The mothercraft manual

The child can be taught from babyhood to sit so that the light falls from the left upon his pictures or drawing, and not to sit either directly facing the window or with his back squarely against it.

Reading for five minutes requires more than a thousand separate movements of the eye,—as much work as is required of it in an hour of ordinary use; and the ciliary muscle, which controls the eye accommodation, probably is required in that five minutes to do as much work as in a day of ordinary seeing.

This has an important bearing upon the question of how early a child should begin reading, writing, sewing, or fine handwork; certainly, from the standpoint of hygiene, such work should be deferred until at least seven or eight years, and then begun only with the assurance of the oculist that the eyes can stand the strain.

School children should be taught to read with the best conditions, viz.:

Lamplight is easiest. Lights should always have a plain shade. Indirect lighting is best. Gaslight should have a Welsbach to give steady rays. White light is hard on the eyes; amber light, produced by amber shades, is easiest.

In selecting books for children, look for the following requirements:

Certain contagious diseases of the eyes temporarily or permanently impair vision. At any sudden redness or white discharge, the child should be immediately taken to the physician, as blindness may follow in a few hours after infection, although it is preventable by a simple immediate treatment. Children should be warned never to use public towels or wash basins, or to touch the eyes with soiled handkerchief or dirty hands.

The eyes should be washed daily with the boric acid solution until three or four years of age, and after that with the plain or slightly salt water, using the boric acid whenever irritation or redness appears.

Motor Training and Poise. Provide some play apparatus that requires motor coördination.

12 months to 3 years. A stile, of one or two low steps, adjusted to the baby’s size, with handrail each side, on which he can climb up and down. Tenpins, large size ringtoss.

Use a small enamel cup for drinking, and let the child, when feeding, use his spoon and cup himself as early as he shows an inclination, which should be not later than a year and a half. Do not scold when he spills things while learning. By three years he should have control, and be held to strict carefulness and neatness in eating.

3 to 6 years. Jumping place, with elevation 1 to 2 feet from which to jump toward a marked space. Teach the child how to jump correctly, landing on the soles of the feet and bending the knees as he lands.

Car rail or substitute to walk along, preferably raised 1 to 6 inches from the ground. A single painted board 4 inches wide, or a painted mark 2 inches wide will answer.

From three years, let him carry his tray at meal time, with dishes and food.

Teach the child how to gain poise when he begins to feel worried, cross, nervous, excited:

Posture. Find out what is good posture in sitting, standing, and walking, and see that the child maintains these. During childhood and youth the bones are still soft and yielding, readily altered in shape.

Stretching, throwing, swinging from rings or horizontal bars, climbing, rowing, swimming, are excellent preventive exercises, and useful for correction of curvatures or round shoulders. For the child’s use select chairs that are properly constructed (as most chairs are not) and a table at which he can work without stooping, changing such furniture to meet his needs as he grows.

Spinal curvature and round shoulders may be caused by rickets, eyestrain, partial deafness, improperly constructed chairs and tables, long sitting, insufficient outdoor life and physical activity, unequal strength of complementary muscles of back and chest, or of right and left sides, and by carrying always on one side.

Spinal curvature crowds the internal organs, interfering with the normal functioning of lungs, heart, blood supply, stomach, and intestines; it causes pressure upon the spinal nerves, and consequent disorders in remote parts of the body controlled by the affected nerves.

If curvature has developed, special gymnastics and training should be faithfully practiced in addition to removing the cause. Braces are inadvisable, preventing needed exercise. The correction of even the slightest curvature is important while the bones are still plastic. The special exercises should be prescribed by a physical director or physician.

Physical Exercises. A child who has ample outdoor play space, and clothes adapted to outdoor play is not likely to need any special exercises. For correcting abnormal or weak conditions, the following are effective:

1. Hanging from bar or swinging rings. (Figure 3.)

To overcome tendency toward spinal curvature, and to strengthen back and trunk muscles.

2. Lying on table, hard bed, or floor (covered by clean sheet or blanket); lift knees to chest, alternate legs four counts, then together four counts. (Figure 1.)

3. Same exercise in standing position.

4. Lying on hard, clean surface, lifting feet at right angles to trunk; alternate legs four counts; together four counts. (Figure 2.)

Exercises 2, 3, and 4 are valuable in overcoming constipation, promoting digestion, strengthening trunk muscles, increasing circulation to trunk and pelvis.

5. Lying on hard surface, arms folded, feet held down, rise to sitting position. Four counts. (Figure 4.)

6. Same position, but hands clasped back of head. Four counts.

7. Same position, but arms extended above head. Four counts. (Figure 5.)

Exercises 5, 6, and 7 strengthen trunk, chest, and back muscles and have also the values of 2, 3, and 4.

All exercise should begin slowly and be done steadily. Especially with trunk exercises there should be no sudden, jerking movements. One who is unaccustomed to these exercises should begin with the easiest, (2) and (5), and gradually begin the more severe ones.

These exercises are especially important for girls, who are likely to miss the climbing and tumbling exercises that their brothers enjoy. Girls especially need the straight spine, the strong trunk muscles, and the thorough pelvic circulation.

8. Lying on a hard surface, knees bent, forcibly contract and expand the abdominal wall. By placing the hand on the abdomen, the sinking and rising of the abdominal wall is easily marked.

This is a very mild exercise for increasing circulation in the trunk and pelvis, thereby promoting digestion, overcoming constipation, and strengthening the pelvic organs.

Preventing or Overcoming Nervousness. Nervousness may express itself as:

Marked nervous defects, such as imbecility, idiocy, epilepsy, manias, cannot be more than mentioned here. They may be present from birth, or may develop later. Their treatment belongs entirely to the field of the physician, neurologist, and psychopathologist. Treatment of mental defects should begin at the earliest possible age; some forms are curable if treated early.

Nervousness may be due to physical or psychological conditions. It may appear at any age. Its causes may be immediate or may lie farther back in childhood, infancy, or heredity. As the nervous system was the latest to evolve, it is therefore the least stable, and the most likely to suffer under stress of conditions. If there is a heredity in either branch of the family, either of marked nervous defect, alcoholism, or neurasthenia, special precautions should from the first be taken to overcome this predisposition in the child.

Other causes of nervousness in children include:

Preventing nervousness is a matter of preventing these causes; overcoming is a matter of removing the cause and conducting a constructive program of physical régime and psychological treatment. The physical régime will include regularity, free outdoor life and play, open-air sleeping, frequent rest periods, nutritious diet, with special attention to sufficiency of mineral and laxative foods, and use of relaxing or energizing exercises.

Rhythm through instrumental music that is listened to, or in dancing, marching, gymnastic exercises, and singing, is of great value in overcoming nervousness. Cheerful, happy, comfortable stories and pictures will supply mental images to replace the disturbing ones, especially before bedtime.

Relief from intestinal worms and local irritation, or circumcision, may remove the cause of masturbation. The child’s questions regarding sex phenomena should always be answered wholesomely, reverently, sufficiently to give him a true perspective and to satisfy his natural curiosity.

The substitution of large muscle work, as with large blocks, balls, carpenter tools, will provide activity without taxing nerve ends of fingers. Examination by the oculist (not optician) will locate eyestrain. Opportunity for expression of wholesome emotions and interests will remove tension and sense of suppression.

Interests or emotions that appear unwholesome or abnormal should be patiently and thoroughly analyzed to discover the germ of good that is in them, and to utilize this; consultation with a physician, teacher, minister, social worker, or psychologist, may be enlightening. Wholesome emotions and interests should have encouragement for full expression, limited by the strength of the child and courtesy due to others.

Detect fatigue symptoms: (a) the tenseness shown by flushed face, rapid, labored breathing, excitement, erratic movements; or (b) relaxation shown by listlessness, indifference, irritability, forgetfulness. Fatigue not only overstrains the nerves; it develops poisons in the blood that affect the whole system.

Fears are a difficult problem. Make a list of the things it is observed the child fears, such as the dark, cats, dogs, flies, etc. Gradually, slowly, patiently lead him to acquaintance with these, and therefore to his own destruction of the fear. Teach him to memorize quotations that ring with confidence, faith, courage.

Cultivate self-control through regularity of regimen, the example of poise, the denying of any object that is screamed for, or cried for, the inculcating of an ideal of self-control through story-telling.

Sex Hygiene. This is both a physiological and a psychological problem. Both phases must always be recognized.

Physiological Hygiene. In infancy, keep the special organs clean as directed in Chapter VI. Consult a physician regarding the advisability of circumcision; this is needed in about twenty per cent. of boys, and is often advisable in others; it is sometimes required in girls.

Take special care that clothing is not rough, tight, or irritating about the genitals; therefore avoid (a) underdrawers with more than one-quarter wool; some children with sensitive skin should have even these lined with thin cotton gauze; (b) drawers cut too short or shallow in the seat (a defect in some ready-made styles); (c) trousers too short or tight or with rough seams; (d) suspenders too short, that pull the trousers too tight; trousers during first six years should not have opening in front.

With young children, watch for any local irritation or discharge. For the former, use local applications of boric solution as a wash, followed by a starch powder or zinc ointment. Discover the cause; it may be rough or damp clothing, intestinal worms, acid urine due to excess of sugar or meat in the diet, or to insufficient drinking water. Alkaline diet, or a pinch of soda in the drinking water for a few days, will help to counteract the acidity. As the child grows older, beyond six years, encourage him to report to you any irritation, and teach him how he should relieve it.

If a discharge appears, of mucous, whitish, or greenish matter, report the matter immediately to the physician, and take every precaution against infection; use a local wash of boric acid, double strength, cleanse the hands with antiseptic solution, sterilize the child’s wash cloths, towels, underdrawers, and bedding, and let him have his separate wash basin, chamber, and bath until the physician gives assurance of no contagious disease.

Teach the child to always wash the hands after going to the toilet. See that the hands are outside the bed covers at night; they may be folded under the cheek, or the child may have a doll or toy animal to hold. Be watchful, but do not let the child ever surmise that you mistrust, suspect, or even watch him in these matters.

Avoid soft beds and especially feather beds, which are enervating and are overheating to the spinal nerves.

Teach children never to use a public drinking cup or towel; and never to sit on a public toilet, even in public school, without first laying a paper over it so they do not come directly in contact with the seat.

Avoid stimulating foods, such as condiments, or an excess of meat—more than 2 or 3 ounces a day.

Avoid excitement by late hours, especially late dancing parties, during adolescence. Set a standard of ten o’clock closing for school or home dances for these young people. Teach them to find recreation not dissipation.

Psychological. Cultivate respect for the body and reverence for its creative work and organs, for motherhood, fatherhood, and birth of any creature.

Cultivate a sense of modesty in both girls and boys from babyhood.

Inculcate in boys a spirit of chivalry toward all girls and women; in girls, a sense of reserve, and an appreciation of their responsibility for the social and moral standards of boys.

Instill a personal ideal of worthy fatherhood and motherhood; this may begin incidentally at two or three years of age.

Give instruction in the biology of reproduction in plants, emphasizing the protection, care, and forethought for the young. The child naturally sees all the phenomena of life in an impersonal and wholesome, that is, a scientific way. Cultivate this attitude in him and in yourself.

Before children begin going to school, see that they are informed sufficiently about the origin and birth of human life so that they will no longer be curious or interested if unwholesome talk is presented. Ill-trained children or unscrupulous adults usually sense a well-informed and wholesome-minded child and are less likely to present any vulgar conversation in his presence.

The boy will early meet with superstitions and perverted ideals among his companions, particularly after twelve years, when the influence of parents and teachers is waning before that of his companions. Therefore teach him before this age that he has a great trust,—to protect these organs sacredly for his children until he is grown and is wise enough to be a father; that these organs are not like muscles which must be used to develop and preserve their function, but that they are glands, secreting fluids as other internal organs do, like the spleen or the thyroid gland, and that these fluids are needed for the well-being of the whole body; that the boys who ignorantly think otherwise or act otherwise are greatly injuring and weakening themselves.

Prepare both boy and girl, by instruction at about eleven years of age, for the physical changes that are before them, so they will not be surprised or frightened when these changes come. Thus prepared, they will not ignorantly resort to measures that may produce lifelong illness, or fall into the net of quacks, evil-minded men or women, or ignorant companions.

Avoid taking the children to the theater before twelve or fourteen years of age, and make it an event worth while. Be sure beforehand that the play is clean and wholesome and not overstimulating. Never allow children to go to theaters or picture plays without a responsible older person. Be your children’s companion in drama and in fiction as long as possible,—as long as you can see with their eyes and their interests.

Keep children occupied with handwork, physical activity, and outdoor life. It is the child with nothing to do, living an overfed, indoor, uncontrolled life, who has every condition for falling into temptation.

Cultivate an appreciation and taste for good literature, poetry, sculpture, painting, music. Provide abundance of good and wholesome books.

Teach children from babyhood that to follow merely the instincts and the line of least resistance, to act merely from impulse and emotion, is unworthy of a human being.

Foster idealism and religion, which have always been the great bulwarks of the soul and the refiners of instincts.

City or Country Life. That the country provides more natural physical conditions and health opportunities is self-evident. The open air, the larger space and facilities for muscular exercise, the freedom from artificial excitement, are all essential to vitality. The marked differences between city and country children in height, weight, chest girth, strength of grip, vitality, endurance, are attested by the statistics of special investigators as well as by general observation. The chest girth of country girls more nearly approaches the average for boys of the same age than does that of city girls. It is true that in sanitation the rural districts and small towns have not kept pace with the large cities. Ventilation, drainage, water supply, disposal of sewage, clean milk, the reporting and control of infectious diseases, are too often neglected in rural districts. The improvement of these sanitary conditions is part of the responsibility of the home-maker.

The School and Physical Health. The weight of medical, biological, and psychological authority of such experts as G. Stanley Hall, John Dewey, Arthur Holmes, Lightner Witmer, Thomas D. Wood, J. M. Tyler, is decidedly against prevailing unhygienic practices of the schools, such as home study for children under high school age; nerve-racking academic examinations; fine work in reading and writing for children under nine years of age; indoor school life for young children; artificial, sedentary life instead of physical activity during school age; the over emphasis of the mental and the neglect of the motor activities.

In a recent volume, “The Health of the Child,” Lewis M. Terman writes:

Defects Prevalent Among American School Children

Total School Population, 20,000,000

These defects are often acquired before school age, or as a result of home conditions during school age. Note that they are chiefly preventable by good hygiene in the home, practiced by intelligent mothers and fathers.

Forms of rheumatism, heart disease, infectious diseases (such as whooping cough, measles, mumps, scarlet fever), respiratory diseases (as pneumonia, croup, tuberculosis), all are prevalent and preventable diseases of childhood, reaping every year a great harvest, and leaving a trail of permanent defects.

Two means of prevention are necessary and at hand:

(1) Wholesome daily hygiene (the elements of such hygiene have been suggested in the foregoing pages). (2) Early detection of defects or weakness, and their remedy in the incipient stage. This is possible by an examination every six months during childhood and youth, by (a) a competent physician, trained for preventive examinations, (b) osteopath, (c) dentist, (d) oculist. With these two precautions on the part of the home, the present enormous deathroll of one hundred and fifty thousand little children each year from preventable causes, and the preventable defective conditions of fourteen million of the twenty million school children, could be practically eliminated, and as reckoned by Professor Irving Fisher, the span of life for each child could be increased fifteen years.