The uncivilized races of men in all countries of the world; vol. 2 of 2 / Being a comprehensive account of their manners and customs, and of their physical, social, mental, moral and religious characteristics

BEADS AS CURRENCY — MOST POPULAR KINDS — MODE OF BECKONING — NATIVE SURGERY — RELIGION — IDOLS, REPRESENTING DECEASED KINDRED — COMMUNION WITH DEPARTED SPIRITS — THEIR RETURN TO AVENGE INJURIES — SINGULAR CUSTOMS — THE MILANDO — WOMEN THE PRINCIPAL CAUSE — THE DREAD OF RIDICULE — POLITENESS A TRAIT OF THE AFRICANS — MODES OF SALUTATION — THE NATURAL KINDNESS OF AFRICAN TRIBES — THEIR BARBARITY CAUSED BY WRONGS AGAINST THEM — THEIR KINDNESS TOWARD LIVINGSTONE — MISTAKE OF SPEKE — CHILD SELLING — EDUCATION OF THE WORLD — AFRICANS QUICK TO RECOGNIZE GOODNESS.

In concluding the description of the tribes of Eastern and Central Africa of which we have learned from the pages of Livingstone, Schweinfurth and Stanley, we present some general features and characteristics not confined merely to one tribe.

It is well-known to our readers that beads are a most important part of the currency throughout Africa; but it is not so well-known that great judgment must be exercised in the selection of them in regard to size and color. These are far from being matters of indifference to the natives, and fashions obtain among them as inexorable and fatal to the trader oftentimes as the fashions among civilized peoples. With few exceptions the beads used in Africa are manufactured in Venice. If not informed in regard to the prevalent fashion among a people whom the traveller is intending to visit, he will be likely to load himself with what cannot be exchanged at all, and will prove utterly valueless.

The following nomenclature and description of the most valuable and popular beads are derived from Chuma and Susi, those faithful servants of Dr. Livingstone who came to England bearing the precious remains of their beloved master.

“The beads that the Waiyau prefer are exceedingly small, the size of a mustard seed and of various colors, but they must be opaque; among them, dull, white chalk varieties called ‘catchokolo’ are valuable besides black and pink named respectively ‘bububu’ and ‘sekundereché,’ (the dregs of pombé). One red bead of various sizes, which has a white centre, is always valuable in any part of Africa. It is called ‘samisami’ by the Suahélé, ‘chitakaraka’ by the Waiyau, ‘mangazi’ (blood) by the Nyassa, and was found popular even among the Manyuema, under the name of ‘masokantussi,’ (birds’ eyes). It is interesting to observe that one peculiar, long bead, recognized as common in the Manyuema land, is only sent to the west coast of Africa, and never to the east. On Chuma’s pointing to it as a sort found at the extreme limit explored by Livingstone, it was at once seen that he must have touched that part of Africa which begins to be within the reach of the traders in the Portuguese settlements.

“‘Machua kangu’ (guinea fowls’ eyes) is another popular variety; and the ‘moiompio’ (new heart), a large, pale-blue bead, is a favorite among the Wabisa; but by far the most valuable of all is a small, white, oblong bead which when strung looks like the joints of the cane-root, from which it takes its name ‘salami’ (canes). Susi says that one pound weight of these beads would buy a tusk of ivory at the south end of Tanganyika, so big that a strong man could not carry it more than two hours.

“Africans all beckon to a person with the hand in a way very different from that of Europeans and Americans. We beckon with the hand supine, or the palm up, but they with the palm down. This mode arises from their idea of beckoning, which is to lay the hand on the person and so draw him toward them. If the person wished for be near, the beckoner puts out his right hand on a level with his heart and makes the motion of catching the other, by shutting the fingers and drawing him to himself. If the person be farther off, this motion is increased by lifting the right hand as high as he can; he then brings it down with a sweep toward the ground, the hand being held prone during all the operation. Their method of assent is entirely opposite from ours. We nod assent bringing the chin down: they lift it to signify their concurrence. This raising of the chin, though not appearing so strange after becoming familiar with the custom, is yet not so natural as the use of the hand in beckoning.”

As the servants of Livingstone were faithfully bearing his dead body from the interior of Africa to the coast, they reached a village of the Kawendé people. A present of a cow was made to the caravan; but she must be caught. These animals being very wild, a hunt was undertaken. Saféné, firing recklessly, unfortunately wounded one of the villagers, fracturing his thigh-bone. The process adopted for setting the broken limb is so peculiar that we give its description as an illustration of native surgery.

“First of all, a hole was dug, say two feet deep and four in length, in such a manner that the patient could sit in it with his legs out before him. A large leaf was then bound round the fractured thigh, and earth thrown in, so that the patient was buried up to the chest. The next act was to cover the earth which lay over the man’s legs with a thick layer of mud; then plenty of sticks and grass were collected and a fire lighted on the top, directly over the fracture. To prevent the smoke from smothering the sufferer, they held a tall mat as a screen before his face, and the operation went on. After some time the heat reached the limbs under ground. Bellowing with fear and covered with perspiration, the man implored them to let him out. The authorities, concluding he had been under treatment a sufficient time, quickly burrowed down and lifted him from the hole. He was now held perfectly fast, while two strong men stretched the wounded limb with all their might. Splints duly prepared were afterward bound round it, and we must hope that in due time benefit accrued; but as the ball passed through the limb, we must have doubts on the subject. The villagers told Chuma that after the Banyamwezi engagements they constantly treated bad gun-shot wounds in this way with perfect success.”

In respect to religion of the African tribes, it is the belief that there is a power superior to man, which is sometimes beneficent, and sometimes evil, and to be dreaded. This is the elementary belief, arising from the feelings of dependence on a divine or unseen power, yet with a vague conception of the attributes of this power, and so idols may come to be regarded as the modes or channels for its manifestation.

In Central Africa an idol may be found in almost every village. It is made of wood, and resembles the people in features, marking, and fashion of the hair. Some are in the houses, others have little huts made for them. They are called Nkisi by the Bahemba, and Kalubi by the people of Rua. Presents of pombé, flour, bhang, tobacco are made to the idol and a fire is lighted for it to smoke by.

They represent the departed father or mother, and it is thought that they are gratified by the offerings made to their representatives. Casembe has many of these nkisi; one with long hair, named Motombo, is carried in front when he takes the field. Sometimes the names of dead chiefs are given to them. It is doubtful whether prayers are ever offered to these idols. The Arabs, who are familiar with their language, assert that they have no prayers and think that death is the end of the man. There are, however, evidences of a belief in a Superior Power. Some think there are two Superior Beings,—Rua above, who kills people, and Rua below, who carries them away after death.

The existence of and communion with departed spirits is deeply imbedded in the faith of the African and has been from time immemorial. The keenest distress is felt in the prospect of any bodily mutilation or burning of the body after death. They regard these as bars to their intercourse with relatives that survive; they think they would thereby be unable to aid those they love or retaliate upon those who have wronged them. As we have seen, this hope inspires the slaves to sing in their bondage, giving them a kind of enjoyment in their anticipated revenge upon those who have captured or cruelly treated them.

This is a prevalent belief among the tribes in the interior. Their conception of the future state is that a desire for vengeance upon enemies still alive on earth is the ruling purpose and passion, and hence there is a superstitious horror connected with the dead. This was one of the most serious dangers imperilling the success of Livingstone’s faithful servants, in their endeavor to bring the dead body of their master out of Central Africa and deliver it up to his kindred and his native land.

The religion of the African is therefore an effort to propitiate those who show that they are able to revisit the earth and torment and work mischief by any unfortunate accident or the opening of a war. All their ceremonies hinge upon this belief. Accordingly chief and people make common cause against those who, in going through their territory, lose any of their number by death. Such events are regarded as most serious offences, and therefore excite the strongest apprehension of the natives and unite them as one in hostilities against those who thus are brought into conflict with their superstition.

In some of the villages a singular custom prevails in regard to the dead. When a child or relative dies, a small miniature hut, about two feet high, is built and very neatly thatched and plastered. If any food especially palatable be cooked, or beer be brewed, a portion of it is placed in this tiny hut for the departed soul, that is believed to enjoy it.

Another peculiarity of these uncivilized Africans is not without some counterpart among more intelligent and self-styled civilized people. A chief whose town Livingstone entered was absent on some milando. Livingstone writes in connection with this circumstance that “these milandos are the business of their lives. They are like petty lawsuits; if one trespasses on his neighbor’s rights in any way it is a milando, and the head men of all the villages are called to settle it. Women are a fruitful source of milando.” If an intelligent African traveller should visit this country to learn the customs and traits of the people he might possibly conclude that the truth of Livingstone’s last statement is not applicable only to equatorial Africa. A few ears of Indian corn had been taken by a person, and Chitikola had been called a full day’s journey off to settle this milando. He administered muave[2] and the person vomited; therefore innocence was clearly established. In cases of milando they rely on the most distant connections and relations to plead their cause, and seldom are they disappointed, though time at certain seasons is felt by all to be precious.

Another characteristic of the African is that he cannot withstand ridicule and sneers. He is extremely sensitive to any manifestations of derision, and is restive under criticism. Livingstone describes this trait in this way:—

“When any mishap occurs in the march (as when a branch tilts a load off a man’s shoulder), all who see it set up a yell of derision; if anything is accidentally spilled or one is tired and sits down, the same yell greets him, and all are excited thereby to exert themselves. They hasten on with their loads and hurry with the sheds they build, the masters only bringing up the rear and helping any one who may be sick. The distances travelled were quite as much as the masters or we could bear.”

Sensitive as Africans are to anything like derision or depreciation, they are naturally mindful of what is due to others. Such a disposition is the foundation of politeness. Livingstone, passing through a village of Manyuema, saw a newly-married couple standing with arms around each other very lovingly, but “no one joked or poked fun at them.”

The Africans, as a race, are distinguished for politeness, and their modes of salutation indicate courtesy and deference. In Ulungu, the custom “among relations is to place the hands around each other’s chests, kneeling; they then clap their hands close to the ground. Some more abject individuals kiss the soil before the chief. The generality kneel only, with the forearms close to the ground and the head bowed down to them, saying ‘O Ajadla, chiusa, Mari a bwéno!’

“The Usanga say ‘Ajé senga.’ The clapping of hands to superiors and even equals is in some villages a perpetually occurring sound. Aged persons are usually saluted. How this extreme deference to each other could have arisen, I cannot conceive; it does not seem to be fear of each other that elicits it. Even the chiefs inspire no fear, and those cruel old platitudes about governing savages by fear seem unknown; yet governed they certainly are, and upon the whole very well. The people were not very willing to go to punish Nsama’s breach of public law; yet, on the decision of its chiefs, they went, and came back,—one with a wooden stool, another with a mat, a third with a calabash of ground-nuts or some dried meat, a hoe or a bow,—poor, poor pay for a fortnight’s hard work, hunting fugitives and burning villages.”

The African people have naturally a great deal of kindness of disposition. They are not treacherous, savage, and blood-thirsty without some cause. Their bitter and sore experience from the Arab traders has made them suspicious of all strangers, and has transformed their native kindness into sullen hatred and a desire for vengeance upon their enemies.

Moenemokata, an Arab who had travelled among African tribes more extensively than any of his race, said to Livingstone, “If a man go with a good-natured, civil tongue, he may pass through the worst people in Africa unharmed.” It is a remarkable fact that Livingstone, who traversed so large a portion of the great continent of Africa, and visited so many tribes widely differing in spirit and character, never resorted to violence. In no instance during his long wanderings and his manifold perils among these heathen people did he use his weapon to the injury of the natives.

Even in Manyuema, among the people that all said “are bad, very bad,” blood-thirsty cannibals, if none of them had been wronged by the Arab traders, plundered and spoliated, they would not be so inspired with feelings of malice and revenge. Livingstone had little difficulty in obtaining what he needed. He says, “None of the people are ferocious without cause.” It was a quite frequent occurrence for old men to come forward to him with bananas as a present, saying as he passed, with trembling accents, “Bolongo, bolongo!” (Friendship, friendship). If he paused to return the favor by some gift, others ran for plantains or palm-toddy. The Arabs would seize what they wished, demand food peremptorily, and eat it without one word of thanks, and then say to Livingstone, “They are bad. Don’t give them anything.” “Why, what badness is there in giving food?” Livingstone replied. “Oh! they like you, but hate us.”

Much of the barbarity and badness of these African tribes may be ascribed to the heartlessness, falsehood, pillage, and murder by the Mohammedan slave-dealers. Livingstone gives in his journal these incidents to show the characteristic kindness of the African race:—

“When we were on the Shiré, we used to swing the ship into mid-stream every night in order to let the air which was put in motion by the water pass from end to end. Musa’s brother-in-law stepped into the water one morning in order to swim off for a boat, and was seized by a crocodile. The poor fellow held up his hands imploringly, but Musa and the rest allowed him to perish. On my denouncing his heartlessness, Musa replied, ‘Well, no one tell him to go in there.’ When at Senna, a slave-woman was seized by a crocodile; four Makololo rushed in unbidden and rescued her, though they knew nothing about her. From long intercourse both with Johanna men and Makololo, I take these incidents as typical of the two cases. Those of mixed blood possess the vices of both races and the virtues of neither.”

Speke, at Kasangé Islet, made this statement, viz., “The mothers of these savage people have infinitely less affection than many savage beasts of my acquaintance. I have seen a mother-bear galled by frequent shots, obstinately meet her death by repeatedly returning under fire while endeavoring to rescue her young from the grasp of intruding men. But here, for a simple loin-cloth or two, human mothers eagerly exchanged their little offspring, delivering them into perpetual bondage to my Beluch soldiers.”—Speke, pp. 234, 235.

Livingstone contradicts this statement as a general one, and thinks it was only a single and exceptional case. His inquiries, put to Arabs who have travelled most extensively among the African tribes, failed to elicit any corroboration of this assertion of Speke, except in the very infrequent case of a child cutting the upper front teeth before the under, and because such a child is thought to be moiko (unlucky), and certain to bring death into the family. It is called an Arab child, and sold to the first Arab, or even left at his door. The Arabs knew of no child-selling except under these circumstances, which seldom occur, and the transaction, accordingly, grows out of a superstition. “Speke had only two Beluch soldiers with him, and the idea that they loaded themselves with infants stamps this tale as fabulous. He may have seen one sold,—an extremely rare and exceptional case, but the inferences drawn are just like that of the Frenchman who thought the English so partial to suicide in November that they might be seen suspended from trees in the common highways.”

Livingstone well says, “The education of the world is a terrible one, and it has come down on Africa with relentless vigor from most remote times. What the African will become after this awfully hard lesson is learned, is among the future developments of Providence. When He who is higher than the highest, accomplishes His purposes, this will be a wonderful country, and again something like that which it was of old, when Zerah and Tirhaka flourished and were great.”

Among the reflections inspired by his desire for the redemption of Africa which the missionary explorer was in the habit of recording from time to time in his journal, we find tributes to the character of these benighted men. The following is one of these testimonies by him who, better than any other man, knew the African race:—

“No jugglery or sleight-of-hand, as was recommended to Napoleon III, would have any effect in the civilization of Africa. They have too much good sense for that. Nothing brings them to place thorough confidence in Europeans but a long course of well-doing. They believe readily in the supernatural as effecting any new process or feat of skill, for it is part of their original faith to ascribe everything above human agency to unseen spirits. Goodness or unselfishness impresses their minds more than any kind of skill or power. They say ‘You have different hearts from ours; all black men’s hearts are bad, but yours are good.’ The prayer for a new heart and right spirit at once commends itself as appropriate.”