, M. E., 79

Echis carinata, 224

“Eclipse,” 69

“Edinburgh Review, The,” 38

Eel, 102

Eggs, colours of birds’, 206-9

Egret, 100, 206, 254, 365

Eider-duck, 249

Eimer, 15, 16, 33

Eisig, 222

Elanoides furcatus, 282

Elaps, 197, 198

Elder, 49

Elementary species, 77, 78, 87, 88, 89

Elk, Irish, 67

Emberiza citrinella, 289

E. pyrrhuloides, 98

E. schœniclus, 98

Entomophila picata, 281

Entomophilous flowers, 261

Epenthesis folleata, 103

Epilobias, 260

Equus, 41

Erebia manto, 381

Erythrura prasina, 102

“Essays on Evolution,” 11, 173, 177, 181, 184, 213, 223, 226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 234, 237, 238, 239

Estrelda cyanogastra, 104

E. phœnicotis, 104

Ether, 152, 153

Euchelia jacobacæ, 227

Eurasian, 140

European, 140

Euxenura maguari, 282

Evening primrose, 84, 85, 88

“Evolution of Sex, The,” 306

Existence, struggle for, 31, 32

Eye-colour in human beings, 310

Eyesight of birds, 211, 237-41

—— insects, 264

Eyton, 15

F

“Faery Year, The,” 196

Falcon, 204, 246, 250

Falco peregrinator, 251

F. severus, 251

False mimicry, 243

Faults in poultry, 64

Ferrets, 100, 119

Finch, 117, 120

—— Bicheno’s, 105

—— chestnut-breasted, 98

—— cut-throat, 122

—— Gouldian, 98

—— Nonpareil, 102

—— red-headed, 142

—— ringed, 104

—— saffron, 244

—— yellow-rumped, 98

Finn, 99, 102, 115, 131, 179, 216, 219, 220, 235, 241, 255, 304, 309, 310, 313, 315, 316, 358

Fittest, survival of the, 32

Flowers, 65, 66

Flowers, colours of, 258-75

Fly-catchers, 44, 45, 47, 285, 338

Flying squirrel, 243

“Fortnightly Review, The,” 37, 38

Foul-brood, 353

Fowl, 56, 58, 61, 64, 65, 99, 101, 125, 127, 128, 282, 301, 302, 307, 314, 330, 336, 338, 339, 361, 362, 364, 365

Fowl-ducks, 125

Foxes, 101, 131, 190, 191

Fox-terrier, 19

Franqueiro cattle, 95

Francolinus pondicerianus, 337

Friar-bird, 249

Fringella coelebs, 209

Fritillary butterfly, 103

Frog, 325

Fruits, colours of, 258, 275

Fuligula marila, 290

Fulmar petrel, 190

Function, change of, 36, 37

Fungi, 263

G

Gadow, Dr, 197, 245

Gadwall, 126, 315

Galton, 81, 82, 374

“Game Birds and Wild Fowl of India,” 131

Gametes, segregation of, 143-5

Gannet, 282

Gayal, 126

Gauchos, 359

Gecko, 210

Geddes, 306, 326

Gemmules, 151

“Genesis of Species,” 7, 61

Geographical isolation, 375

Geological record, imperfection of, 40-2, 94

Geranium, 260

Germ-plasm, continuity of the, 25

Germinal variations, 106-10

Geum urbanum, 263

Gibbon ape, 101

Giraffe, 17, 18, 192, 196

Globicera, 104

Glutton, 190

Goat, 283

Goethe, 2

Golden pheasant, 97, 129, 149, 337, 338

Golden tench, 101

Goldfinch, 127, 255

Goldfish, 101, 102

Goose, 99, 100, 105, 115, 121, 130, 190, 281, 316, 334, 339

Gordon’s currant, 119

Goshawk, 247

Gouldian Finch, 99

Graba, 58

Gradation of colour, principle of, 185

Graculipica melanoptera, 244

“Grammar of Science, The,” 309

Grass, 273

Grasshopper, 185

Greenfinch, 122

Greyhound, 364

Grosbeak, 281, 284

Groundsel, 260

Grouse, red, 125

Growth-force, 15, 16, 68

Grus leucogeranus, 282

Guillemot, 58, 190, 245

Guinea-fowl, 100, 127, 128, 279, 362

Guinea-pig, 95, 101, 129, 283

Gulick, 369, 372-7, 380

Gull, 190, 191, 207, 247, 290, 355

Gygis, 278

Gyrfalcon, 190

H

Haeckel, 15, 24

Hæmophilia, 340

Halcyon smyrnensis, 202

Haliœtus albicilla, 65

Hare, 131, 185, 200

Harrier, 101

Hartebeeste, 363

Hawk-cuckoo, 235, 236

Hawk-eagle, 101

Hawks, 222, 235, 236, 247, 277

Hecki, 104

Helice, 103

Heliconidæ, 175, 215, 216, 228

Heloderm, 217

Henslow, 15, 22, 23, 47, 48, 259

“Heredity,” 103, 145, 166, 340

“Heredity of Acquired Characters in Plants,” 22, 48

“Heredity of Sexual Characters in relation to Hormones,” 19, 330

Heron, 250, 317

Herring, 193

Hertwig, 151

Heusinger, 357

Hewitt, Mr, 307

Hierococcyx varius, 235, 248

Hilversum, 84

Himalayan argali, 120

Hinny, 127, 136, 140, 162

Hipparchia, semele, 205

Hippotragus equinus, 334

H. niger, 334

Hirundo rustica, 251

H. tytleri, 251

“History of Creation,” 24

Hobby, 250, 251

Homogamy, 370

Honeyeater, 281

Hormones, 335, 338

Hornbill, 65, 220

Horner, 340

Horse, 61, 68, 69, 95, 96, 100, 101, 117, 127, 128, 140, 266, 267, 268, 272, 283, 332, 352, 363, 364, 374

Horse, genealogy of, 41

Houghton, 91

Howard, 315, 332

Hubrecht, 26

Hume, 131

Humming-bird, 328

Hutton, 3

Hutton, Captain, 115, 382

Huxley, 3, 6, 11, 40, 100, 111

Hyæna, 353

Hybridism, 111-32, 292, 293

Hydra, 21

Hydrogen, 152, 153

Hydrophasianus chirurgus, 250

Hyla, 245

Hypertely, 237, 240

Hypolimnas misippus, 179, 180

I

“Ibis, The,” 255, 256

Icterus vulgaris, 244, 281, 284

Impeyan pheasant, 104

Indian Civil Service, 385, 386, 387

Indian corn, 81

Inheritance, 133-69

—— alternative, 127

—— blended, 140, 148

—— definition of, 138

—— of acquired characters, 10, 14, 15, 18-24, 60, 107-10

—— particulate, 140

—— unilateral, 139, 140, 162

Insectivores, 67

Intercrossing, swamping effects of, 42, 83

Intimidating attitudes, 224, 225

Iora, 244

Iridescence, 186

Irish elk, 67, 168

Isolation, 366-82, 387

Isomerism, biological, 154-8

—— chemical, 152-4, 157

Ithomiinæ, 228, 246

Ivy, 261

J

Jacana, 250

Jackdaw, 51, 306

Jaeger, 86

Jaguar, 45, 358

Japanese greenfinch, 122

—— pheasant, 122, 124, 129

Jardin des plantes, 88

Java sparrow, 99, 100

Jelly-fish, 192

Jesse, W., 255

Johnston, 92

“Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,” 209

“Journal of the Royal Society of Arts,” 236, 324, 378

Jungle-babbler, 179

Jungle fowl, 332

K

Kallima, 45, 47, 209, 212, 235, 386

Kellog, 16, 26, 45, 47, 67

Kingfisher, 202, 203, 206

Kite, 282

“Knowledge,” 171, 198, 277

Korchinsky, 15, 33

Krait, 216, 247

Kuppa, 224

L

Labernum, 119

Lachnanthes, 357

Ladybird, 213, 214

Lamarck, 2, 14, 17, 52

Lamarckism, 16, 24, 25

Lambert, Edward, 341

Lankester, Sir E. Ray, 13, 25

Lapwing, 207

Lark, 185, 362

Larus ridibundus, 290

Latent characters, 149

Law of battle, 301, 302, 321

Leaf-butterfly, 45, 47, 209, 235, 386

Lemming, 190

Lemur, 242, 243

Lemur catta, 242

Leopard, black, 101, 354, 358

Leucopternis, 282

Ligurinus sinicus, 122

Lily, 146

Linaria vulgaris peloria, 86

Linden, Gräfin von, 155

Links, missing, 41, 42

Linnæus, 65, 115

Linnet, 212, 338

“Linus I.,” 95, 96

Lion, 192, 334, 349, 352

Liothrix luteus, 179

Lizard, 64, 207, 210, 212, 216, 217, 220, 223, 269, 350

Loddigesia mirabilis, 328

Loeb, 147

Lophophorus chambanus, 104

L. impeyanus, 104

Lucerne, 118

Lung, 36, 37

Lutinism, 102

Lycæna donzelli, 381

L. pheretes, 381

Lycodon aulicus, 247

Lyell, 3

M

Mackerel, 193

Madingly, 102

Mænia typica, 221

Magnus, 86

Magpie, 281

Magpie colouring, 66, 67, 280, 281

Magrath, 256

Male-fern, 49

Mallard, 65, 97, 122, 126, 132, 293, 313, 315, 334, 337

Malthus, 31

Malva, 260

Manchester School, 27

Mannikin, 104

Marbled newt, 124, 245

Marshall, 28

—— Mr G. A. K., 239

—— Milnes, 37, 174

Marsupials, 67

Masters, 86

“Materials for the Study of Variation,” 73, 103

Mauchamp sheep, 95

Mayer, 228

“Mechanischphysiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre,” 15

Medicago media, 118

Megascops asio, 44

Melanism, 64, 101, 360

Melopsittacus undulatus, 101

Mendel, 42, 74, 136, 141, 142, 144, 145

Mendel’s Law, 145, 149, 150, 161

Mendelism, 145

Mesohippus, 41

Micellæ, 151

Micropus melanoleucus, 245

“Mikado, The,” 237

Mildew, 49

Mimicry, conditions of, 178

Mimicry, protective, 45, 50, 51, 173, 177-82, 226-51, 275, 293, 294

Mink, 243

Miohippus, 41

Missing links, 41, 42

Missouri currant, 119

Mivart, Dr St George, 7, 61

Mole, 180

Molge blasii, 124

M. cristata, 124

M. marmorata, 124

M. vulgaris, 221

Mollusca, 49

—— of Sandwich Islands, 375, 378

Molpastes, 123, 255

Molpastes bengalensis, 256, 379

M. burmanicus, 379

M. hæmorrhous, 255, 379

M. intermedius, 256, 379

M. leucogenys, 256

Monaul, 104

Monkey, 64, 213

Monotypic evolution, 366

Monstrosities, 56, 57, 358

Morgan, Prof. Ll., 368

—— T. H., 26

Morse, 190

Moseley, Prof., 311

Motacilla lugubris, 122

M. melanope, 122

Moth, 101, 102, 124, 209, 215, 227, 238, 240

Mouse, 64, 105, 139, 141, 146, 149, 150, 180, 185, 282, 359

Mule, 127, 136, 140, 160, 162

Müller, Fritz, 81, 180

Müllerian mimicry, 177, 181, 182

Munia atricapilla, 104

M. castaneithorax, 98

M. flaviprymna, 98

M. malacca, 104

Muscovy duck, 99, 127, 128, 281

Musk ox, 190, 192

Mustela sarmatica, 243

Mutations, 41, 43, 66, 69, 72, 75-105, 124, 127, 134, 159, 160, 169, 223, 280, 281, 284, 292, 295, 339, 341, 342-4, 380-8

Mutations, theory of, 26, 38, 75, 76, 95

Myna, 244

Myristicivoræ, 282

N

Naegeli, 15, 16, 151

Nahrwal, 190

Natural selection, theory of, stated, 31, 32

“Nature,” 184

Nautili, 67

Nectar of flowers, 262, 264, 265, 268, 270, 271

Neo-Darwinians, 13, 14, 25, 173, 174, 176, 188, 214, 218, 222, 233, 238, 242, 263, 264

Neo-Darwinism, 51, 172, 234, 235, 264, 275, 276, 297

Neo-Lamarckians, 13, 14, 15

Neophron, 282

Nepheronia hippia, 179

Nettium albigulare, 179

New organs, beginnings of, 36, 73

Newman, 126

Newt, 124, 221, 222

Niata cattle, 95

Nicobar pigeon, 65

Nilgai, 337

Nitrogen, 153

Noddy, 62, 279

Nonpareil finch, 102

Nyroca africana, 337

O

Oates, 255, 379

Obliterative colouration, 184-7

Ocydromus, 365

Œnis, 205

Œnopopelia tranquebarica, 122, 123, 324, 333

Œnothera lamarckiana, 84, 85, 87, 88

Ononis repens, 23

O. spinosa, 22

Opossum, 243

Orchid, 268, 269, 270, 272

Orgyia antiqua, 215

“Origin of Species, The,” 7, 9, 11, 31, 53, 57, 63, 114, 170, 194, 347, 348, 356, 367

Oriole, 244, 249, 284, 304

Oriolus galbula, 282

O. kundoo, 282

O. melanocephalus, 244, 284

“Ornithological and Other Oddities,” 255

Orohippus, 41

Orr, 15-7

Orthogenesis, 15, 16, 34

Ossifraga gigantea, 99, 362

Otidiphaps insularis, 244

Ovis ammon, 120

O. vignei, 120

Owen, Sir Richard, 7

Owl, 247, 277, 289

—— little, 97, 98

—— scops, 101

—— snowy, 190

Ox, 146, 352

Oxygen, 152, 153, 263

P

Paddy bird, 254

Paint-root, 357

Palæornis torquatus, 102, 325

Pallas, 115

Pansy, 260

Panther, 360

Papilio, 228, 246

P. aristolochiæ, 179, 216, 220, 221

P. polites, 179

Paradise, bird of, 62, 249

Paradise flycatcher, 47, 202, 298, 303, 316, 324, 338

Paradisea apoda, 249

Paraguay cattle, 94

Parnassius apollo, 155

Paroquet, 102, 121, 325

Parrot, 103

Parthenogenesis, 135, 138

Partridge, 185, 315, 337

Parus leucopterus, 245

Passer domesticus, 289, 342

P. montanus, 342

P. swainsoni, 342

Pasteur, 5

Pavo nigripennis, 96

Pavoncella pugnax, 343

Pea, sweet, 74, 75, 81, 141

Pear, 72

Pearson, Karl, 309, 310

Peckham, 308

Pekin robin, 179

Pelagic animals, 173, 192-4

Penguin, 191

Pennant’s parakeet, 121

Petaurus breviceps, 243

Petrel, 44, 190, 191, 277, 337

Pfeffer, 33

Phalacrocorax carbo, 381

Phalanger, 243

Phalarope, 327

Phasianidæ, 125, 330

Phasianus colchicus, 114, 123

P. torquatus, 114, 123

P. versicolor, 114, 123, 124

Pheasant, 97, 104, 114, 121, 123, 128-30, 141, 315, 336, 338

Pictet, 155, 156

Pieris napi, 155

Piezorhynchus, 285

Pig, 57, 283, 357, 365

Pigeon, 61, 62, 65, 68, 71, 72, 91, 92, 93, 98, 101, 109, 126, 127, 244, 277, 282, 353, 357, 364, 365

Pigment, massing of, 256

Pike, 102, 222

Pimpernel, 261

Pintail duck, 130, 132, 293, 337

Pintailed nonpareil finch, 102

“Plant Breeding,” 87

Plasomes, 151

Plastidules, 151

Platycercus elegans, 121

P. erythropeplus, 121

P. eximius, 121

Pliohippus, 41

Plover, 207

Plumage, decorative, 40

Pochard, 126, 337

Pœcilomeres, 288-95

Poëephila mirabilis, 99

Polar bear, 119, 130

Polar bodies, 135

Polecat, 119

Polytypic evolution, 367

Poppy, 82, 261

Porzana bailloni, 251

P. pusilla, 251

Post-nuptial display, 316

Potentilla tormentilla, 263

Poulton, 11, 25, 26, 171, 173, 177, 181, 184, 210, 213, 217, 221, 223-5, 229-35, 238-42

Precis artexia, 203, 204, 212

Preferential mating among human beings, 309, 310

Prepotency, 136

Prickly pear, 274

Primrose, evening, 84, 85, 88

Pritchard, Hesketh, 359

“Proceedings of the Fourth International Ornithological Congress,” 288, 337

“Proceedings of the Linnæan Society,” 288

“Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brunn,” 141

Protohippus, 37

Pseudoclytia pentata, 103

Pseudo-sematic colours, 173

Pseudotantalus cinereus, 282

Ptarmigan, 190

Pteroclurus exustus, 204

Puffin, 191

Pugnacity of animals, 206, 360

Puma, 45

Purple beech, 87

Pycraft, W. P., 277

Pycnorhampus affinis, 284

P. icteroides, 284

Pygæra bucephala, 215

Q

Quail, 185

Quatrefages, de, 124

Quelea quelea, 98

Q. russi, 98

Querquedula crecca, 290

Quetelet’s Law, 77

R

Rabbit, 99, 100, 105, 183, 253, 283, 350, 352

Racehorse, 69

Radicles, biological, 159

Rallus aquaticus, 251

R. indicus, 251

Ranunculus bulbosus, 70

Rappia, 245

Raspberry, 118

Rat, 74, 282

—— water, 101

Raven, 190

Razorbill, 190

Recessive characters, 142

Recognition colours, 251-7, 275

—— marks, 124

Red-mantled parakeet, 121

Redpole, 207

Redwing, 354

Reed bunting, 98

Reeves’ pheasant, 129

Regression, Law of, 82, 374

Reid, Archdale, 5

Reindeer, 190

Rest-harrow, 22

Reversion, 64, 65, 129, 293

Rhinosciurus tupaioides, 180

Rhodocera rhamni, 155

Rhododendron ferrugineum, 118

R. hirsutum, 118

Rhynchæa, 327

Ricardo, 28

Ringed finch, 104

Robin, 281, 378

Robin, Indian, 202

Robinson, Dr H., 171, 198

—— E. K., 261, 264, 265, 266, 268, 270, 272-4

Rodents, 67

Rogeron, 126

Roller, 123, 220, 255

Romanes, 366-81

Rook, 51, 187

Rose, 61, 267

Rosella parakeet, 121

Rous, Admiral, 69

Roux, 136

Ruff, 343

S

Sable, 190

Saffron finch, 244

Sainfoin, 267

Salamander, 217, 219, 221

Salix alba, 118

S. pentandra, 118

Sandgrouse, 204, 351

Sandpipers, 185, 190

Sassaby, 363

Satyridæ, 205

Scatliff, H. P., 91-3

Scatliff strain, 91

Scaup, 290

Schmankewitsch, 156

“Science,” 166

Sciuropterus volucella, 243

Scops giu, 101

Scops owl, American, 44

——, Indian, 101

Scoter, 249

Seal, 190, 191

Sea-urchin, 149

Seaweed, 263

Sebright, Sir John, 63

Secondary sexual characters, 298

Segregation, 369

—— of gametes, 143-5

Selous, Edmund, 308

—— F. C., 192, 195, 197, 203

Sematic colours, 173

Sesia fuciformis, 178

Sexual dimorphism, 51, 297-344

Sexual selection, theory of, 299-321

Shaheen, 251

Shamrock, 274

Sheathbill, 191

Sheep, 95, 266, 267, 283, 357, 372

Sheldrake, 109, 129

Shikra, 235, 236

Shoveler, 290

Shrew, 180, 216

Sidgwick, 28

Sidney, 5, 49

Sika deer, 120

Silver-washed fritillary butterfly, 103

Siskin, 127, 244

Skua, Arctic, 44, 362

Skua-gull, 191

Skunk, 186, 217, 221

Skylark, 315

Slug, 49, 185

Smith, Adam, 28

Snake, 185, 197, 198, 217, 220, 223-6, 247, 356

Snap-dragon, 268, 272

Snipe, 69, 327

Sodium sulphate, 151

Somatic variations, 106-10

“Some Indian Friends and Acquaintances,” 225, 358

Sorrel, 274

Sparrow, 213, 241, 341, 342

—— Java, 99, 100

Sparrow-hawk, 235, 243

Spatula clypeata, 290

Spavin, 332

“Species and Varieties,” 69, 77, 84, 87, 118

Species, definition of, 89

Species, elementary, 77, 78, 87-9

Spencer, 3, 15, 16, 28, 38, 151

Spider, 269, 272

Sporæginthus amandava, 311

Sports, 41, 43, 66, 75, 85, 135

Squirrel, 101, 186, 243

Stag, 325

—— Irish, 67

Standfuss, 155

Stanley crane, 248, 279

St Hilaire, T. G., 2, 356

Stick insect, 209

Stictoptera annulosa, 104

Stoat, 119, 190, 290

Stolzmann, 327-9, 342, 343

Stonechat, 353

Stork, 247, 282

“Strand Magazine,” 64

Strix flammea, 289

Struggle for existence, 31, 32, 48

—— for nourishment, 167

Suchetet, A., 126, 130

Sula capensis, 282

S. serrator, 282

Sunbird, 324

Surniculus lugubris, 235, 243

Survival of the fittest, 32

Survival value, 33, 34

Swallow, 250, 251, 279, 361

Swallow-shrike, 281

Swallow-tail butterfly, 179

Swan, 100

Swift, 243, 250

Swimming bladder of fishes, 36, 37

Sycalis flaveola, 244

Syrphidæ, 178

T

Tachycineta leucorrhoa, 361

Tadorna cornuta, 129

T. tadornoides, 129

Tails, 62, 64

Tait, Mr, 356

Tanager, 281

Tapir, 42

Tasmanian devil, 282

Teal, 290, 316

Teasel, fuller’s, 58

Teeth, molar, 105

Tegetmeier, Mr, 307

Tern, 62, 278

Terpsiphone paradisi, 202, 298, 304, 316, 324

Tetraogallus, 337

Tetraonidæ, 125

Tetrapteryx paradisea, 249

Tetrao tetrix, 129

T. urogallus, 129

Thamnobia cambayensis, 202, 275

T. fulicata, 202, 378

Thayer, Mr Abbot, 184-7

Thompson, Seton, 354

Thomson, 103, 136, 145, 166, 306, 326, 340

Throat disease, 353

“Through Southern Mexico,” 197, 245

“Through the Heart of Patagonia,” 359

Thrush, 203, 207, 355

Tiger, 334

Tit, 245

Toad, 210, 219, 241

Toad-flax, 56

Tortoise, 222

Trefoil, 274

Trochilium, 229

Trogon, 62

Tropidonotus piscator, 220

Troupial, 244, 281, 284

Tsetse-fly, 352

Tupaia, 180, 216

T. ellioti, 216

Turbit, 72, 91-3

“Turbit, The Modern,” 91

Turkey, 95, 363

Turnspit dog, 59

Turtur cambayensis, 333

T. suratensis, 333

T. risorius, 33, 123, 126

Tylor, Mr Alfred, 287

U

Ungulates, 67

Unilateral transmission, 341

Unit characters, 148-52

Uria grylle, 245

U. lacrymans, 58

Urial, 120, 130, 131

Urodynamis tritensis, 243

V

Valezina, 103

Vanessa levana, 154

V. prorsa, 154

Vapourer moth, 215

Variation, 52-110

—— cause of, 59-60

—— continuous, 56, 69, 76, 105

—— definite, 55

—— determinate, 55

—— discontinuous, 43, 56, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79, 87, 105, 106, 133, 159, 295

—— germinal, 106-10, 133

—— indefinite, 55, 59

—— somatic, 106-110

Viola, 260

V. tricolor, 260

Volckamer, 86

Vulture, 282

W

Waggett, 12

Wagner, 369, 372

Wagtail, 122, 203

Wallace, 3, 10, 13, 14, 25, 26, 35-42, 53, 112, 114, 116, 117, 171, 175, 177, 183, 184, 207, 213, 228, 230, 251, 253, 256, 287, 296, 308, 321-7, 343, 372, 377

Wallaceian school of biologists, 14, 24, 25, 47, 192, 210, 251, 346, 347, 366, 377

Wallaceism, 172, 202

Walrus, 190

Warblers, British, 315, 332

Warning colours, 173, 176, 198, 212-26

Wasp, 174, 178, 179, 214, 227

Wasp-beetle, 229

Water-rail, 251

Waxbill, blue-bellied, 104

Weasel, 190

Weaver, red-billed, 98

Weber, 86

Weir, Mr Jenner, 299

Weismann, 25, 106, 107, 151, 154

Weka rail, 365

“Westminster Review,” 112

Weston, G. E., 127

Whale, 42, 185, 190, 193

Wheatear, 253

Whinchat, 253

Wiesner, 151

Wilson, Prof. E. B., 166

Winter coat, 188

Wolf, 48, 130, 185, 192

Wonder horse, 95, 96

Woodpecker, 102

Wright, Mr, 304

Wyman, Professor, 357

X

X-element, 165

Y

Yak, 120

Yarrow, 268

“Year-book of the Smithsonian Institution,” 184

Yerbury, Col., 239

Youatt, 63

Z

Zebra, 196

Zebu, 120

Zocher & Co., 56

Zoological Gardens, Lahore, 309

——, London, 104, 119, 126, 130, 206, 304, 316

Zoological Society of London, 330

Zygæna filipendulæ, 102