The mothercraft manual

Play is spontaneous self-activity. It is not found among lower forms of animal life. The length of the play period with any species is directly related to the degree of intelligence of which it is capable.

Young children instinctively play activities which become work when they are mature, and which their ancestors have practiced as work. Among animals, play is Nature’s method of training for responsibilities of maturity in food-getting and protection from enemies.

Among the great educators of earlier days who have recognized the value of play as a means of education of children are Plato, Comenius, Rousseau, Locke, Rabelais. Pestalozzi and Froebel were the first modern educators to practically utilize play in the education of little children, and the widespread interest in play to-day is traceable to their efforts and influence.

Play and Work. In play the individual expresses his own desire, unhampered by artificial restriction or repressions, limited only by his own strength, his imagination, and the facilities of the environment. Play is not necessarily easy, in the sense of making small demands upon physical strength or mental energy. Any one who watches children at their play knows that the intensity of their interest and desire leads them into work requiring the utmost of their physical strength, endurance, and skill, and the greatest exercise of imagination, initiative, judgment, patience in the solving of problems; drudgery is performed with relative ease, because it is appreciated as a necessary means to a greatly desired end. There is no value in drudgery as such. It is a part of the great art of life to select motives and activities that are an expression of self-activity, and to perform the drudgery in the same spirit expressed by children in their play. Drudgery becomes irritating when it is not appreciated in its relation to an interest, as when it is a task set by some one else, with no relation to the life of the doer; or is the performance of labor for others merely for pay, without any personal interest in the work or its results.

The child must learn to perform many duties in his own personal care, in the life of the household, the family, and the community. It is of greater value to put imagination and the play spirit into these, to learn to make games of them, than it is to make dull, unimaginative drudgery of them. During his fourth or fifth year the child can begin to comprehend the values of these tasks, in self-dependence, service to others, coöperation in the advancement of human life, and that he has the part of a worker to play in the great game of life.

Learning, intellectual study, art, should by all means be forms of self-expression, a development of personality, a source of happiness in their acquirement,—play in a large sense. If the pupil is unhappy, disinterested, inattentive, the teacher or the educational system is at fault in not having discovered the vital, instinctive interests of the child and his natural, spontaneous way of learning. Better turn such a child out for free play and first learn from him what are his vital interests, and then utilize these, in this play spirit, to bring to him content and discipline of educational—that is, permanent and highest—value.

This ideal is practically possible by studying the child’s instinctive activities and interests at any given stage, and supplying (a) conditions in the environment which permit his full and rich expression of these interests; (b) content or goals that have permanent life value; (c) increasingly difficult and more complex conditions and problems, so that the child is advancing in skill and ability.

For example: The baby likes to handle objects. Cultivate this play interest educationally by giving him objects illustrating a great number of shapes and sizes. Utilize his love of sound by letting him hear, every day if possible, some good music. The three-year-old child loves to dramatize. Teach him good manners and courtesies in playing “tea-party” and “visiting”; instruct him in simple first aid and hygiene through playing “doctor.” Later, tell him great stories from the myths, from history, from classic literature, that he can “play out.”

At about five years of age children instinctively pour and measure. Instead of leaving this to chance play, it is possible to make it of permanent (educational) value by providing (a) a play space for various kinds of measuring; (b) a variety of substances to measure, as sand, sawdust, pebbles, water, colored water, long strips of paper, cheap tape or cloth, clothespins, even “real” fruits and vegetables; (c) standard measures,—pint, quart, gallon, dry quart, peck, bushel; later, gill and ounce, and the pound and ounce weights; (d) bottles with wide mouths, and other receptacles for pouring into, that will cultivate steadiness and carefulness. Begin with two or three measures, teaching their relation, as pint and quart, gradually adding more as these become known. Give at first measures and bottles easy to pour into, later those more difficult, requiring better coördination. Set a standard of neatness and accuracy. Watch for indications of fatigue and let the play stop before there is any strain.

Normal children in a normal environment do not wish to be amused, but they are full of ideas of their own that they wish to express. The adult very often desires to amuse children,—not primarily for their benefit but for his personal pleasure in watching them and participating with them; he (or she) needs a training in self-control and a deeper understanding of child nature, that he may come to find as keen satisfaction in standing aside and watching the child’s self-development, bringing forward his own personality only where it will be of educational or social value.

Children’s Parties. Children’s parties may be a means of social, physical, and spiritual grace, or they may be made a cause of nervousness, dissipation, corruptive ideals. As a means of grace, they should (a) be held in the daytime and last about two hours for children under six, three hours for the older group; (b) preferably outdoors; (c) include a small group of guests—only four or five for children three to five years, ten or twelve for children five to seven, and about twenty as a maximum for children seven to ten; (d) require simple dressing; (e) little preliminary excitement of preparation; (f) games carefully conducted, and alternated with stories to prevent fatigue or too much excitement; (g) a small amount of very simple refreshments, as fruit juice and lady fingers, or milk and animal crackers for children under five; or a small portion of pure ice cream and sponge cake for children five to seven; or a small amount of simple candy, nuts, popcorn for children over seven.

Play Room and Ground. The best playground is the home yard, where mother can keep an oversight; where other children can come so she knows the playmates, and where the child is kept in sympathy with home influences. For indoor play, there should be a room kept sacred to the uses of childhood. In this way both adults and children have more freedom, with less conflict of comfort and convenience. For children under three or four years this room will naturally be the nursery; for older children it should include facilities of a workshop.

The playroom should be well lighted and ventilated, with floors bare except rugs for small children to sit upon. The walls, curtains, and rugs should be washable. The color scheme should be cheerful and attractive to childhood. Yellow, warm gray, or green are especially good; red is too stimulating; violet is oppressive. Touches of rose or light blue might be added. The wall covering should preferably be a hard paint or Sanitas, at least to a four-foot wainscoting. Pictures should be easily removed, frequently changed, arranged with some regard to unity and symmetry. Pictures for little children should be hung low enough to be easily seen.

The furnishings should include tables adapted to the child’s height, chairs of hygienic design, cupboards and window seats for toys, apparatus, tools, books, where they will be kept out of the dust and in a reasonable order. The children should be responsible for the orderliness of rooms and cupboards, good condition of walls and furniture, and ordinary care of playground and playroom. Children over seven may well be responsible for sweeping, dusting, wiping of floors and woodwork.

Playground Apparatus. Sand pile, in framework or box, with cover for protection from stray animals and weather. White sea sand is cleanest.

Swings adapted to size and development of children

Playhouse

Place for pets and garden

Other apparatus, adapted to children at different stages, is listed under each period, in this and two subsequent chapters.

For the playroom, supply an aquarium and vivarium, tools, workbench, materials for handwork.

Play Interests and Activities. Infancy to Four Years

Sensory and motor activities
Individual play
Toys
Imitation; simple, imaginative, dramatic play
Quiet games preferred to active

One to Eight Months

Simple sense plays: Seeing, hearing, touching

Play with limbs: Arms, hands, legs, toes; grasping, sucking, reaching for objects, holding, pulling, shaking, kicking

Pleasure in passive rhythmic movement of limbs, given by attendant

Play with simple toys

Apparatus: Baby pen, toys

Eight to Twelve Months

Experiments with sounds: Crumpling paper, pounding, pulling bells

Surprise and recognition: Peek-a-boo

Play with limbs: Pat-a-cake, touching features

Handling objects, turning key, opening and closing doors

Imitation: Smiles, vocal sounds, manual work

Rolling ball: Receiving ball when rolled

Apparatus:

Low railing for support in standing and walking

Two or three low, broad stairs (about 6 inches high, 12 inches deep) to crawl up and down

One to Two Years

Sensory and motor experiments more extensive

Exploring, handling

Opening and shutting; taking out and putting in; turning key

Digging; pouring

Pounding for noise, tearing paper

Hiding self

Simple finger plays, e.g., “This Little Pig”, “Creep Mouse”, “Knock at Door”, Froebel’s “Play with Limbs”

Rolling and tossing ball in free play

Brief games, rolling and throwing ball, with adult

Play with toys, as doll, cart, train, animals

Apparatus:

Two to Four Years

Exploring wider range; watching activities, people, animals, machinery

Examining objects, taking apart and putting together

Digging, pouring; playing with sand, mud, water

Hammering, pounding; experimenting with sound

Building with blocks; piling up and tearing down

Simple ball play, chasing, rolling, trying to catch

Finger plays; only simple ones yet possible, “Thumbkin says, ‘I’ll Dance’”, “The Merry Little Men”,

“The Garden”, “Here’s a Ball for Baby”, (Poulsson)

Jumping and sliding begin; short running, being caught

Walking sidewise along fence, swinging on rope; climbing

Imitation of adult activities begins; household work, common industries

Hiding self, but without sufficient control to remain until found

Pounding and rolling modeling clay; pretend painting, drawing, sewing

Gathering stones, sticks, bright-colored objects

Experimenting with liquid color

Looking at pictures, especially of children, animals

Feeding pets, planting seeds

Play with dolls, toy animals, active toys

Apparatus as for previous age, and add:

For outdoor play, clothe the child in white or light seersucker rompers, with sandals, in summer, and knitted sweater and leggings in winter, for both boys and girls.

Teach children how to jump correctly, landing on soles of feet, bending the knees.

Children at this age are most likely to be at a loss what to do next. With ample opportunity and space for exploration, objects for examination, and suitable apparatus for instinctive physical activities, they will find this need met and will not need to be “amused.”

Four to Six Years

Sensory and motor activities

Dramatic imitation, industries, animals

Imaginative dramatic play; dressing up

Beginnings of group play, unorganized

Beginning interest in circle games, singing games, traditional games

Finger plays

Climbing, jumping, rolling, sliding, swinging; balancing, walking on straight line

Beginnings of marching, skipping, dancing, swimming, skating

Handcrafts: Carpentry, painting, drawing, modeling, pasting, building with blocks, mechanical construction

Pouring, filling, weighing, measuring

Play with water, sand

Planting, caring for garden; caring for pets

Collecting less crude; stones, sticks, leaves, insects, pictures, flags, buttons, bright colored paper, cloth

Doll play (boys and girls)

Hiding, hunting for persons and objects; with growing control

Simple tag games, short running, simple rules

Simple guessing, observation, surprise games; playing tricks

Play with words, as nonsense syllables, long words, rhyming

Experimenting with sound; improvising songs, melodies, on instruments

Experimenting with colors and shapes; sorting, matching, grading; coloring pictures

Looking at pictures with story value, historic value

Experimenting with problems in physics, chemistry

Exploring a wider environment

Apparatus and equipment:

During this period there is need of much companionship with a few other children of from three to seven years. This will give training in generosity, social feeling, kindness, patience, self-control. It will provide larger opportunities for dramatic play, and thus for range of imagination.

Six to Ten Years

Sensory interests less marked

Ability to keep to rules of game

Group play, especially traditional, circle, singing games, group competitions, ball games

Running: Running games, catching, as in forms of tag

Doll play; usually confined to girls; in latter part of period, paper dolls, stunt dolls

Ball play and games, especially among boys

Dancing, balancing, swimming, skating, climbing, swinging, sliding, tumbling

Manual dexterity in catching, throwing, balancing, hitting at a mark, hitting at a ball

Dramatic play organized into serial play extending over days and weeks, especially industrial activities, as playing house, store, school, primitive life; playing at camping, hunting, imitating social life of adults as found in environment

Handcrafts: Carpentry, painting, drawing, modeling, weaving, sewing, knitting; pasting, papercutting; mechanical construction

Decorating, decorative designs, personal decoration

Weighing, measuring, counting

Housework, cooking

Rummaging, hoarding

Hiding and finding games more complex and difficult

Collecting interest strong; wide range, little classification; includes pictures, flags, stamps, shells, souvenirs, leaves, birds’ eggs, minerals, insects

Gardening; care of pets

Games of mental alertness, observation, shrewder guessing, physical alertness, accuracy, motor control

Play with words; rhyming, puns, riddles, counting out

Measuring strength of wit, patience, personality, will, with others, especially adults

Observing industries, visiting natural history museums, watching machinery in action

Exploring meadows, fields, woods, caves

Expression of natural ability in special phases of art

Apparatus and equipment: