FOOTNOTES:
[1] Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, Helsingfors, 1896. A summary in German of this book can be read in Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, Bd. xvi. pp. 233-235.
[2] Baumgarten, Aesthetica, pp. 1, 3, 6 sq.
[3] Bosanquet, History of Æsthetic, pp. 173, 187.
[4] Cf. e.g. Hanslick, Vom musikalisch Schönen, p. 3.
[5] Kant, Kritik der Urtheilskraft, p. 147, to be compared with Kant’s chapters on beauty.
[6] Schiller, Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen, passim.
[7] Spencer, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 628, 632. Cf. also the extracts from a letter written by Mr. Spencer to M. Guyau, quoted in Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, p. 18.
[8] Hennequin, La critique scientifique, pp. 26-28.
[9] Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, pp. 46, 47.
[10] Grant Allen, Physiological Æsthetics, pp. 32, 33.
[11] Cf. Kant, l.c. p. 66.
[12] Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, livre i.
[13] Cf. Stolpe, Utvecklingsföreteelser i naturfolkens ornamentik, i.-ii. in Ymer, 1890-1891. An English translation by Mrs. H. C. March is published in Transactions of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, 1891. Read, “On the Origin, etc., of Certain Ornaments of the S. E. Pacific,” in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxi. Cf. also March, “Polynesian Ornament, a Mythography,” in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxii.
[14] Catlin, Illustrations, etc., i. pp. 127, 128, Mandan buffalo dance. A similar dance among the Iroquois has been described by Morgan (Iroquois, p. 287), who does not, however, speak of any magical purpose. Although somewhat differently explained by Catlin, the Sioux bear dance (l.c. i. p. 245) is no doubt as magical in its intention as the buffalo dance. The same interpretation holds good also, we believe, with regard to the gorilla dance of the Negroes (Reade, Savage Africa, pp. 195, 196) and the hunting pantomimics of the Koossa Kaffirs (Lichtenstein, Travels, i. p. 269).
[15] Wallace, Darwinism, pp. 467, 468.
[16] For a direct opposition to Mr. Wallace’s views on this point see Wallaschek, Primitive Music, pp. 278, 279. Cf. also Ritchie, Darwinism and Politics, pp. 110-114.
[17] Cf. Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, pp. 15, 24.
[18] For this characteristic term I am indebted to Professor J. M. Baldwin.
[19] Cf. chap. ix. in the sequel.
[20] Some brilliant and suggestive remarks on this point may be found in Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, p. 12; and in Havelock Ellis, The New Spirit, pp. 234-236.
[21] Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 508, 509.
[22] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, vol. iii. pp. 201-231.
[23] This view, viz. that the æsthetic cravings are a “racial” possession of mankind, has been clearly and consistently maintained by Marshall, cf. Æsthetic Principles, p. 70; Pain, Pleasure and Æsthetics, pp. 100, 101.
[24] Vischer, Ästhetik, vol. i. p. 53; vol. iii. pp. 3-10.
[25] Taine, Philosophie de l’art, pp. 57-70.
[26] Engel, Ideen zu einer Mimik, i. p. 97.
[27] Cf. as to the significance of this process, and its connection with the imitative process, Baldwin, Mental Development, p. 264.
[28] Marshall, Æsthetic Principles, p. 62; cf. Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 104.
[29] Cf. chapters xiv.-xvi. in the sequel.
[30] Cf. Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 104. (“Nor can we with Kant and Schiller hold that the ‘art-impulse’ is especially connected with the ‘play-impulse’ through lack of end, if I am right that an end for art-work is discernible in attraction through the pleasing of others.”)
[31] Baldwin, Social and Ethical Interpretations, p. 151; cf. pp. 150, 152.
[32] Schiller, Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen, esp. Brief 15.
[33] Ibid. Brief 27, quoted in Groos, The Play of Animals, p. 2.
[34] Spencer, Principles of Psychology, vol. ii. pp. 629, 630.
[35] Spencer, “The Origin of Music,” in Mind, xv. 452, 453; reprinted in the last edition of Essays, ii. pp. 430, 431; Wallace, Darwinism, pp. 281, 284, 287, 292; Hudson, The Naturalist in La Plata, pp. 280-286.
[36] Wallaschek, “Natural Selection and Music” in International Congress of Experimental Psychology, second session, 1892, p. 74; Primitive Music, pp. 271, 272. These utterances of Wallaschek ought to be quoted as expressing his views, and not the earlier passage in Mind, 1891, p. 376, from which Groos concludes that Wallaschek agrees with Spencer. Cf. Groos, The Play of Animals, p. 6. As early as 1891, Wallaschek pointed out the importance of music and dances as preparations and not only representations of the most important actions in life. Cf. l.c. p. 74.
[37] Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 18-24.
[38] Groos, l.c. p. 21.
[39] Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, pp. 216-356.
[40] Guyau, Les problèmes de l’esthétique contemporaine, p. 9: “On pourrait donc, en continuant la pensée de M. Spencer, aller jusqu’à dire que l’art, cette espèce de jeu raffiné a son origine ou du moins sa première manifestation dans l’instinct de la lutte, soit contre la nature, soit contre les hommes.” Cf. also Guyau, L’art au point de vue sociologique, p. 14, where Guyau in a brilliant passage shows how an element of passionate struggle and conquest enters even in the most abstract reasoning. To be compared with the chapters of Groos on Kampfspiele.
[41] Féré, Sensation et mouvement, pp. 34, 64; cf. The Pathology of Emotions, p. 206.
[42] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze des menschlichen Gefühlslebens, pp. 89, 95.
[43] Féré, Sensation et mouvement, p. 64.
[44] Gratiolet, De la physionomie, pp. 47, 53; Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions, pp. 80, 207; Bain, The Emotions and the Will, pp. 11, 12; Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, pp. 50, 51; Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression, pp. 114, 115.
[45] Amiel, Journal, i. p. 208.
[46] Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions, p. 81.
[47] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 298-301.
[48] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, p. 214.
[49] Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, pp. 222, 223.
[50] Dumont, Théorie scientifique de la sensibilité, pp. 67, 68; Delbœuf, Éléments de psychophysique, pp. 182, 191.
[51] Marshall, l.c. p. 174.
[52] Cf. Stout, Manual of Psychology, pp. 236-239.
[53] Cf. Spencer, Principles of Psychology, i. p. 273.
[54] Hamilton, Lectures, ii. p. 478; cf. also Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, pp. 52-62.
[55] Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 213; cf. Dr. Stout’s keen criticism of this explanation, Analytic Psychology, ii. pp. 294, 295.
[56] Féré, The Pathology of Emotions, pp. 275, 276; Lombroso, The Man of Genius, pp. 151, 152; Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, p. 46 (“Observations on the beneficial effects created on melancholic patients by physical pain”).
[57] Goncourt, Journal des, ii. p. 250.
[58] Cf. Fechner, Vorschule der Aesthetik, ii. p. 265; cf. also Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 187.
[59] Bain, The Emotions and the Will, pp. 5, 6; cf. also The Senses and the Intellect, p. 290; Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, pp. 97, 112; Féré, The Pathology of Emotions, p. 44; Paulhan, Les phénomènes affectifs, p. 37; Godfernaux, Le sentiment et la pensée, p. 66.
[60] Stout, Manual of Psychology, p. 296.
[61] A treatment in detail of this point has been given in my Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 57-59.
[62] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 308, 309.
[63] Spencer, Essays, ii. p. 457.
[64] Cf. James, Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 466; Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions, p. 76.
[65] Spencer, l.c. ii. pp. 456, 457.
[66] For the convenience of treatment we here restrict our attention to those emotional processes the initial stages of which are accompanied by changes of activity in the voluntary muscles.
[67] These linguistic facts might have afforded Professor Mantegazza a further argument in favour of his physiognomical thesis that the expression of injured self-esteem is similar to that of gustatory pain. Cf. Mantegazza, Physiognomy and Expression, p. 130.
[68] James, Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 463: “Sit all day in a moping posture, sigh, and reply to everything in a dismal voice, and your melancholy lingers.”
[69] Spencer, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 590, 591. Cf. also with regard to the enjoyment which can by reflection be derived from sorrow, fear, and other pain-emotions, Paulhan, Les phénomènes affectifs, pp. 119, 120; Hamilton, Lectures, ii. pp. 481-484; Bouillier, Du plaisir et de la douleur, pp. 62-72.
[70] Spencer, l.c. ii. pp. 623-626.
[71] James, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 462, 463.
[72] James, l.c. pp. 444, 445. It is to be remarked, however, that in the more elaborate statement of his theory, which Professor James has given in The Psychological Review, 1894, he pays due attention to the influence by which “expression” may change the tone of an emotion. Cf. especially p. 519 about fear: “when the running has actually commenced, it gives rise to exhilaration by its effects on breathing and pulse, etc., in this case, and not to fear.”
[73] The interesting contributions to the psychology of acting, which have been brought together by Mr. William Archer in his Masks or Faces, do not give us much reliable information as to the part which the “expressional movements” play in a deliberate stirring up of an emotion. Even if we were to accept all the testimonies of actors and actresses as a testable evidence, we could scarcely decide whether the emotional state of an actor who plays his part in perfect sincerity is chiefly a result of his losing himself in the fictitious situation, or whether this state follows as a retroaction exercised by the artificial performance of weeping, laughing, sobbing, etc. Cf. Archer, Masks or Faces, pp. 133-136. Some interesting remarks on this point can also be found in Dugald Stewart’s Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 168, 185.
[74] James, Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 444.
[75] Cf. Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 107-111, where the pain-element of anger is emphasised in opposition to Professor Lange’s description of this emotion.
[76] A detailed account of the various stages of anger has been given by me in Förstudier till en konstfilosofi, pp. 73-77. Cf. also Lange, Nydelsernes fysiologi, pp. 16-19, and Lange, Ueber Gemuethsbewegungen, pp. 28-35.
[77] Cf. Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 246; Sully, The Human Mind, ii. p. 91; Hamilton, Lectures, ii. p. 483. It cannot be denied, however, that terror often becomes intensified as a painful feeling in proportion as the heart-beatings, the quiverings, and all the other active manifestations increase.
[78] Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 226; cf. Sully, The Human Mind, ii. p. 34.
[79] Lehmann, Hauptgesetze, pp. 195, 196.
[80] Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, p. 175, on the Tangi feasts in New Zealand; Welcker, Kleine Schriften, i. pp. 26-31; Sittl, Gesch. d. griech. Literatur, i. p. 24. For a sympathetic interpretation of such feasts of sorrow see Réclus, Les primitifs, pp. 239, 240. Cf. also the remarks of Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. pp. 688-690, and Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 38.
The above adduced instances show us that even the art of primitive man does not bear out the views recently brought into prominence by Herckenrath and Faguet (Faguet, Drame ancien, drame moderne, pp. 2, 7, 12), and so ably stated by Mr. Walkley (Frames of Mind, pp. 1-7), according to which the enjoyment of tragedy as well as that of comedy can be reduced to a malevolently pleasurable consciousness of our own security in contrast to the sufferings of others. Comparative psychology tends far more to support those authors who contend that in tragedy we enjoy that pleasure which inherently exists in sorrow itself. Cf. Shelley, A Defence of Poetry, p. 35.
[81] Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. p. 688. “De hoc universo genere dicere licet id quod res habet, hominis naturae quodam instinctu ut laetandi ita lugendi causas sibi fingere; unde est, quod aliena funera sequuntur, quod ignotis sepulchris adsident, quod praeteritorum malorum memoriam refricant.”
[82] Lessing, Gelehrter Briefwechsel, pp. 145, 146, quoted in Bernays’ Zwei Abhandlungen, p. 144. Cf. also Scherer, Poetik, p. 112. Scherer, who thinks that the phrase “Bewusstsein unserer Realität” is too abstract in its wording, proposes in its place “Freude an uns selbst” (delight in ourselves).
[83] Helvetius, De l’esprit, discours iii. ch. v.
[84] Jefferies, The Story of My Heart, especially p. 128; Bashkirtseff, Journal, ii. pp. 126, 531, 532; cf. also i. pp. 66, 67; ii. pp. 115, 290.
[85] The purely pathological motives of the self-woundings of Christian fanatics appear with unmistakable clearness from the instances that have been collected in medical literature, cf. especially Calmeil, De la folie, ii. pp. 327, 328, 375-380, 384, 404, 405; Figuier, Hist. du merveilleux, i. pp. 372, 373, 376, 379; Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus, pp. 362-365. We need not dwell in this connection upon the sexually exciting effects which may be created by flagellation. This point has been sufficiently elucidated by the above-mentioned authors.
[86] Lange, Gemüthsbewegungen, pp. 33, 34.
[87] Wundt, Philosophische Studien, vi. pp. 351, 352 (Zur Lehre von Gemüthsbewegungen).
[88] Brinton, The Pursuit of Happiness, p. 18.
[89] Kierkegaard, Enten Eller, i. pp. 23, 24.
[90] Ribot, The Psychology of the Emotions, p. 376.
[91] On the self-woundings of the Maenads cf. Preller, Griechische Mythologie, i. 2. p. 656; Lobeck, Aglaophamus, i. p. 672.
[92] Cf. Marshall, Pain, Pleasure, and Æsthetics, p. 259.
[93] For a copious collection of instances see Joest, Tätowiren, pp. 34, 35; Schneider, Die Naturvölker, i. pp. 111-113; cf. also Smyth, Victoria, i. p. 112 (The Narrinyeri); Cranz, Historie von Grönland, ii. p. 331; Dall, Alaska, p. 417 (The Kygani); Schoolcraft, Information, iv. p. 66 (Dacotas); v. p. 168 (Kenistenos); Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. p. 410 (Tahiti); Cook. (1st) Voyage, p. 104 (Tahiti); Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, p. 102 (Maoris).
[94] It cannot be denied, however, that in many cases the self-wounding is executed as a traditional, superstitious, or sacrificial rite. The Maori funeral ceremonies, in which the apparently impulsive and exalted cutting is “done with considerable method and regularity, so as to make the scars ornamental rather than otherwise,” can thus scarcely be adduced as a genuine instance of emotional expression. Cf. Robley, Moko, p. 46. Still less are we entitled to speak in this connection of those Polynesian funeral ceremonies in which the survivors lacerate themselves and allow the blood to drop on the face of the corpse or under its bier. Cf. the instances of such superstitious self-woundings collected in Hartland, The Legend of Perseus, ii. pp. 241, 321-325.
[95] On woundings in medical cures, cf. esp. Bartels, Medicin der Naturvölker, pp. 267-271; Curr, The Australian Race, ii. pp. 69, 70 (The Dieyerie Tribe, by Gason); Ling Roth, Tasmania, pp. 75, 76; Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xii. p. 85 (Andamanese); Mouat, Andaman Islands, p. 307; Bourke, Rep. Bur. Ethn., 1887-88, p. 471 (Medicine-men of the Apache. Scarification resorted to in order to relieve exhaustion); Keating, Narrative of an Expedition, i. p. 226, quotes the interesting conceptions entertained by the Sauks and Foxes as to the result of lacerations. The wounds are inflicted at funerals, “not for the purpose of mortification, or to create a pain, which shall, by dividing their attention, efface the recollection of their loss, but entirely from a belief that their grief is internal, and that the only way of dispelling it is to give it a vent through which to escape.” There seems to be no doubt that similar notions have led to the curing of bodily pain by bleeding.
As to laceration as a means of overcoming humiliation see Curr, l.c. ii. p. 70 (Dieyerie). Even joy, when abnormally strong, seems often to express itself in this way. Ellis, Pol. Res. i. p. 410 (Tahiti); Pritchard, Pol. Rem. p. 138 (Samoa); Péron, Voyage, i. p. 227 (Tasmanians, who scratch themselves in the face and tear the hair in their enthusiasm, when hearing the Marseillaise performed); Bernier, L’art du comédien, p. 310.
As connected with the emotion of joy we may also explain the occurrences of self-woundings at meetings between friends. Cf. esp. Lumholtz, Among Cannibals, pp. 224, 225. It is not to be overlooked that in many tribes friends express their delight at meetings by a ceremonial weeping and wailing. Cf. Man, Journ. Anthr. Inst. xii. p. 147; Day, Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1870, p. 157, both on the Andamanese; Batchelor, The Ainu, p. 105; Taylor, Te Ika A Maui, p. 103; Angas, Savage Life, ii. pp. 32, 73, 109, all on New Zealand; Freycinet, Voyage, ii. p. 589 (The Sandwich Islands); Lander, Journal, i. pp. 148, 149 (Yoruba Country); and the instances quoted in Spencer, Principles of Sociology, ii. pp. 20, 70, 71. As this apparently paradoxical expression can be explained in many cases as a conventional ceremony, which is not accompanied by any genuine feeling, so the self-wounding may often be a purely ritual observance. But although some of the above adduced instances can thus be considered as spurious, we nevertheless feel right in assuming that an impulsive creation of pain is generally to be derived from the psychical conditions accompanying high-strung emotion. This is also the conclusion at which Mr. Brinton and Mr. Andrew Lang have arrived. Cf. Brinton, Religion of Primitive Peoples, p. 213; Lang, The Making of Religion, p. 310.
[96] We need only refer to such periods as the fifteenth century and the time of the great revolution. As to the abnormally exaggerated craving for amusement during these unhappy times, cf. especially the remarks of Michelet, Histoire de France, iv. pp. 406, 407; Champfleury, Hist. de la caricature sous la république, pp. 275, 279; Hecker, Volkskrankheiten, pp. 152, 153; Goncourt, Journal des, ii. pp. 180, 181; and the Introduction to Boccaccio’s Decamerone.
[97] Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, pp. 4, 5. Cf. the important elaboration of this theory in Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 171, 174.
[98] Cf. especially the works of Tarde, Schmidkunz, Baldwin.
[99] Cf. Groos, The Play of Animals, pp. 72, 76 sq. 182.
[100] There can be no question, in this connection, of entering upon the debate between the adherents of Robert Vischer, Groos, and others, and the associationists, Lipps and Stern, who wish to put other notions, such as recognition or “Verschmelzung” instead of the imitation. Whatever reason Dr. Stern may have to criticise the formulation of the German æsthetic theories of visual intuition, we do not see that he has been able to refute them in their fundamental points. Cf. Stern, Einfühlung und Association, passim.
[101] Jouffroy, Cours d’esthétique, pp. 29, 256, 259, 261.
[102] Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson, “Beauty and Ugliness,” in the Contemporary Review, vol. xxii. 1897; cf. especially pp. 357, 544, 548, 550, 554.
[103] Home, Elements of Criticism, i. pp. 178-181.
[104] Cf. Hogarth, Analysis of Beauty, pp. 26-28.
[105] Dugald Stewart, Philosophical Essays, pp. 402-404, 408 (“On the Sublime”).
[106] Spencer, Essays, ii. p. 386 (“Gracefulness”).
[107] Cf. Vernon Lee and Anstruther Thompson, l.c. pp. 550, 686, 687; cf. also Fouillée, Psychologie des idées-forces, ii. pp. 59-64.
[108] Prof. Lipps, who does not believe in an “internal imitation,” says that the anthropomorphic interpretation of outward reality “rückt uns die Dinge näher, macht sie uns vertrauter und damit zugleich vermeintlich verständlicher” (“brings the things nearer to us, makes them more familiar, and thereby produces an illusion that they are more comprehensible”). According to the view which we have adopted above, the gain in comprehensibility is real, and not only illusory. Cf. Lipps, Raumaesthetik, p. 6.
[109] Cf. with regard to the above argument the chapter on movement-perception in Stricker’s Die Bewegungsvorstellungen, especially pp. 20, 21. Cf. also the remarks in Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 10, 11, 157.
[110] Cf. the often-quoted story of Campanella’s device to divine the thoughts of people by imitating their behaviour, as told, for example, in Burke’s The Sublime and the Beautiful, pp. 98, 99. Mr. Stanley quotes one of Poe’s tales, in which the same trick is used by a detective (Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling, p. 364).
[111] Cf. Groos, Die Spiele der Menschen, p. 430.
[112] An almost simian tendency to imitation has been noticed among several primitive races, such as the Australians (Spencer, Descr. Soc. Div. i. No. 3, p. 5, quoting Sturt) and the Fuegians (Spencer, ibid. quoting Weddel).
As is well known, imitation is in tribes of a hysterical disposition, such as the Malays and the Lapps, apt to become an endemic disease. Cf. with regard to the Malays, Swettenham, Malay Sketches, pp. 70-82; Stoll, Suggestion und Hypnotismus, p. 74; with regard to the Lapps, Düben, Lappland, p. 192; Schmidkunz, Psychologie der Suggestion, p. 199. Instances of contagious mental diseases and pathological imitation among civilised nations are too familiar to be enumerated.
[113] Cf. Baldwin, Mental Development, p. 403.
[114] Preyer, Die Seele des Kindes, p. 228; cf. Harless, Lehrb. d. plast. Anatomie, p. 125, and Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 6, 7, 193, 194.
[115] Goncourt, Journal des, i. p. 281:—Hier j’étais à un bout de la grande table du château. Edmond à l’autre bout causait avec Thérèse. Je n’entendais rien, mais quand il souriait, je souriais involontairement et dans la même pose de tête.... Jamais âme pareille n’a été mise en deux corps.
[116] Cf. especially Binet, Le fétichisme dans l’amour, p. 248.
[117] For a treatment of the interindividual transmission of feeling, in which the chief points of modern theories on mob-mind are anticipated, see Dugald Stewart, Philosophy of the Human Mind, iii. pp. 208-211.
[118] Féré, The Pathology of Emotions, p. 212.
[119] Lancet, 1886, i. pp. 312, 313, quoted in Aubry, La contagion du meurtre, pp. 220-223; Le Bon, Psychologie des foules, p. 46.
[120] We need scarcely remark, in this connection, that every unhappy experience awakens the craving for assistance and consolation, and therefore indirectly gives rise to an effort to create sympathy. This point must, however, be passed over when treating of impulsive, purely emotional manifestations. As to the pleasures and consolations of mutual sympathy, compare, moreover, Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, pp. 10-13, especially p. 12.
[121] Espinas, Des sociétiés animales, p. 328.
[122] Brehm, Thierleben, i. pp. 204, 205, 208.
[123] Van Ende, Hist. nat. de la croyance, I. L’animal, p. 218; Brehm, l.c. p. 87.
[124] Wallaschek, Primitive Music, pp. 230, 231; Grosse, Die Anfänge der Kunst, p. 219. Cf. also Schlegel, A. W., Sämmtl. Werke, vii. pp. 149, 150 (Briefe über Poesie, Silbenmasz und Sprache), where a similar theory is advanced.