WeRead Powered by ReaderPub
The Thousand Buddhas / Ancient Buddhist Paintings from the Cave-Temples of Tun-huang on the Western Frontier of China cover

The Thousand Buddhas / Ancient Buddhist Paintings from the Cave-Temples of Tun-huang on the Western Frontier of China

Chapter 51: Footnotes
By Sir Aurel Stein
Open in WeRead

Explore more books like this:

Archaeology & AnthropologyArt

About This Book

The volume presents reproductions and detailed descriptions of ancient Buddhist paintings recovered from a sealed cave-temple complex on China’s western frontier. An introductory essay situates the images within Buddhist iconography and traces artistic influences from Indian, Central Asian, and Chinese sources. The main body catalogs individual plates with concise iconographic identifications, notes on composition, color, preservation, donor inscriptions, and related legends, and discusses large mandala compositions and variations of Bodhisattva and Buddha imagery. Technical remarks describe conservation and curatorial efforts undertaken to unfold, clean, and mount fragile silk paintings. Appendices and commentary provide comparative material and interpretive guidance for non-specialist students of Far Eastern religious art.

Footnotes

1 Cf. Serindia, p. 1420. For a distinctively ‘Indian’ representation of Mañjuśrī, see below, Plate xxvii.
2 Cf. Serindia, Appendix E, p. 1410.
3 See Serindia, Appendix A, pp. 1434 sqq.
4 See particularly the painting, Ch. lv. 0023, of a.d. 864 reproduced in Plate xvi.
5 Cf. Serindia, pp. 850, 885, 888.
6 See Serindia, p. 1410.
7 For an interpretation of the symbolic meaning of this representation, cf. M. Petrucci’s ‘Essai’ (Les Maṇḍalas), Serindia, Appendix E, p. 1411.
8 See Serindia, p. 835.
9 Cf. Serindia, p. 850 sq.
10 See Serindia, pp. 899 sq., 984 sq., Pls. cix, cx.
11 See Serindia pp. 890, 1082 sq., Pl. lviii, and M. Petrucci’s notes in Appendix E ibid., p. 1408 sq.
12 Cf. Serindia, pp. 835, 890, note 38.
13 See above, p. 17.
14 See, e.g., Plate xxii.
15 Cf. Stein, Ancient Khotan, ii. Pl. lix.
16 For details of the antiquarian evidence concerning the date of these pictures, cf. Serindia, pp. 885, 896.
17 See above, p. 9. Of my other pictorial ‘finds’ from Central Asia only the mural paintings of Mīrān, approximately dating from the third to fourth century a.d., show this use of ‘high lights’; cf. Serindia, pp. 504, 508, Pls. xl-xlv.
18 These two-lobed tufts of hair recall those shown on the heads of the angels and putti in the wall-paintings of the shrines excavated by me at Mīrān; see Serindia, Figs. 134, 138, 140; Plates xl, xli.
19 Cf. Serindia, p. 850 sq.; also below, p. 23.
20 See above, p. 21.
21 For details on these points and on the question of style, cf. Serindia, p. 847 sq.
22 Cf. Serindia, p. 848.
23 Cf. Serindia, p. 850; Chavannes, Mission archéologique en Chine, i. Planches 207–10.
24 Cf. Serindia, p. 849, note 18.
25 This is against the fixed iconographic convention of Indian tradition which shows the right hand raised and the right shoulder uncovered by the under-robe. The explanation may be sought for in the fact that in the case of banners both sides of the silk gauze had to be painted. Here and in the Buddha of the banner in the middle of the Plate we have obviously cases of a mistake made by the artist as to which side was to be treated as the one intended for contemplation and properly finished.
26 Cf. Serindia, p. 858, and the reproduction of the banner, Ch. lv. 0012, Pl. lxxv.
27 Cf. Serindia, p. 947 (sub Ch. 0039).
28 Cf. Serindia, p. 880.
29 See Petrucci, Annales du Musée Guimet, xli, pp. 121 sqq.
30 Plate lxx of Serindia shows the left half of the painting as originally opened out and mounted at the British Museum. As regards certain slight modifications of the arrangement effected in the course of the final mounting and now seen in our Plate, the detailed description of the painting in Serindia, pp. 1024 sqq., may be referred to.
31 Cf. Petrucci, Annales du Musée Guimet, xli. p. 122. The figure at the first opening of the picture at the British Museum was found as a detached fragment. To its left upper edge there adhered the inscribed cartouche subsequently, on mounting, inserted in the blank space between the two standing figures at the bottom; cf. Serindia, p. 1025 sq.
32 See Ancient Khotan, i. 493, Figs. 62–4.
33 Cf. Foucher, Beginnings of Buddhist Art, p. 172.
34 Cf. Iconographie bouddhique, i. 40 sqq.
35 For the willow-spray symbol cf. below, Plate xxiv.
36 See Plates xix, xxix, xli.
37 For a reproduction in colours, but on a much smaller scale, see Desert Cathay, ii. Plate viii.
38 For such Bodhisattva banners of the type conveniently designated as ‘Chinese’ see Plates xix, xxix, xli.
39 Cf. M. Petrucci’s readings, Serindia, p. 1416 sq.
40 For specimens of this ‘Indian’ type of Bodhisattvas see Plates xxi, xxii; for detailed references concerning banners of this type, particularly numerous among those on linen, cf. Serindia, p. 862.
41 Cf. M. Petrucci’s notes, Serindia, p. 1398.
42 See above, p. 16.
43 Cf. M. Petrucci, on ‘Maṇḍalas de Kouan-yin’, Serindia, Appendix E, pp. 1411 sqq.; and for a full description of our painting, ibid., pp. 1077 sqq.
44 See M. Foucher’s brilliant essay on ‘La Madone bouddhique’ in The Beginnings of Buddhist Art, pp. 285 sqq.
45 See M. Petrucci’s explanations in Serindia, p. 1397. The other two inscriptions seem to contain metrical invocations of the all-merciful Kuan-yin.
46 For scenes somewhat similar, see the side of Bhaiṣajyaguru’s Paradise in Plate i.
47 Cf. Mr. Binyon’s note in Guide to an Exhibition Paintings, Manuscripts, and other Archaeological Objects collected by Sir Aurel Stein in Chinese Turkestān, British Museum, 1914, p. 12.
48 Cf. Chavannes, Dix inscriptions chinoises de l’Asie centrale, pp. 80 sqq.; Serindia, p. 1338 sq.
49 See Serindia, p. 864, with note 16.
50 Cf. Mr. Binyon’s remarks in Guide to an Exhibition of Paintings, MSS., &c., collected by Sir Aurel Stein (British Museum, London, 1914), p. 7 sq.; also M. Petrucci’s account of Kṣitigarbha’s ‘Maṇḍalas’, Serindia p. 1422 sq.

The history of Kṣitigarbha’s cult in China and Japan forms the subject of a full and very instructive monograph, The Bodhisattva Ti-tsang (Jizō) in China and Japan, by Professor M. W. de Visser, with numerous illustrations (Oesterheld & Co., Berlin, 1915), to which reference may be made for all details.
51 For a brief summary of the facts bearing on the iconographic history of the Lokapāla figures in their transition from India and Central Asia to China, cf. e.g. Serindia, pp. 870 sqq., where the principal authorities are indicated.
52 See Ancient Khotan, i. pp. 158, 252 sq.
53 The treatment of the scales, apparently represented by three-armed crosses, is peculiar and differs from the several methods of scale armour which other Lokapāla figures (see e.g. Plate xlvii) usually display. But it is found again on Vaiśravaṇa’s armour in Plate xlv and may possibly be meant for a special kind of mail.
54 For some of such indications, see Serindia, pp. 871 sq., 874.
55 Cf. Herzfeld, Am Tor von Asien, p. 87. To the examples there quoted in note 141 may be added the painted panel from Dandān-oilik, D. vii. 5, shown in Ancient Khotan, ii. Pl. lix.
56 For more detailed observations on the two groups among Lokapāla pictures, cf. Serindia, pp. 872 sqq.
57 See Serindia, pp. 873 sq., 939 sqq., &c. Questions closely bearing upon armour and costume such as our Lokapālas exhibit have been discussed with much critical learning by Dr. B. Laufer in his Chinese Clay Figures, Pt. 1: Prolegomena on the History of Defensive Armour (Chicago, 1914).
58 See Ancient Khotan, i. pp. xvi, 374, 411; Serindia, pp. 246, 463 sqq.
59 See above, pp 12, 14 sq., 29.
59 For detailed references, cf. Serindia, p. 873; see also Ancient Khotan, i. pp. xvi, 252.
61 For reference to works of MM. Chavannes, Foucher, Grünwedel-Burgess, see Serindia, p. 875, note 45.
62 Cf. Serindia, pp. 904 sqq., and the embroidery specimens reproduced there in Plates cvi-cviii, cx, cxi.
63 Cf. F. H. Andrews, Ancient Chinese Figured Silks excavated by Sir Aurel Stein (B. Quaritch, London, 1920), pp. 4 sqq., Figs. 1–3.
64 See above, Plates i, ii.
65 We meet with exactly corresponding examples of the combination of Chinese and ‘Sassanian’ textile motifs in certain printed silks from the ‘Thousand Buddhas’; see Serindia, p. 911, Plates cxiii, cxiv.
66 See above, p. 9.
67 Owing to these causes the reproduction of the painting has presented considerable technical difficulties. Hence some of the details mentioned cannot be made out in it quite as clearly as in the original.
68 See his Appendix K, Serindia p. 1473.
69 Cf. Mayers, The Chinese Reader’s Manual, p. 48.
70 See above, pp. 25, 27.
71 For full details of the iconographic evidence I may refer to Serindia, pp. 878 sqq.
72 Some idea of the labour implied by the execution of the embroidery may be formed from the fact that the careful remounting of the hanging on a fresh canvas backing, which became necessary at the British Museum for its preservation, kept the expert employed on this task, Miss E. A. Winter, of the Royal School of Needlework, occupied for over three months.
73 Some connexion might perhaps be sought with an early legend relating to Śākyamuni’s stay on Gṛdhrakūṭa. While engaged in meditation within a grotto, he was believed to have pushed his right arm through its rock-wall in order to reassure his disciple Ānanda, whom Māra, in the shape of a vulture, had frightened; cf. Foucher, L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra, i. p. 497.
74 See above, pp. 20 sqq.
75 Cf. Serindia, p. 885.
76 See above, p. 21.
77 See above, p. 13.
78 See above, p. 23.
79 For the reasons which account for the banners with scenes from the Life usually forming small groups or at least pairs, cf. Serindia, p. 852.
80 This is in complete accord with the original Buddhist tradition which presents the descent of the white elephant not as a real event, but as a dream of Māyā; cf. Foucher, L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra, i. p. 292.
81 For a textual reference supporting this interpretation, cf. Serindia. p. xxiii, add. to p. 855, note 50a.
82 See above, p. 8.
83 See Serindia, pp. 933 sq., Figs. 215, 226.
84 For a full description of this instrument, cf. Miss K. Schlesinger’s note in Appendix H, Serindia, p. 1468.
85 Cf. Serindia, Appendix E, p. 1429.
86 See above, p. 37 sq.
87 See above, p. 8.
88 Cf. Serindia, pp. 861 sqq.
89 For specimens cf. Serindia. pp. 904 sq.; Plates cvi-viii, &c.
90 See Ancient Khotan, i. pp. 120 sq., 264 sq.; ii. Pl. lxiii; Serindia, iii. p. 1277.
91 See above, p. 9.
92 Cf. also above, p. 39.
93 Cf. Serindia, p. 874.
94 See Plates xvii, xlii.
95 Cf. Grünwedel, Altbuddhistische Kultstätten, pp. 282, 351, Fig. 583; Foucher, L’art gréco-bouddhique du Gandhâra, ii. pp. 32 sqq.
96 See Serindia, Plate c (Ch. 00158).
97 See above, p. 40 sq.
98 For a likely explanation of this unusual attitude, see above, p. 24, note 25.
99 See Serindia, ii. p. 874; Pls. xxxvii, liv.

Additional Transcriber’s Notes

Text notes:

  1. For the HTML version, page numbers of the original printed text are displayed within braces to the side of the text.
  2. Footnotes have been moved the end of each section (Preface, Introductory Essay, and main text). Numbering is unchanged.
  3. Index sub-items have been placed on their own line beneath the main item.
  4. The original printed version of this work was composed of a book containing the text and two books containing numbered image plates. These image plates have been moved to their respected text sections.
  5. Except as mentioned above and in the Change List that follows, every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including non-standard punctuation, inconsistently hyphenated words, etc.

Change List (page numbers from original printed book):

  • Page 6
    legend of Sākyamuni in his last life
    changed to
    legend of Śākyamuni in his last life
  • Page 40
    VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUSRĪ
    changed to
    VIRŪPĀKṢA AND MAÑJUŚRĪ
  • Page 42
    crimson _langōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes
    changed to
    crimson _laṅgōṭī_ flowered with blue rosettes
  • Page 65
    Petrucci, M. R., viii, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50.
    changed to
    Petrucci, M. R., v, x, xi, xii, 14, 16, 17, 19, 27, 30, 37, 50.

Printed Image Plate Dimensions (width x height in centimeters)

Plate Dimension Plate Dimension
1 38.3 x 49.3 25 54.3 x 34.9
2 33.7 x 49.3 26 40.7 x 45.1
3 32.5 x 49.6 27 38.0 x 49.5
4 25.4 x 49.4 28 37.9 x 39.8
5 19.7 x 39.6 29 42.1 x 50.3
6 32.7 x 49.3 30 45.7 x 39.7
7 37.3 x 49.3 31 30.2 x 49.8
8 35.9 x 49.1 32 50.3 x 26.2
9 49.5 x 41.9 33 52.5 x 32.5
10 36.5 x 49.6 34 17.0 x 25.2
11 41.7 x 39.5 35 21.5 x 20.0
12 54.9 x 35.5 36 20.4 x 21.5
13 42.7 x 49.5 37 20.9 x 22.8
14 36.1 x 49.4 38 12.8 x 36.0
15 35.8 x 49.9 39 20.2 x 22.0
16 32.9 x 49.5 40 20.2 x 28.3
17 37.6 x 49.5 41 25.8 x 26.3
18 29.3 x 49.3 42 18.7 x 24.7
19 38.4 x 39.7 43 17.9 x 22.6
20 26.3 x 39.6 44 20.5 x 26.2
21 18.6 x 49.4 45 17.2 x 24.7
22 47.7 x 33.5 46 27.0 x 32.8
23 33.3 x 49.2 47 21.7 x 20.8
24 40.1 x 49.5 48 23.4 x 32.5