JULIUS CÆSAR
The Roman Empire
TWO
Through nearly four centuries of conquest and alliance (400-44 B. C.) the Roman empire came to embrace the entire Mediterranean region. After Cæsar’s conquest of Gaul, it extended from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, from the North Sea and Alps to the Sahara. This vast area was organized into administrative divisions, called provinces. Its very size meant a heterogeneous population, scores of peoples, each with its own language and customs. In the east Greek had replaced local tongues for literary, diplomatic, and business purposes. In the west many dialects remained: for Latin, though official, was but gradually coming into universal use.
Life in the empire was mainly agricultural. Tools were simple, if not primitive; and only after a struggle could the peasant produce enough to last until the next harvest. Industries were largely domestic, carried on at home, or in small shops for local use. The eastern parts—Egypt, Asia Minor, and western Asia—were far wealthier. Here commerce and skilled industries were more flourishing, though by any modern estimate, on a small scale. As there were no machines in the modern sense, goods had to be made by hand. The imperial roads were in excellent condition but distances were long, travel was slow, and transportation expensive, save by water.
When a new territory was incorporated into the empire, it became a province. It was placed in charge of a quæstor, who controlled financial matters, and a general executive called proprætor or proconsul—both appointed annually by the imperial government. The governor commanded the army and acted as the highest judge in his territory. The province was divided into city-states, each of which retained its laws and customs, its magistrates, council, and popular assembly. They managed their local affairs, and no attempt was made to interfere in their religion. Instead of rendering military service they had to pay annual tribute. At auction the highest bidders received contracts for collecting taxes in the several cities.
Unfortunately, abuses crept into provincial rule. In the first place, Rome favored her citizens at the expense of her subjects. Native merchants were superseded by greedy speculators and traders, who, reducing the people to poverty, drove the peasants from their farms and built up vast estates of their own. The evil of “farming” taxes became intolerable, for avaricious contractors made the peasants pay far more than their due. In his year of service, too, the typical governor expected to accumulate a fortune sufficient (1) to pay political debts, (2) to bribe judges in case of prosecution, (3) to live in luxury the remainder of his life. Few governors were honest enough to check these wrongs. Furthermore, the wealthier provinces were heavily overtaxed to help pay the expense of governing the newly acquired frontier provinces, which as a rule were financial failures.
These evils Cæsar went far in remedying. He curtailed the system of “farming” taxes, and placed it under strict supervision. Thus capitalists were prevented from openly plundering the subjects. He appointed able, honest governors, and held them to account. Legionary commanders, too, appointed by him to serve under the governor, and revenue officials—his own servants and freedmen—saw that his will was everywhere enforced. The provinces, especially the poorer ones, were to be cultivated and improved. An attempt was made to equalize the burden of taxation, and the heavy drain on the eastern provinces was lessened. Lastly, in order to abolish class and national distinctions, and to weld together the empire, Cæsar allowed himself to be worshipped as a god, and adopted the policy of rapidly granting citizenship to provincials. In aiming to bring about such an empire devoid of nationality Cæsar followed the procedure of the great Alexander, and set an example for his successor, Napoleon.
PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6. No. 2, SERIAL No. 150
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.
THE ROMAN FORUM—IN THE TIME OF CÆSAR