saw that in tall columns, and in this case the columns are on pedestals, the volutes of Corinthian columns
were too insignificant. This capital when once invented took the Romans, and was applied everywhere.
It was the practical solution for a practical people of a want that was felt. Artistically speaking, it was no solution, and we can imagine that if such a solution had been offered to the Athenians in their palmy days, the author would have been howled at, and hunted out of the city.
I may mention that the orders that have passed through the hands of the Italian masters and been altered by them are not Classical, but Renaissance.
Those who wish to study this subject will find the Greek examples in Stuart and Rivett’s Antiquities of Athens; in Mr. Penrose’s Principles of Athenian Architecture; in the books published by the Dilettanti Society; in Cockerell’s Temple of Jupiter Panhellenius at Ægina; in Inwood’s Erectheion; and in Wilkins’ Antiquities of Magna Græcia. J. Pennethorne’s Elements and Mathematical Principles of the Greek Architects gives many examples of profiles: “The Roman,” in Les Édifices Antiques de Rome, by Desgodetz; Cresy and Taylor’s Architectural Antiquities of Rome; Normand’s Parallel of the Orders; and Mr. Phené Spiers’ Orders of Architecture.
A CHAPTER ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOME FIGURES AND CURVES IN PRACTICAL PLANE GEOMETRY USEFUL IN ORNAMENT.
Definitions and names of figures from 1 to 13.
An Equilateral triangle is a triangle which has three equal sides. Fig. 1.)
An Isosceles triangle is that which has only two sides equal. Fig. 2.)
A Scalene triangle is that which has three unequal sides. Fig. 3.)
A Right-angled triangle is that which has a right angle. Fig. 4.)
An Acute-angled triangle is that which has three acute angles. (Fig. 5.)
A Parallelogram is a four-sided figure which has its opposite sides parallel. Fig. 6.)
A Rhombus is a four-sided figure which has all its sides equal, but its angles are not right angles. Fig. 7.)
A Lozenge is a square set angle-wise. Fig. 8.)
Note.—A square, an oblong, a rhombus, and a rhomboid are all species of parallelograms.
A Diamond is composed of two equilateral triangles set back to back. Fig. 9.)
All other four-sided figures are called Trapeziums. If one opposite pair of sides be parallel, and the other pair not, the figure is called a Trapezoid. Fig. 10.)
Polygons.—A Polygon is a plane rectilineal figure contained by more than four straight lines.
A Regular Polygon is that which has its sides equal, and its angles also are equal.
An Irregular Polygon may have unequal sides and unequal angles, or unequal sides and equal angles, or equal sides and unequal angles. In this chapter regular polygons are only treated of.
Polygons are named according to the number of sides or angles they may have. A polygon having
| 5 | sides is | a | Pentagon. |
| 6 | “ | a | Hexagon. |
| 7 | “ | a | Heptagon. |
| 8 | “ | an | Octagon. |
| 9 | “ | a | Nonagon. |
| 10 | “ | a | Decagon. |
| 11 | “ | a | Undecagon. |
| 12 | “ | a | Dodecagon. |
| 13 | “ | a | Tridecagon. |
| 14 | “ | a | Tetradecagon. |
| 15 | “ | a | Pentadecagon. |
| 16 | “ | a | Hexadecagon. |
| 17 | “ | a | Heptadecagon. |
| 18 | “ | an | Octadecagon. |
| 19 | “ | a | Nonodecagon. |
| 20 | “ | a | Bisdecagon. |
Figs. 11, 12, and 13 are self-explanatory.
Fig. 14 From a given point D without to draw Tangents to a given circle A B C.
Join E the centre of the circle D.
Bisect D E in F. With F as centre and F E radius describe the circle D B E cutting the given circle in A and B. Draw the required tangents from D to touch the given circle at A and B. N.B.—A tangent to a circle or arc is always at right angles to a radius drawn to the point of contact.
Fig. 15 To draw an Exterior Tangent to two given circles A B and C D K.
Join the centres E and F cutting the circumference of the larger circle at K. Bisect E F in G. From K in the line K F cut off a part K P equal to the radius of the smaller circle E B.
With centre G and radius K F describe a semicircle; with F as centre and radius F P describe a circle. The semicircle cuts this circle at H. Join F H, and produce it to C. At E draw E A parallel to F C. Join A C, which is the exterior tangent required.
Fig. 16 To draw an Interior Tangent to two given circles B E and F D.
Join the centres E and F. Bisect E F in G, and describe a semicircle on E F. From K on the larger circle mark off K J and E F equal to the radius of the smaller circle, and with F as centre and F J as radius describe an arc passing through semicircle at H. Join F H cutting the larger circle at C, and draw E A parallel to F H. The points of contact are A and C, through which the interior tangent is drawn.
Fig. 17 Within a given circle to describe any Regular Polygon—say a Pentagon.
Draw the diameter A F and divide it into the same number of parts as the required polygon is to have sides—in this case it will be five parts. To divide the diameter into the number of equal parts, draw a line A X any angle to A F. Set off any convenient measurement five times on this line. Join point 5 to F, and draw the lines 4, 4´, 3, 3´, &c., parallel to 5 F to meet the diameter. With A and F as centre and A F as radius describe arcs intersecting at L. From
L draw a line through the Second division on A F at point 2´ cutting the circumference at B. Join A B. This is the length of the side of the required polygon. Set off the length of the side A B around the circumference at C, D, and E. Join the points A, B, C, D, E to complete the required pentagon.
N.B.—A Regular Hexagon may be inscribed in a circle by setting off the length of its radius six times round the circumference, and joining the points.
Fig. 18 On a given line to construct any Regular Polygon,—say a Pentagon.
Produce the given line A B to R, and with B as centre and A B as radius describe a semicircle A C R. Divide the semicircle into as many parts as the polygon is to have sides—in this case five. Draw a line from point B to the second division point Q C. Bisect A B and B C to find P, which will be the centre of a circle passing through the points A B C. Mark off the points D and E, making the distances C D, D E, and E A each equal to A B. Join C D, D E, and E A to complete the required polygon.
Fig. 19 Special method of drawing an Octagon in a given circle.
Draw two diameters B F and H D at right angles to each other. Bisect angles H K B and B K D in the lines K A and K C. Produce the lines K A, K C, to meet the circumference at G and E. The eight points thus found on the circumference are joined to make the required octagon.
Fig. 20 To inscribe an Octagon in a given square.
With each corner of the square as centres, and half the diagonal of the square as radius, describe arcs
cutting the sides of the square at F, G, H, K, &c. Join these points to complete the required octagon.
Fig. 21 To describe a circle to touch two given straight lines A B and A C, one point of contact being given.
Bisect the angle B A C in A D. At C draw a perpendicular to A C, meeting A D at D. With D as centre and D C as radius describe the required circle.
Fig. 22 To inscribe a circle in a given triangle A B C.
Bisect any two of the angles as at B and C. The lines of bisection intersect at D. Produce B D to E. With centre D and distance D E inscribe the required circle.
Fig. 23 A square being given, to inscribe four equal circles each touching two others and two sides of the square.
Draw the diagonals and two lines parallel to the sides through the centre of the given square. Join the extremities of the latter lines to obtain the points 1, 2, 3, and 4. With these points as centres, and 1 E drawn perpendicular to C A as radius, inscribe the four required circles.
Fig. 24 A square being given, to inscribe four equal circles each touching two other and one side of the square.
Draw the diagonals and two lines through the centre parallel to the sides of the given square A B C D. Bisect any one of the angles made by a diagonal and one of the sides of the square, as at D. Produce the line of bisection until it meets the vertical centre line at point 1. With the central point O as centre
and O 1 as radius, describe a circle to obtain the points 1, 2, 3, 4. These are the centres of the required circles.
N.B.—If the central portion made by the meeting of the four circles were removed, the remaining parts of the circles would form a figure known as the quatrefoil, a form common in architecture.
Fig. 25 To inscribe six equal circles in a given equilateral triangle A B C.
Bisect the angles of the given equilateral triangle as at E, and draw the bisection lines through to meet the centre of each side. Bisect the angle A B J to obtain the point D on C K. Through D draw G F parallel to A B, also F H and H G parallel to the sides of the triangle. With D as centre and D K as radius inscribe one of the required circles, and with the same radius and F, 2, H, 1, and G as centres inscribe the remaining circles.
Fig. 26 (1) Within a given circle to inscribe a hexagon. (2) Without the same circle to describe a hexagon. (3) Within the inner hexagon to inscribe three equal circles each touching each other and two sides of the hexagon.
(1) Mark off the length of the radius of the given circle B D F six times on the circumference as at D E F, &c. Draw the three diameters A D, B E, and G F, and produce them a little beyond these points. Join the points G, D, E, F, &c., by straight lines to produce the hexagon within the given circle. (2) Bisect the angle K O H, the line of bisection will cut the circle at point R. Through R draw H K parallel to B C. With O as centre and O H as radius describe a circle cutting the produced diameters at K, L, M, &c.
Join the latter points to produce the required hexagon without the given circle. (3) Join the points G, E, A. This will obtain the points 1, 2, 3 on the diameters. Draw 1, 4 perpendicular to G B. With 1, 4 as radius and 1 as centre describe one of the required circles. 3 and 2 are the centres of the other two required circles.
Fig. 27 Within a given circle to inscribe any number of equal circles, each touching the circumference and two other circles.
Divide the circle in the same number of parts as the number of circles required—in this case five. Draw the five radii. Bisect the angles B D A and A D C. Draw E F perpendicular to D A. D E F is a triangle any two angles of which bisect as at D and E. From point 1 thus obtained on D A and radius 1 A inscribe a circle. From D as centre and D 1 as radius describe a circle cutting the five radii in points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. With the latter points as centres and 1 A as radius describe the remaining required circles.
Fig. 28 This problem is worked in the same manner as Fig. 27, seven circles being inscribed instead of five in a given circle.
Fig. 29 To inscribe a trefoil, or three equal semicircles having adjacent diameters in a given circle.
Divide the given circle into six equal parts by marking off the length of the radius six times on the circumference. From the centre D to these six points draw radii. Bisect any of the six sectors as at E. Draw E C obtaining F on one of the radials. On either side of F draw lines from it to meet the alternate radials perpendicular to B D and D C, and
join their extremities, thus making the equilateral triangle 1, 2, 3. On the sides of this triangle describe the three semicircles required by using points 1, 2, and 3 as centres, and 2 F as radius. The completed figure is the trefoil, and the inscribed three semicircles have their diameters adjacent.
Fig. 30 To describe an equilateral triangle within and without a given circle.
Draw six radii dividing the given circle into six equal parts. Join their alternate extremities as at L M N. This makes the required equilateral triangle within the circle. Draw tangents to the circle at L M and N, or lines at right angles to L O, M O, and N O. Produce the latter radii to meet the tangents at A B C. A B C is the equilateral triangle without the circle.
N.B.—It will be seen that the triangle B A C is made up of four similar triangles each equal to L M N. Also, if six of the smaller triangles, as A L M, were placed around points A B and C a hexagon would be formed. This figure is very useful in designing geometrical and other repeating all over patterns in ornament.
CONIC SECTIONS.
The figures known as the Conic Sections are the Ellipse, the Parabola, and the Hyperbola.
The Cone may have other sections in addition to these, such as the section through any point below the apex, on the axis, and taken parallel to the base; this would be a circle, and a section through the apex perpendicular to the base would be an isosceles triangle.
The Ellipse is the curve of the section made by a plane passing obliquely through a cone from side to side.
The Parabola is the curve of the section made by a plane passing through a cone parallel to one of its sides.
The Hyperbola is the curve of a section made by a plane passing through a cone parallel to its axis, or inclined at a greater angle to its base than its side, but not through its apex.
Fig. 31 The elevation of a cone is shown at A B C. A section through point X at right angles to the axis of the cone is a Circle. A section passing through and across the cone from point X, but not at right angles to the axis, is an Ellipse, as at X 1. A section through X parallel to the opposite side A C is a Parabola, as at X 2. A section through X parallel to the axis, as at X 3, or a section through X at any other angle greater than the angle made by the side and base, as at X 4, is a Hyperbola.
Figs. 32, 33, and 34 show the actual shape of the sections X 1, X 2, and X 3 respectively.
Fig. 32 In this figure the major or transverse axis of the Ellipse is equal to X 1. To find the minor or conjugate axis bisect X 1 (Fig. 31) in H, draw through it F G parallel to A B, drop a perpendicular from F to f, and describe the semicircle f h g. From H drop a perpendicular to A B, and produce it to h to meet the semicircle, k h is then half the length of the minor axis of the Ellipse, as C D. Divide A E into any number of equal parts, and A G into the same number. Draw from C lines through the divisions as 1, 2, 3 &c., and from D lines to 1´ 2´ 3´ &c. The curve of the required Ellipse will pass through the intersections of these lines, as at 1´´ 3´´ 5´´ &c.
Fig. 33 In this figure, the Parabola, the line C D is equal to X 2 (Fig. 31), while A B is twice the length of D 2 (Fig. 31). Divide G B into any number of equal parts, and join the points of the divisions to C. Divide D B into the same number of equal parts, and draw lines from the points of division parallel to D C to meet the similar numbered lines drawn from B G; through these meeting points the curve of the Parabola will be drawn.
Fig. 34 The only difference between the working of this figure—the Hyperbola—and the Parabola is that the lines which in the Parabola were drawn parallel to G B, are here drawn to a point E on C D produced, C D being equal to X 3 (Fig. 31). This point E is found by drawing the line from 7 on D B to E on C D produced, where C E equals twice X O (Fig. 31).
Fig. 35 To describe an Archimedean spiral of any number of revolutions—say three, the longest radius A B being given.
Divide the radius A B into three equal parts for the three revolutions. With B as centre and B A as radius describe a circle, and divide it into any number of equal parts—say eight, by drawing four diameters. Each of the three divisions on A B is divided into eight equal parts. With centre B and the point of each succeeding division as radius, describe arcs, meeting in following order the next nearest diameter as shown at arcs 1 1´´, 2 2´´, 3 3´´, &c. Through point 8 with radius B 8, the second division, describe a circle, and through point 16 with centre B describe a circle. In these two divisions arcs are drawn as described above for the division A 8, &c., to the next nearest diameter. The spiral is then drawn through the points thus formed on the diameters, which mark its path as at 1´, 2´, 3´, &c., until it ends in its centre at B.
Fig. 36 To draw Goldman’s Volute, the cathetus C F being given.
Divide C F into 15 equal parts. With C as centre describe a circle A E B to form the eye of the volute, making the diameter 3⅓ of these parts. Bisect A C and C B in 1 and 4. On 1 4 draw a square, 1, 2, 3, 4. Produce the sides 1 2, 2 3, and 3 4 to G, H, and I respectively.
Divide 1 C into three equal parts. Draw lines parallel to 1 G through the points of division to P and L, which cut the line C 2 in the points 6 and 10. Through these points (6 and 10) draw lines to M and Q parallel to E H, cutting C 3 in 7 and 11. In the same way draw lines parallel to 3 I from 7 and 11 to N and R. The points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c., will then form the centres of the series of quadrants which are to form the outer spiral that begins with the radius 1 F. To describe the inner spiral. A´ F´ in Fig. 36 (a) is equal to A F (Fig. 36). F´ S´ is made equal to the breadth of the fillet at the top F S. V´ F´ is drawn at right angles to F´ A´ and equal to C 1. By joining V´ A´ and drawing T´ S´ parallel to V´ F´, then T´ S´ is obtained which will be the length of half the side of the square for drawing the inner spiral. The method for obtaining the inner spiral is the same as for the outer.
Fig. 37 There is no geometric means of drawing a perfect catenary curve; at best we can only obtain it by an approximation in geometry. The curve is formed by suspending a chain from two points and pricking points along the curve of the chain. These
points will mark the path of the catenary. In the accompanying figure three catenary curves are drawn from a chain suspended from points A and B.
Fig. 38—To draw a cycloid curve when the generating circle is given. In order to find the length of the line A B on which the circle rolls, and which must be the length of the circumference of the given circle, we must first find approximately that length by
the following method. Draw the vertical diameter of the circle D C. Draw D M at right angles to D C, and make it three times the length of the radius of the circle; make an angle of 30° at E, and draw a line parallel to D M of any convenient length. The line E L making the angle of 30° cuts C B in L. Join M L. M L is the approximate length of half the circumference. Make A C and C B each equal to M L. Then A B is the length approximately of the circumference, drawn at right angles to C D on which the circle rolls. Divide now half the circle into eight equal parts, and draw a line from E S parallel to A B, and equal to M L. Divide E S into eight equal parts. From the points 1, 2, 3, &c., draw lines parallel to A C. With centres 1´, 2´, 3´, &c., and with radius E C, describe arcs cutting them at 1´´, 2´´, 3´´, &c. The curve A D, which must be drawn by free-hand, will then pass through these points. Complete the cycloid by drawing D B in a similar manner. The length A B can also be found approximately by dividing C D into seven equal parts, and taking A B = 22 of those parts.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN ORNAMENT
Many of the terms which appear in this Glossary have been explained in the previous chapters. The reader should refer back to the text when any of the terms are inadequately described here.
Æsthetics, the science of the beautiful.
Æsthetic, when applied to ornament, not only means “beautiful,” hut that beauty was the sole aim of its production, and distinguishes it from symbolic and mnemonic ornament. See page 143.
Allegory, the representation of one thing under the image of another. It was mostly confined to human figures, but to aid its comprehension attributes were added. Among the Pagans strength was shown as Hercules with his club; health as a woman with a serpent; rivers were represented as gods with crowns of sedge or rushes; towns as gods or goddesses with mural crowns. Among the Christians, a man holding a lamb, or a shepherd with his flock, was an allegorical representation of Christ the Good Shepherd; the seven cardinal virtues and the seven deadly sins were represented by allegorical figures, and each had its proper attributes.
Alternation, two different forms in succession, or alternating with each other. Figs. 67, 75, and 76.
Anthemion, a radiating ornament with a palmate outline; the honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks.
Attributes, the things assigned to any one. Amongst the Pagans the eagle and thunderbolt to Jupiter, the trident to Neptune, the peacock to Juno, &c. Amongst the Christians the nimbus was the attribute of divinity, saintship, or martyrdom, the lily of chastity, &c.
Balance, equilibrium or counterpoise. In compositions that are not symmetrical the weight of the masses must be alike on either side of a central axis; in those of symmetrical outline with different fillings there must be equality of weight in the fillings. Renaissance ornament affords many admirable examples of balance. See page 46, and Figs. 126 and 131.
Banding, decorating by means of horizontal stripes, mostly filled with ornament. Figs. 116 and 117.
Catenary, the curve formed by a chain hanging from two points. Fig. 27.
Cauliculus, the shoot or stem of a plant forming the volutes under the angles of the abacus, and those in the centre of each face of a Corinthian capital; in modern works this name is mostly confined to the central spirals, the outer ones being called volutes. Figs. 180, 181, 185, 187 and 188.
Checkering, covering a surface with a square pattern like a chess-board, in which the colour or the ornament alternates. The outline is formed by equidistant vertical and horizontal lines crossing one another. Figs. 98 and 99.
Colour, apart from the literal meaning of the word, is a vague technical term to express character and contrast in ornament.
Complexity, interweaving or intricacy; the opposite of simplicity. Ornament in which the leading forms are not apparent, is mainly to be found in Celtic, Saracenic, Moresque, and Gothic ornament. It is also characteristic of the decadent periods of all historic styles.
Contrast, the opposition of dissimilar figures or positions, by which one contributes to the effect of the other; e. g. the straight line with the circle, vertical and horizontal lines alternating; in colour black with white, &c.; ornamental forms where flat and sharp curves contrast with one another; a plain space alternating with an ornamented one, or an enriched moulding round a plain panel, or vice versâ, &c. See page 43.
Conventional. This is a word of great elasticity. In early decoration natural objects were highly conventionalized through the want of skill in the artists, who could not copy, but only portray their impressions, thus the Egyptians and early Greeks represented water by the zig-zag. These early conventionalized forms were sometimes perpetuated through religious conservatism, after the artists had become skilful. All ornament is more or less conventional, but the term is usually applied to designate that ornament in which the most beautiful and characteristic floral forms have been abstracted and adapted to the material employed and the effect wanted. The styles most characterized by conventional ornament are the Greek and the early Gothic; they are equally effective as ornament in their respective countries, but the Greek has all the grace and vigour of the highest plant form, while Gothic has mostly only the vigour. Figs. 49-54. The Romans and the Renaissance architects also successfully conventionalized. Figs. 91 and 129. Convention now too often means leaving out all grace and vigour. Saracenic-Persian ornament is perhaps the least conventionalized of fairly good ornament. Figs. 49, 53, 54, 118, and 119. Conventional is also used in opposition to realistic ornament.
Counterchange, a pattern in which the ornament and ground are mostly similar in shape but different in colour and alternate with each other. See Figs. 171 and 172.
Cymatium, the capping to a vertical member, as the cymatium of the abacus of the Roman Doric, of the architrave, of the frieze, of the corona. See Appendix on the orders.
Diaper, derived from jasper, originally employed to designate those coloured patterns on stuffs that suggested the flowerings of jasper; subsequently a pattern enclosed in repealing geometrical forms not composed of straight lines; but unhappily employed of late years to designate any repeating patterns enclosed in geometric forms, including checkers and net-work. Figs. 101, 107, 109, and 110.
Emblem, in Latin, means embossed ornament on vessels, inlaid work, and mosaic. In modern English it is a device, and was the animal or thing that was painted on a shield to show the temper or striking quality or achievement of the warrior. It is also used as an allegorical representation of some virtue or quality. We say the cock is an emblem of watchfulness; the lion, of courage; the scales, of justice; the lily, of purity; but the latter may be used as a symbol of the Virgin Mary.
Equilibrium. See Balance. Also Figs. 130 and 160.
Enlargement of Subject, e. g. the figure of Bacchus is wanted for a given space which it does not fill; the due filling of the space may sometimes be attained by the addition of his attributes, as a leopard, a thyrsus, a vine and grapes; accessories even may be wanted, as a satyr, mænad, rocks, trees, &c.
Eurythmy, harmony or elegance in ornament; a quality obtained by the use of contrasted but harmonious and dignified forms, expressed in a measured or proportionate quantity.
Even distribution, the plain space and ornament proportionately arranged; Indian ornament gives the most mechanical instance of this, while good Roman and Cinque Cento pilaster panels give the most artistic examples of this arrangement. It is sometimes improperly used to designate the balancing of masses in a design. Figs. 101, 102, 143, &c.
Expression, the method of representing ornament by various means, as in outline by the pencil, pen, or point; in painting, by the brush; and in relief or sunk work by modelling. In another sense expression is giving the proper treatment and character to ornament.
Fanciful, a term sometimes applied to grotesque creations, for example, to the hybrid animals, and the figures ending in foliage, met with in Pompeian and other decorations. Figs. 122, 131, 134, and 135.
Fitness, absolute propriety; beautiful ornament adapted to its purpose and not interfering with the use of the object ornamented. See page 48.
Flexibility, a quality derived from the appearance of plants of free growth; the freedom and elasticity found in natural forms when converted into ornament give a look of flexibility, in opposition to rigid and angular lines which produce a look of inflexibility. See Fig. 54.
Fluted, channelled in hollows, semi-circular, segmental, or elliptical in section; like those on some of the shafts of Greek and Roman columns. See also Figs. 75 and 76.
Geometric, or “geometrical arrangement,” the setting out of all good ornament; also the bounding lines for ornament constructed on a basis of geometry, as in diapers, &c.; the triangle, square, lozenge, diamond, the circle, the hexagon, octagon, and other polygons, are the chief geometrical forms for patterns in ornament. Saracenic decorations are pre-eminently geometric in construction. See Figs. 101, 102, 106, 107, 110, and 172.
Grotesque, from the word grot or grotto. When the fantastic arabesques of ancient Roman decoration were discovered under the baths and in grottoes, they were originally called grotesque, and were imitated in the Vatican. (See Figs. 122 and 128.) The word is mainly used now to describe the coarse and humorous carvings of heads, satyrs, &c., originally used to decorate the built grottoes of the late Renaissance, which gradually overspread all buildings. The word is also used to denote the quaint class of Gothic sculptured creations (Fig. 131), such as winged dragons, grinning monsters, &c., that serve to decorate the ends of dripstone mouldings; gargoyles, bosses, and finials, &c.
Growth is a concise expression for those forms which denote the special vigour shown by plants at certain epochs of their growth, the twist of the stem of creeping plants to get light to the flowers, the bursting of the bud from a capsule, or the clasp of a tendril. Examples are to be met with in the volutes of Greek Corinthian capitals, in the base of the tripod on the choragic monument of Lysikrates, in Renaissance sculpture, and in early Gothic.
Guilloche, snare-work; an ornament composed of parallel curved lines flowing and crossing each other; these forms may best be illustrated by the bending of ropes round circular pins so as to cross one another. See Figs. 37, 38, 39, and 40.
Hieroglyphic, sacred carving, mostly applied to Egyptian picture and symbolic writing. See Fig. 162.
Idealistic, used by some writers as equivalent to conventional, in opposition to “realistic”.
Imbrication, overlapping scale-like ornaments; as seen in fir-cones, the hop, and curved tiles on roofs, are examples of imbrication. The bark of the Chili pine is a peculiar instance of horizontal imbrication which is something like that of a Roman roof. It is used as decoration on roofs, torus mouldings, and small columns, and is a common way of filling certain spaces on Italian majolica. See Fig. 26, A, B, C.
Inappropriate ornament, that which is improperly applied, so as to spoil the appearance, or interfere with the use of an object; is false, out of scale, or redundant. See page 21.
Independent ornaments. Things that are beautiful, quaint, or curious, that may be attached to a wall or surface, as festoons, shields, medallions, trophies, &c. See page 21, also Fig. 133.
Interchange is when running vertical or horizontal patterns are divided by a vertical or horizontal axis, the colour of the ground on either side of it being different, the ornament on each side of the axis being of the colour of the opposite ground. See Figs. 173, 174.
Interlacing, ornament composed of bands, ribbons, ropes, rushes, osiers, &c., woven together, or crossing at intervals, as seen in Celtic, Byzantine, and Saracenic ornament; among examples of interlaced work may be mentioned braided, trellis, basket, and woven work. Figs. 22, 23.
Intersection, the points at which lines or other forms cut one another.
Monotony, sameness of tone; often shown in excessive repetition; a very undesirable feature in ornament: patterns within diapers without contrasting elements; mouldings coming together whose widths and profiles are nearly equal; panelling without sufficient variety in size; carved ornament of nearly equal relief—in short, any lack of variety in the composition, modelling, or colour of ornament produces monotony.
Mnemonic, ornament in which written signs or other elements are used for the purpose of aiding the memory. See page 130. Figs. Fig. 162, Fig. 163.
Naturalistic, those forms that are used for decoration, that resemble the spots and eyes on butterflies’ wings, or the markings on the skins of reptiles and quadrupeds, or on the feathers of birds; mostly found in the ornament of savage tribes.
Network, as opposed to checkers, are squares set lozengewise or forming diamonds; but the word is commonly applied to any figures in outline, rectilinear or otherwise, covering a surface. See Fig. 102.
Order, regular disposition; a pleasing sequence in the arrangement of opposed forms. Order is of such vital importance in a design that ornament can scarcely have any existence without it.
Powdering, sprays, flowers, leaves, and other decorative units sprinkled on a ground; “powdering” is a favourite method of decoration with the Japanese, and was with the Mediævals. See pp. 63, 80, and 83, and Figs. 85, 103, and 105.
Proportion, the harmonic spacing of lines and surfaces; of the length, width, and projection of solids; the ratio between succeeding units in flowing ornament, and the relation between the spaces occupied by the ornament and its ground.
Radiation, the divergence from a point of straight or curved lines. Radiating ornament is improved by the point being below the straight or curved line from which the radiation starts. Explained at page 44. See Figs. 49, 50, and 51.
Realistic, a style of decoration in which forms are applied without alteration from natural forms or objects, or without apparent alteration; it is opposed to the “conventional,” and is rarely found in the best periods of good historic styles. See Figs. 1 and 146.
Repetition, a succession of the same decorative unit. For explanation see pages 40-43. and Figs. 3, 9, and 32.
Reeded, convex forms applied to a flat or curved surface, producing the reverse effect of “fluting”; some of the columns in Egyptian architecture are reeded, being sculptured to represent a bundle of reeds tied together. See Figs. 76A and 76B.
Repose, rest; the absence of apparent movement in ornament; this apparent movement may be seen in some flamboyant tracery and Saracenic work, and in some bad paper-hangings, &c.; also the absence of spottiness. See page 45.
Scale, the relative proportion of the different parts of a decorative composition to each other, to the whole, and to the thing ornamented. If a design is composed of different organic forms, they should, as a rule, keep their natural proportion to each other. Attributes are, however, often made to a much larger scale in Greek coins and engraved gems. Equality in scale need not be used when parts are cut off from each other by inclosing mouldings, as in isolated panels, pilasters, medallions, spandrels, &c.; the inclosed spaces may be filled with other subjects of smaller or larger scale, as with landscapes, heads, or inscriptions; the frieze of a room, from its greater importance, may have its decoration larger in scale than the panels of the door or shutters. The scale employed in the decoration of rooms, of floors, or of pieces of furniture, may increase or destroy their importance; hence, except in rare instances, the human figure should not exceed its natural size, and may want to be much smaller. And this precaution is equally important in the use of plants; if the flowers or leaves in ornament are made gigantic, they destroy the scale of the room or floor; though it may be known that leaves four feet in diameter or six feet long actually exist.
Scalloping or scolloping, forming an edge with semi-circles or segments, the convex side being outwards.
Scroll, a roll of paper or parchment. As a unit in ornament, it is usually applied to two spirals, each attached to the opposite ends of a curved stem, each spiral coiling the reverse way, but the word is often applied to ornament composed of a meander with spirals.
Series, usually the sequence of several dissimilar forms at regular intervals, as the bead and reel in bead-mouldings, the sequence of the same text in Saracenic work, and also a sequence of forms similar in shape but in an increasing or decreasing order, as branches of plants with leaves getting smaller from bottom to top.
Setting out, the planning of a scheme of decoration; the first constructive lines or marking-out of the ornament; the skeleton lines of a design. See pages 26, 40, and 68.
Soffit, an architectural term applied to the under side of any fixed portion, as the soffit of a beam, an architrave, a cornice, an arch, or a vault.
Spacing, the marking of widths in mouldings, panels, stiles and rails, borders, &c. Equality of division in decoration is, in most cases, ineffective, and should be guarded against; harmonious variety in such widths and distances is desirable for getting a good effect. See pages 42, 62, 65, and 68-71. Also Figs. C, D, 88 and 89.
Spiral, the elevation of a wire continuously twisted round a cylinder, or cone, also the plan of one twisted round a cone; in ornament the word spiral, when used as a substantive, mostly means the latter form. The curved line forming a volute (as in the Ionic capital) and the outline of the wave ornament; the line of construction in univalve shells. See Figs. 24, 41, 42, 43, 178, &c.
Stability, firmness and strength in the general appearance of a design; in climbing plants this appearance can only be given by their attachment to a central upright or to the vertical sides of the frame; the straight line is the chief factor of stability in ornament. See page 42. Where many curved lines are used in the decoration of long panels, straight-lined forms must be introduced to counteract the effect of instability in the curved ones. See Figs. 123 and 128. This is especially the case in pilasters which are architectural features of support; and for the same reason the heavier forms should be kept at the bottom and the lighter ones at the top.
Style, originally meant handwriting. In historic styles it means the expression of the taste and skill of the people who produced the work of art, whether it be architecture, sculpture, or painting. Bygone styles are useful for study, and may be copied or paraphrased, but can never be re-created, because the genius, knowledge, opportunities, and surroundings of any later period are unlikely to be the same. We classify them under the head of conventional (sometimes called idealistic), realistic, and naturalistic. It is also used to express good drawing or modelling, which conveys the elegance, grace, or vigour of the best natural forms. Sometimes it is applied to a composition in which those qualities arc expressed, in contradistinction to the ill-drawn, flabby, or commonplace.
Spotting. This word has nearly the same meaning as “powdering,” the only difference being that the units of form in such decoration have a geometrical basis and are mostly equidistant, the ground occupying much larger space than the ornament. See Fig. 80.
Stripe, usually applied in ornament to narrow bands.
Suitability, æsthetic and practical fitness; the great thing to remember is the nature, surface, and shape of the object to be decorated, and to design the ornament accordingly, for it is evident that what would be a good ornament for one object or position might be bad for another.
Superimposed or superposed, an ornament which is laid on the surface of another, such as a large flowing pattern on a ground covered with a smaller pattern, either geometric or floral; or a broad, ribbon-like ornament laid on a pattern formed of narrow and fine lines. This sort of ornamentation is mostly seen in the decoration of the Saracens, but occasionally in that of the Renaissance artists. In the wall-patterns of the Alhambra, we often find two, three, and sometimes four different designs superimposed on each other, the judicious use of different colours and gold preventing confusion in the pattern; the complexity is sometimes of a well-ordered kind. See Figs. 101, 102, and 104.
Subordination. A regular gradation from the most important feature to the least important. See the central panel of ceiling, Fig. 89.
Symbol originally meant a token or a ticket among the Greeks; by the Romans it meant the same, and also a signet. In modern English it means a sign, emblem, or figurative representation. In ornamental art it is mostly used to express some beautiful thing that by knowledge or association brings to the mind some power or dignity connected with religion. Attributes are often used as symbols of the divinity to which they belong—the bow of Diana, the thyrsus of Bacchus (Fig. 167), and the trident of Neptune, &c. In Christian ornament the fish and lamb are mostly symbols of the Saviour. It is sometimes difficult to determine when anything should be called a symbol, an emblem, or an allegorical representation; for instance, whether the Apocalyptic calf is a symbol, an emblem, or an allegorical representation of St. Luke.
Symmetry, equality of form and mass on either side of a central line; absolute sameness in the two sides of a piece of ornament. See Figs. 127 and 130.
Tangential Junction, the meeting of curves at their tangential points, so that they flow into one another without making an angle. The principal constructive lines in foliated ornament and scroll patterns should illustrate “tangential junction,” i. e. the branches and curves should flow out of the central stem. See p. 45, and Figs. 25 and 53.
Uniformity, being of one shape; the square and circle are uniform figures; it is one of the main causes of grandeur and dignity, but if absolute, results in monotony. The Greek temples had apparently uniform columns placed at uniform distances, and monotony was avoided by delicate variations in the size and spacing of the columns.
Unit, the smallest or simplest complete expression of ornament in any scheme of decoration.
Unity, perfect accord in all the parts of a design. Unity is often a characteristic of designs that are very monotonous, so by itself it will scarcely render a design pleasing.
Unsymmetrical, without symmetry, such as the volute. See the word Balance.
Variety, the absence of similarity; a word embracing an infinity of differences, from two things that are not absolutely alike, to two things that are absolutely unlike. The judicious use of variety gives interest to ornament, but uniformity with slight variety gives the most dignity.
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