Of all the laws governing variability, that of correlation is one of the most important. In many cases of slight deviations of structure as well as of grave monstrosities, we cannot even conjecture what is the nature of the bond of connexion. But between homologous parts—between the fore and hind limbs— between the hair, hoofs, horns, and teeth—which are closely similar during their early development and which are exposed to similar conditions, we can see that they would be eminently liable to be modified in the same manner. Homologous parts, from having the same nature, are apt to blend together, and, when many exist, to vary in number.
Although every variation is either directly or indirectly caused by some change in the surrounding conditions, we must never forget that the nature of the organisation which is acted on, is by far the more important factor in the result. We see this in different organisms, which when placed under similar conditions vary in a different manner, whilst closely-allied organisms under dissimilar conditions often vary in nearly the same manner. We see this, in the same modification frequently reappearing in the same variety at long intervals of time, and likewise in the several striking cases given of analogous or parallel variations. Although some of these latter cases are due to reversion, others cannot thus be accounted for.
From the indirect action of changed conditions on the organisation, owing to the reproductive organs being thus affected—from the direct action of such conditions, and these will cause the individuals of the same species either to vary in the same manner, or differently in accordance with slight differences in their constitution—from the effects of the increased or decreased use of parts—and from correlation,—the variability of our domesticated productions is complicated to an extreme degree. The whole organisation becomes slightly plastic. Although each modification must have its own exciting cause, and though each is subjected to law, yet we can so rarely trace the precise relation between cause and effect, that we are tempted to speak of variations as if they arose spontaneously. We may even call them accidental, but this must be only in the sense in which we say that a fragment of rock dropped from a height owes its shape to accident.
It may be worth while briefly to consider the result of the exposure to unnatural conditions of a large number of animals of the same species and allowed to cross freely with no selection of any kind, and afterwards to consider the result when selection is brought into play. Let us suppose that 500 wild rock-pigeons were confined in their native land in an aviary and fed in the same manner as pigeons usually are; and that they were not allowed to increase in number. As pigeons propagate so rapidly, I suppose that a thousand or fifteen hundred birds would have to be annually killed. After several generations had been thus reared, we may feel sure that some of the young birds would vary, and the variations would tend to be inherited; for at the present day slight deviations of structure often occur and are inherited. It would be tedious even to enumerate the multitude of points which still go on varying or have recently varied. Many variations would occur in correlation with one another, as the length of the wing and tail feathers—the number of the primary wing-feathers, as well as the number and breadth of the ribs, in correlation with the size and form of the body—the number of the scutellae with the size of the feet—the length of the tongue with the length of the beak—the size of the nostrils and eyelids and the form of lower jaw in correlation with the development of wattle—the nakedness of the young with the future colour of the plumage—the size of the feet with that of the beak, and other such points. Lastly, as our birds are supposed to be confined in an aviary, they would use their wings and legs but little, and certain parts of the skeleton, such as the sternum, scapulae and feet, would in consequence become slightly reduced in size.
As in our assumed case many birds have to be indiscriminately killed every year, the chances are against any new variety surviving long enough to breed. And as the variations which arise are of an extremely diversified nature, the chances are very great against two birds pairing which have varied in the same manner; nevertheless, a varying bird even when not thus paired would occasionally transmit its character to its young; and these would not only be exposed to the same conditions which first caused the variation in question to appear, but would in addition inherit from their modified parent a tendency again to vary in the same manner. So that, if the conditions decidedly tended to induce some particular variation, all the birds might in the course of time become similarly modified. But a far commoner result would be, that one bird would vary in one way and another bird in another way; one would be born with a beak a little longer, and another with a shorter beak; one would gain some black feathers, another some white or red feathers. And as these birds would be continually intercrossing, the final result would be a body of individuals differing from each other in many ways, but only slightly; yet more than did the original rock-pigeons. But there would not be the least tendency towards the formation of several distinct breeds.
If two separate lots of pigeons were treated in the manner just described, one in England and the other in a tropical country, the two lots being supplied with different kinds of food, would they after many generations differ? When we reflect on the cases given in the twenty-third chapter, and on such facts as the difference in former times between the breeds of cattle, sheep, etc., in almost every district of Europe, we are strongly inclined to admit that the two lots would be differently modified through the influence of climate and food. But the evidence on the definite action of changed conditions is in most cases insufficient; and, with respect to pigeons, I have had the opportunity of examining a large collection of domesticated kinds, sent to me by Sir W. Elliot from India, and they varied in a remarkably similar manner with our European birds.
If two distinct breeds were mingled together in equal numbers, there is reason to suspect that they would to a certain extent prefer pairing with their own kind; but they would often intercross. From the greater vigour and fertility of the crossed offspring, the whole body would by this means become interblended sooner than would otherwise have occurred. From certain breeds being prepotent over others, it does not follow that the interblended progeny would be strictly intermediate in character. I have, also, proved that the act of crossing in itself gives a strong tendency to reversion, so that the crossed offspring would tend to revert to the state of the aboriginal rock- pigeon; and in the course of time they would probably be not much more heterogeneous in character than in our first case, when birds of the same breed were confined together.
I have just said that the crossed offspring would gain in vigour and fertility. From the facts given in the seventeenth chapter there can be no doubt of this fact; and there can be little doubt, though the evidence on this head is not so easily acquired, that long-continued close interbreeding leads to evil results. With hermaphrodites of all kinds, if the sexual elements of the same individual habitually acted on each other, the closest possible interbreeding would be perpetual. But we should bear in mind that the structure of all hermaphrodite animals, as far as I can learn, permits and frequently necessitates a cross with a distinct individual. With hermaphrodite plants we incessantly meet with elaborate and perfect contrivances for this same end. It is no exaggeration to assert that, if the use of the talons and tusks of a carnivorous animal, or of the plumes and hooks on a seed, may be safely inferred from their structure, we may with equal safety infer that many flowers are constructed for the express purpose of ensuring a cross with a distinct plant. From these various considerations, not to mention the result of a long series of experiments which I have tried, the conclusion arrived at in the chapter just referred to—namely, that great good of some kind is derived from the sexual concourse of distinct individuals—must be admitted.
To return to our illustration: we have hitherto assumed that the birds were kept down to the same number by indiscriminate slaughter; but if the least choice be permitted in their preservation, the whole result will be changed. Should the owner observe any slight variation in one of his birds, and wish to obtain a breed thus characterised, he would succeed in a surprisingly short time by careful selection. As any part which has once varied generally goes on varying in the same direction, it is easy, by continually preserving the most strongly marked individuals, to increase the amount of difference up to a high, predetermined standard of excellence. This is methodical selection.
If the owner of the aviary, without any thought of making a new breed, simply admired, for instance, short-beaked more than long-beaked birds, he would, when he had to reduce the number, generally kill the latter; and there can be no doubt that he would thus in the course of time sensibly modify his stock. It is improbable, if two men were to keep pigeons and act in this manner, that they would prefer exactly the same characters; they would, as we know, often prefer directly opposite characters, and the two lots would ultimately come to differ. This has actually occurred with strains or families of cattle, sheep, and pigeons, which have been long kept and carefully attended to by different breeders, without any wish on their part to form new and distinct sub-breeds. This unconscious kind of selection will more especially come into action with animals which are highly serviceable to man; for every one tries to get the best dogs, horses, cows, or sheep, without thinking about their future progeny, yet these animals would transmit more or less surely their good qualities to their offspring. Nor is any one so careless as to breed from his worst animals. Even savages, when compelled from extreme want to kill some of their animals, would destroy the worst and preserve the best. With animals kept for use and not for mere amusement, different fashions prevail in different districts, leading to the preservation, and consequently to the transmission, of all sorts of trifling peculiarities of character. The same process will have been pursued with our fruit-trees and vegetables, for the best will always have been the most largely cultivated, and will occasionally have yielded seedlings better than their parents.
The different strains, just alluded to, which have been actually produced by breeders without any wish on their part to obtain such a result, afford excellent evidence of the power of unconscious selection. This form of selection has probably led to far more important results than methodical selection, and is likewise more important under a theoretical point of view from closely resembling natural selection. For during this process the best or most valued individuals are not separated and prevented from crossing with others of the same breed, but are simply preferred and preserved; yet this inevitably leads to their gradual modification and improvement; so that finally they prevail, to the exclusion of the old parent-form.
With our domesticated animals natural selection checks the production of races with any injurious deviation of structure. In the case of animals which, from being kept by savages or semi-civilised people, have to provide largely for their own wants under different circumstances, natural selection will have played a more important part. Hence it probably is that they often closely resemble natural species.
As there is no limit to man's desire to possess animals and plants more and more useful in any respect, and as the fancier always wishes, owing to fashions running into extremes, to produce each character more and more strongly pronounced, there is, through the prolonged action of methodical and unconscious selection, a constant tendency in every breed to become more and more different from its parent-stock; and when several breeds have been produced and are valued for different qualities, to differ more and more from each other. This leads to Divergence of Character. As improved sub-varieties and races are slowly formed, the older and less improved breeds are neglected and decrease in number. When few individuals of any breed exist within the same locality, close interbreeding, by lessening their vigour and fertility, aids in their final extinction. Thus the intermediate links are lost, and the remaining breeds gain in Distinctness of Character.
In the chapters on the Pigeon, it was proved by historical evidence and by the existence of connecting sub-varieties in distant lands that several breeds have steadily diverged in character, and that many old and intermediate sub- breeds have been lost. Other cases could be adduced of the extinction of domestic breeds, as of the Irish wolf-dog, the old English hound, and of two breeds in France, one of which was formerly highly valued. (28/4. M. Rufz de Lavison in 'Bull. Soc. Imp. d'Acclimat.' December 1862 page 1009.) Mr. Pickering remarks (28/5. 'Races of Man' 1850 page 315.) that "the sheep figured on the most ancient Egyptian monuments is unknown at the present day; and at least one variety of the bullock, formerly known in Egypt, has in like manner become extinct." So it has been with some animals and with several plants cultivated by the ancient inhabitants of Europe during the neolithic period. In Peru, Von Tschudi (28/6. 'Travels in Peru' English translation page 177.) found in certain tombs, apparently prior to the dynasty of the Incas, two kinds of maize not now known in the country. With our flowers and culinary vegetables, the production of new varieties and their extinction has incessantly recurred. At the present time improved breeds sometimes displace older breeds at an extraordinarily rapid rate; as has recently occurred throughout England with pigs. The Longhorn cattle in their native home were "suddenly swept away as if by some murderous pestilence," by the introduction of Shorthorns. (28/7. Youatt on 'Cattle' 1834 page 200. On Pigs see 'Gardener's Chronicle' 1854 page 410.)
What grand results have followed from the long-continued action of methodical and unconscious selection, regulated to a certain extent by natural selection, we see on every side of us. Compare the many animals and plants which are displayed at our exhibitions with their parent-forms when these are known, or consult old historical records with respect to their former state. Most of our domesticated animals have given rise to numerous and distinct races, but those which cannot be easily subjected to selection must be excepted—such as cats, the cochineal insect, and the hive-bee. In accordance with what we know of the process of selection, the formation of our many races has been slow and gradual. The man who first observed and preserved a pigeon with its oesophagus a little enlarged, its beak a little longer, or its tail a little more expanded than usual, never dreamed that he had made the first step in the creation of a pouter, carrier, and fantail-pigeon. Man can create not only anomalous breeds, but others having their whole structure admirably co- ordinated for certain purposes, such as the racehorse and dray-horse, or the greyhound and bulldog. It is by no means necessary that each small change of structure throughout the body, leading towards excellence, should simultaneously arise and be selected. Although man seldom attends to differences in organs which are important under a physiological point of view, yet he has so profoundly modified some breeds, that assuredly, if found wild, they would be ranked as distinct genera.
The best proof of what selection has effected is perhaps afforded by the fact that whatever part or quality in any animal, and more especially in any plant, is most valued by man, that part or quality differs most in the several races. This result is well seen by comparing the amount of difference between the fruits produced by the several varieties of fruit-trees, between the flowers of our flower-garden plants, between the seeds, roots, or leaves of our culinary and agricultural plants, in comparison with the other and not valued parts of the same varieties. Striking evidence of a different kind is afforded by the fact ascertained by Oswald Heer (28/8. 'Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten' 1865.) namely, that the seeds of a large number of plants,—wheat, barley, oats, peas, beans, lentils, poppies,—cultivated for their seed by the ancient Lake-inhabitants of Switzerland, were all smaller than the seeds of our existing varieties. Rutimeyer has shown that the sheep and cattle which were kept by the earlier Lake-inhabitants were likewise smaller than our present breeds. In the middens of Denmark, the earliest dog of which the remains have been found was the weakest; this was succeeded during the Bronze age by a stronger kind, and this again during the Iron age by one still stronger. The sheep of Denmark during the Bronze period had extraordinarily slender limbs, and the horse was smaller than our present animal. (28/9. Morlot 'Soc. Vaud. des Scien. Nat.' Mars 1860 page 298.) No doubt in most of these cases the new and larger breeds were introduced from foreign lands by the immigration of new hordes of men. But it is not probable that each larger breed, which in the course of time has supplanted a previous and smaller breed, was the descendant of a distinct and larger species; it is far more probable that the domestic races of our various animals were gradually improved in different parts of the great Europaeo-Asiatic continent, and thence spread to other countries. This fact of the gradual increase in size of our domestic animals is all the more striking as certain wild or half-wild animals, such as red-deer, aurochs, park-cattle, and boars (28/10. Rutimeyer 'Die Fauna der Pfahlbauten' 1861 s. 30.) have within nearly the same period decreased in size.
The conditions favourable to selection by man are,—the closest attention to every character,—long-continued perseverance,—facility in matching or separating animals,—and especially a large number being kept, so that the inferior individuals may be freely rejected or destroyed, and the better ones preserved. When many are kept there will also be a greater chance of the occurrence of well-marked deviations of structure. Length of time is all- important; for as each character, in order to become strongly pronounced, has to be augmented by the selection of successive variations of the same kind, this can be effected only during a long series of generations. Length of time will, also, allow any new feature to become fixed by the continued rejection of those individuals which revert or vary, and by the preservation of those which still inherit the new character. Hence, although some few animals have varied rapidly in certain respects under new conditions of life, as dogs in India and sheep in the West Indies, yet all the animals and plants which have produced strongly marked races were domesticated at an extremely remote epoch, often before the dawn of history. As a consequence of this, no record has been preserved of the origin of our chief domestic breeds. Even at the present day new strains or sub-breeds are formed so slowly that their first appearance passes unnoticed. A man attends to some particular character, or merely matches his animals with unusual care, and after a time a slight difference is perceived by his neighbours;—the difference goes on being augmented by unconscious and methodical selection, until at last a new sub-breed is formed, receives a local name, and spreads; but by this time its history is almost forgotten. When the new breed has spread widely, it gives rise to new strains and sub-breeds, and the best of these succeed and spread, supplanting other and older breeds; and so always onwards in the march of improvement.
When a well-marked breed has once been established, if not supplanted by still further improved sub-breeds, and if not exposed to greatly changed conditions of life inducing further variability or reversion to long-lost characters, it may apparently last for an enormous period. We may infer that this is the case from the high antiquity of certain races; but some caution is necessary on this head, for the same variation may appear independently after long intervals of time, or in distant places. We may safely assume that this has occurred with the turnspit-dog, of which one is figured on the ancient Egyptian monuments—with the solid-hoofed swine (28/11. Godron 'De l'Espece' tome 1 1859 page 368.) mentioned by Aristotle—with five-toed fowls described by Columella—and certainly with the nectarine. The dogs represented on the Egyptian monuments, about 2000 B.C., show us that some of the chief breeds then existed, but it is extremely doubtful whether any are identically the same with our present breeds. A great mastiff sculptured on an Assyrian tomb, 640 B.C., is said to be the same with the dog still imported from Thibet into the same region. The true greyhound existed during the Roman classical period. Coming down to a later period, we have seen that, though most of the chief breeds of the pigeon existed between two and three centuries ago, they have not all retained exactly the same character to the present day; but this has occurred in certain cases in which no improvement was desired, for instance, in the case of the Spot and Indian ground-tumbler.
De Candolle (28/12. 'Geographie Botan.' 1855 page 989.) has fully discussed the antiquity of various races of plants; he states that the black seeded poppy was known in the time of Homer, the white-seeded sesamum by the ancient Egyptians, and almonds with sweet and bitter kernels by the Hebrews; but it does not seem improbable that some of these varieties may have been lost and reappeared. One variety of barley and apparently one of wheat, both of which were cultivated at an immensely remote period by the Lake-inhabitants of Switzerland, still exist. It is said (28/13. Pickering 'Races of Man' 1850 page 318.) that "specimens of a small variety of gourd which is still common in the market of Lima were exhumed from an ancient cemetery in Peru." De Candolle remarks that, in the books and drawings of the sixteenth century, the principal races of the cabbage, turnip, and gourd can be recognised: this might have been expected at so late a period, but whether any of these plants are absolutely identical with our present sub-varieties is not certain. It is, however, said that the Brussels sprout, a variety which in some places is liable to degeneration, has remained genuine for more than four centuries in the district where it is believed to have originated. (28/14. 'Journal of a Horticultural Tour' by a Deputation of the Caledonian Hist. Soc. 1823 page 293.)
In accordance with the views maintained by me in this work and elsewhere, not only the various domestic races, but the most distinct genera and orders within the same great class—for instance, mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes—are all the descendants of one common progenitor, and we must admit that the whole vast amount of difference between these forms has primarily arisen from simple variability. To consider the subject under this point of view is enough to strike one dumb with amazement. But our amazement ought to be lessened when we reflect that beings almost infinite in number, during an almost infinite lapse of time, have often had their whole organisation rendered in some degree plastic, and that each slight modification of structure which was in any way beneficial under excessively complex conditions of life has been preserved, whilst each which was in any way injurious has been rigorously destroyed. And the long-continued accumulation of beneficial variations will infallibly have led to structures as diversified, as beautifully adapted for various purposes and as excellently co-ordinated, as we see in the animals and plants around us. Hence I have spoken of selection as the paramount power, whether applied by man to the formation of domestic breeds, or by nature to the production of species. I may recur to the metaphor given in a former chapter: if an architect were to rear a noble and commodious edifice, without the use of cut stone, by selecting from the fragments at the base of a precipice wedge-formed stones for his arches, elongated stones for his lintels, and flat stones for his roof, we should admire his skill and regard him as the paramount power. Now, the fragments of stone, though indispensable to the architect, bear to the edifice built by him the same relation which the fluctuating variations of organic beings bear to the varied and admirable structures ultimately acquired by their modified descendants.
Some authors have declared that natural selection explains nothing, unless the precise cause of each slight individual difference be made clear. If it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art of building, how the edifice had been raised stone upon stone, and why wedge-formed fragments were used for the arches, flat stones for the roof, etc.; and if the use of each part and of the whole building were pointed out, it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing had been made clear to him, because the precise cause of the shape of each fragment could not be told. But this is a nearly parallel case with the objection that selection explains nothing, because we know not the cause of each individual difference in the structure of each being.
The shape of the fragments of stone at the base of our precipice may be called accidental, but this is not strictly correct; for the shape of each depends on a long sequence of events, all obeying natural laws; on the nature of the rock, on the lines of deposition or cleavage, on the form of the mountain, which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation, and lastly on the storm or earthquake which throws down the fragments. But in regard to the use to which the fragments may be put, their shape may be strictly said to be accidental. And here we are led to face a great difficulty, in alluding to which I am aware that I am travelling beyond my proper province. An omniscient Creator must have foreseen every consequence which results from the laws imposed by Him. But can it be reasonably maintained that the Creator intentionally ordered, if we use the words in any ordinary sense, that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes so that the builder might erect his edifice? If the various laws which have determined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for the builder's sake, can it be maintained with any greater probability that He specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of the innumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants;—many of these variations being of no service to man, and not beneficial, far more often injurious, to the creatures themselves? Did He ordain that the crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that the fancier might make his grotesque pouter and fantail breeds? Did He cause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that a breed might be formed of indomitable ferocity, with jaws fitted to pin down the bull for man's brutal sport? But if we give up the principle in one case,—if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog were intentionally guided in order that the greyhound, for instance, that perfect image of symmetry and vigour, might be formed,—no shadow of reason can be assigned for the belief that variations, alike in nature and the result of the same general laws, which have been the groundwork through natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adapted animals in the world, man included, were intentionally and specially guided. However much we may wish it, we can hardly follow Professor Asa Gray in his belief "that variation has been led along certain beneficial lines," like a stream "along definite and useful lines of irrigation." If we assume that each particular variation was from the beginning of all time preordained, then that plasticity of organisation, which leads to many injurious deviations of structure, as well as the redundant power of reproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence, and, as a consequence, to the natural selection or survival of the fittest, must appear to us superfluous laws of nature. On the other hand, an omnipotent and omniscient Creator ordains everything and foresees everything. Thus we are brought face to face with a difficulty as insoluble as is that of free will and predestination.
INDEX.
ABBAS PACHA, a fancier of fantailed pigeons.
ABBEY, Mr., on grafting. -on mignonette.
ABBOTT, Mr. Keith, on the Persian tumbler pigeon.
ABBREVIATION of the facial bones.
ABORTION of organs.
ABSORPTION of minority in crossed races.
ABUTILON, graft hybridisation of.
ACCLIMATISATION, of maize.
ACERBI, on the fertility of domestic animals in Lapland.
Achatinella.
Achillea millefolium, bud variation in.
Aconitum napellus, roots of, innocuous in cold climates.
Acorus calamus, sterility of.
ACOSTA, on fowls in South America at its discovery.
Acropera, number of seeds in.
ADAM, M., origin of Cytisus adami.
ADAM, W., on consanguineous marriages.
ADAMS, on hereditary diseases.
ADVANCEMENT in scale of organisation.
Aegilops triticoides, observations of Fabre and Godron on. -increasing fertility of hybrids of, with wheat.
Aesculus pavia, tendency of, to become double.
Aethusa cynapium.
AFFINITY, sexual elective.
AFRICA, white bull from. -feral cattle in. -food-plants of savages of. -South, diversity of breeds of cattle in. -West, change in fleece of sheep in.
Agave vivipara, seeding of, in poor soil.
AGE, changes in trees, dependent on. -as bearing on pangenesis.
AGOUTI, fertility of, in captivity.
AGRICULTURE, antiquity of.
Agrostis, seeds of, used as food.
AGUARA.
AINSWORTH, Mr., on the change in the hair of animals at Angora.
AKBAR KHAN, his fondness for pigeons,
Alauda arvensis.
ALBIN, on "Golden Hamburgh" fowls. -figure of the hook-billed duck.
ALBINISM.
ALBINO, negro, attacked by insects.
ALBINOES, heredity of.
ALBINUS, thickness of the epidermis on the palms of the hands in man.
ALCO.
ALDROVANDI, on rabbits. -description of the nun pigeon. -on the fondness of the Dutch for pigeons in the seventeenth century. -notice of several varieties of pigeons. -on the breeds of fowls. -on the origin of the domestic duck.
ALEFIELD, Dr., on the varieties of peas and their specific unity. -on the varieties of beans.
ALEXANDER the Great, his selection of Indian cattle.
ALGAE, retrogressive metamorphosis in. -division of zoospores of,
ALLEN, J., birds in United States.
ALLEN, W., on feral fowls.
ALLMAN, Professor, on a monstrous Saxifraga geum. -on the Hydroida.
ALMOND, antiquity of. -bitter, not eaten by mice.
Alnus glutinosa, and incana, hybrids of.
ALPACA, selection of.
Althaea rosea.
Amaryllis.
Amaryllis vittata, effect of foreign pollen on.
AMAUROSIS, hereditary.
Amblystoma lurida.
AMERICA, limits within which no useful plants have been furnished by. -colours of feral horses in. -North, native cultivated plants of. -skin of feral pig from. -South, variations in cattle of.
AMMON, on the persistency of colour in horses.
Amygdalus persica.
Anagallis arvensis.
ANALOGOUS variation. -in horses, -in the horse and ass. -in fowls.
Anas boschas. -skull of, figured.
"ANCON" sheep of Massachusetts.
ANDALUSIAN fowls.
ANDALUSIAN rabbits.
ANDERSON, J., on the origin of British sheep. -on the selection of qualities in cattle. -on a one-eared breed of rabbits. -on the inheritance of characters from a one-eared rabbit, and three-legged bitch. -on the persistency of varieties of peas. -on the production of early peas by selection. -on the varieties of the potato. -on crossing varieties of the melon. -on reversion in the barberry.
ANDERSON, Mr., on the reproduction of the weeping ash by seed. -on the cultivation of the tree paeony in China.
ANDERSSON, Mr., on the Damara, Bechuana, and Namaqua cattle. -on the cows of the Damaras. -selection practised by the Damaras and Namaquas. -on the use of grass-seeds and the roots of reeds as food in South Africa.
Anemone coronaria, doubled by selection.
ANGINA pectoris, hereditary, occurring at a certain age.
ANGLESEA, cattle of.
ANGOLA sheep.
ANGORA, change in hair of animals at. -cats of. -rabbits of,
ANIMALS, domestication of, facilitated by fearlessness of man. -refusal of wild, to breed in captivity. -compound, individual peculiarities of, reproduced by budding. -variation by selection in useful qualities of.
ANNUAL plants, rarity of bud-variation in.
ANOMALIES in the osteology of the horse.
ANOMALOUS breeds of pigs. -of cattle.
Anser albifrons, characters of, reproduced in domestic geese.
Anser aegyptiacus.
Anser canadensis.
Anser ferus, the original of the domestic goose. -fertility of cross of, with domestic goose.
ANSON, on feral fowls in the Ladrones.
ANTAGONISM between growth and reproduction.
Anthemis nobilis, bud-variation in flowers of. -becomes single in poor soil.
ANTHERS, contabescence of.
ANTIGUA, cats of. -changed fleece of sheep in.
Antirrhinum majus, peloric. -double-flowered. -bud-variation in.
ANTS, individual recognition of.
APHIDES, attacking pear-trees. -development of.
APOPLEXY, hereditary, occurring at a certain age.
APPLE. -fruit of, in Swiss lake-dwellings. -rendered fastigiate by heat in India. -bud-variation in the. -with dimidiate fruit. -with two kinds of fruit on the same branch. -artificial fecundation of. -St. Valery. -reversion in seedlings of. -crossing of varieties of. -growth of the, in Ceylon. -winter majetin, not attacked by coccus. -flower-buds of, attacked by bullfinches. -American, change of, when grown in England.
APRICOT. -glands on the leaves of. -analogous variation in the.
Aquila fusca, copulating in captivity.
Aquilegia vulgaris.
ARAB boarhound, described by Harcourt.
Arabis blepharophylla and A. soyeri, effects of crossing.
Aralia trifoliata, bud-variation in leaves of.
ARAUCARIAS, young, variable resistance of, to frost.
ARCHANGEL pigeon.
ARCTIC regions, variability of plants and shells of.
Aria vestita, grafted on thorns.
ARISTOPHANES, fowls mentioned by.
ARISTOTLE, on solid-hoofed pigs. -domestic duck unknown to. -on the assumption of male characters by old hens.
ARNI, domestication of the.
ARNOLD, Mr., experiments of pollen on the maize.
ARRESTS of development.
ARTERIES, increase of anastomosing branches of, when tied.
ARU Islands, wild pig of.
ARUM, Polynesian varieties of.
Ascaris, number of eggs of.
ASH, varieties of the. -weeping. -simple-leaved. -bud-variation in. -effects of graft upon the stock in the. -production of the blotched Breadalbane. -weeping, capricious reproduction of, by seed.
Asinus burchellii.
Asinus hemionus.
Asinus indicus.
Asinus quagga.
Asinus taeniopus, the original of the domestic ass.
ASPARAGUS, increased fertility of cultivated.
ASS, early domestication of the. -breeds of. -small size of, in India. -stripes of. -dislike of, to cross water. -reversion in. -hybrid of the, with mare and zebra. -prepotency of the, over the horse. -crossed with wild ass. -variation and selection of the.
ASSYRIAN sculpture of a mastiff.
ASTERS.
ASTHMA, hereditary.
ATAVISM. See Reversion.
ATHELSTAN, his care of horses.
ATKINSON, Mr., on the sterility of the Tarroo silk-moth in confinement.
AUBERGINE.
AUDUBON, on feral hybrid ducks. -on the domestication of wild ducks on the Mississippi. -on the wild cock turkey visiting domestic hens. -fertility of Fringilla ciris in captivity. -fertility of Columba migratoria and leucocephala in captivity. -breeding of Anser canadensis in captivity.
AUDUBON and Bachman, on the change of coat in Ovis montana. -sterility of Sciurus cinerea in confinement.
AURICULA, effect of seasonal conditions on the. -blooming of.
AUSTRALIA, no generally useful plants derived from. -useful plants of, enumerated by Hooker.
AUSTRIA, heredity of character in emperors of.
AUTENRIETH, on persistency of colour in horses.
AVA, horses of.
Avena fatua, cultivability of.
'AYEEN Akbery' pigeons mentioned in the.
AYRES, W.P., on bud-variation in pelargoniums.
Azalea indica, bud-variation in.
AZARA, on the feral dogs of La Plata. -on the crossing of domestic with wild cats in Paraguay. -on hornlike processes in horses. -on curled hair in horses. -on the colours of feral horses. -on the cattle of Paraguay and La Plata. -on a hornless bull. -on the increase of cattle in South America. -on the growth of horns in the hornless cattle of Corrientes. -on the "Niata" cattle. -on naked quadrupeds. -on a race of black-skinned fowls in South America. -on a variety of maize.
BABINGTON, C.C., on the origin of the plum. -British species of the genus Rosa. -distinctness of Viola lutea and tricolor.
BACHMANN, Mr., on the turkey.
See also Audubon.
BADGER, breeding in confinement.
"BAGADOTTEN-TAUBE."
BAILY, Mr., on the effect of selection on fowls. -on Dorking fowls.
BAIRD, S., on the origin of the turkey.
BAKER, Mr., on heredity in the horse. -on the degeneration of the horse by neglect. -orders of Henrys VII. and VIII. for the destruction of undersized mares.
BAKEWELL, change in the sheep effected by.
BALANCEMENT. -of growth, -law of.
BALDHEAD (pigeon).
BALDNESS, in man, inherited. -with deficiency in teeth.
BALLANCE, Mr., on the effects of interbreeding on fowls. -on variation in the eggs of fowls.
Ballota nigra, transmission of variegated leaves in.
BAMBOO, varieties of the.
BANANA, variation of the. -bud-variation in the. -sterility of the.
BANTAM fowls, Sebright, origin of. -sterility of.
BARB (pigeon). -figure of. -figure of lower jaw of.
BARBS, of wheat.
BARBERRY, dark or red-leaved variety. -reversion in suckers of seedless variety.
BARBUT, J., on the dogs of Guinea. -on the domestic pigeons in Guinea. -fowls not native in Guinea.
BARKING, acquisition of the habit of, by various dogs.
BARLEY, wild. -of the lake-dwellings. -ancient variety of.
BARNES, Mr., production of early peas by selection.
BARNET, Mr., on the intercrossing of strawberries. -dioeciousness of the hautbois strawberry. -on the Scarlet American strawberry.
BARTH, Dr., use of grass-seeds as food in Central Africa.
BARTLETT, A.D., on the origin of "Himalayan" rabbits by intercrossing. -on the feral rabbits of Porto Santo. -on geese with reversed feathers on the head and neck. -on the young of the black-shouldered peacock. -on a variety of the turkey. -size of hybrids. -on the breeding of the Felidae in captivity. -so-called hybrids.
BARTRAM, on the black wolf-dog of Florida.
BATES, H.W., refusal of wild animals to breed in captivity. -sterility of American monkeys in captivity. -sterility of tamed guans.
BATRACHIA, regeneration of lost parts in.
BEACH, raised, in Peru, containing heads of maize.
BEAK, variability of, in fowls. -individual differences of, in pigeons, -correlation of, with the feet in pigeons.
BEALE, Lionel, on the contents of cells, -on the multiplication of infectious atoms.
BEANS, of Swiss lake-dwellings. -varieties of, produced by selection. -French and scarlet, variable resistance of, to frost. -superiority of native seed of. -a symmetrical variation of scarlet. -experiments on kidney. -with monstrous stipules and abortive leaflets.
BEARD pigeon.
BEARS, breeding in captivity.
BEASLEY, J., reversion in crossed cattle.
BEATON, D., effect of soil upon strawberries. -on varieties of pelargonium. -bud-variation in Gladiolus colvilii. -cross between Scotch kail and cabbage. -hybrid gladiolus. -constant occurrence of new forms among seedlings. -on the doubling of the Compositae.
BECHUANA cattle.
BECHSTEIN, on the burrowing of wolves. -Spitz Dog. -origin of the Newfoundland dog. -crossing of domestic and wild swine. -on the Jacobin pigeon. -notice of swallow-pigeons. -on a fork-tailed pigeon. -variations in the colour of the croup in pigeons. -on the German dovecote pigeon. -fertility of mongrel-pigeons. -on hybrid turtle-doves. -on crossing the pigeon with Columba oenas, C. palumbus, Turtur risoria, and T. vulgaris. -development of spurs in the silk hen. -on Polish fowls. -on crested birds. -on the canary-bird. -German superstition about the turkey. -occurrence of horns in hornless breeds of sheep. -hybrids of the horse and ass. -crosses of tailless fowls. -difficulty of pairing dovecote and fancy pigeons. -fertility of tame ferrets and rabbits. -fertility of wild sow. -difficulty of breeding caged birds. -comparative fertility of Psittacus erithacus in captivity. -on changes of plumage in captivity, -liability of light-coloured cattle to the attacks of flies. -want of exercise a cause of variability. -effect of privation of light upon the plumage of birds. -on a sub-variety of the monk-pigeon.
BECK, Mr., constitutional differences in pelargoniums.
BECKMANN, on changes in the odours of plants.
BEDDOE, Dr., correlation of complexion with consumption.
BEE, persistency of character of. -intercrossing. -conveyance of pollen of peas by.
BEE OPHRYS, self-fertilisation of.
BEECH, dark-leaved. -fern-leaved, reversion of. -weeping, non-production of, by seed.
BEECHEY, horses of Loochoo Islands.
BEET, increase of sugar in, by selection.
Begonia frigida, singular variety of. -sterility of.
BELGIAN rabbit.
BELL, T., statement that white cattle have coloured ears.
BELL, W., bud-variation in Paritium tricuspis.
BELLINGERI, observations on gestation in the dog. -on the fertility of dogs and cats.
BELON, on high-flying pigeons in Paphlagonia. -varieties of the goose.
BENGUELA, cattle of.
BENNETT, Dr. G., pigs of the Pacific Islands. -dogs of the Pacific Islands. -varieties of cultivated plants in Tahiti.
BENNETT, Mr., on the fallow deer.
BENTHAM, G., number and origin of cultivated plants. -on Phaseolus. -cereals all cultivated varieties. -species of the orange group. -distinctions of almond and peach. -British species of Rosa. -identity of Viola lutea and tricolor.
Berberis vulgaris.
Berberis wallichii, indifference of, to climate.
BERJEAU, on the history of the dog.
BERKELEY, G.F., production of hen-cocks in a strain of game-fowls.
BERKELEY, M.J., crossing of varieties of the pea. -effect of foreign pollen on grapes. -on hybrid plants. -analogy between pollen of highly-cultivated plants and hybrids. -on Hungarian kidney-beans. -failure of Indian wheat in England.
BERNARD, inheritance of disease in the horse.
BERNARD, C., independence of the organs of the body. -special affinities of the tissues.
BERNHARDI, varieties of plants with laciniated leaves.
Bernicla antarctica.
BERTERO, on feral pigeons in Juan Fernandez.
Betula alba.
BEWICK, on the British wild cattle.
BIANCONI, Prof., on the skulls of dogs.
BIBLE, reference to breeding studs of horses in. -references to domestic pigeons in the. -indications of selection of sheep in the. -notice of mules in the.
BIDWELL, Mr., on self-impotence in Amaryllis.
Bignonia, self-sterility of.
BIRCH, weeping.
BIRCH, Dr. S., on the ancient domestication of the pigeon in Egypt. -notice of bantam fowls in a Japanese encyclopaedia.
BIRCH, WYRLEY, on silver-grey rabbits.
BIRDS, sterility caused in, by change of conditions.
BLADDER-NUT, tendency of the, to become double.
BLAINE, Mr., on wry-legged terriers.
BLAINVILLE, origin and history of the dog. -variations in the number of teeth in dogs. -variations in the number of toes in dogs. -on mummies of cats. -on the osteology of solid-hoofed pigs. -on feral Patagonian and N. American pigs.
"BLASS-TAUBE."
BLEEDING, hereditary. -sexual limitation of excessive.
BLENDING of crossed races, time occupied by the.
BLINDNESS, hereditary. -at a certain age. -associated with colour of hair.
BLOODHOUNDS, degeneration of, caused by interbreeding.
BLUMENBACH, on the protuberance of the skull in Polish fowls. -on the effect of circumcision. -inheritance of a crooked finger. -on badger-dogs and other varieties of the dog. -on Hydra. -on the "nisus formativus."
BLYTH, E., on the pariah dog. -hybrids of dog and jackal. -early domestication of cats in India. -origin of domestic cat. -crossing of domestic and wild cats. -on Indian cats resembling Felis chaus. -on striped Burmese ponies. -on the stripes of the ass. -on Indian wild pigs. -on humped cattle. -occurrence of Bos frontosus in Irish crannoges. -fertile crossing of zebus and common cattle. -on the species of sheep. -on the fat-tailed Indian sheep. -origin of the goat. -on rabbits breeding in India. -number of tail-feathers in fantails. -Lotan tumbler pigeons. -number of tail-feathers in Ectopistes. -on Columba affinis. -pigeons roosting in trees. -on Columba leuconota. -on Columba intermedia of Strickland. -variation in colour of croup in pigeons. -voluntary domestication of rock-pigeons in India. -feral pigeons on the Hudson. -occurrence of sub-species of pigeons. -notice of pigeon-fanciers in Delhi, etc. -hybrids of Gallus sonneratii and the domestic hen. -supposed hybridity of Gallus temminckii. -variations and domestication of Gallus bankiva. -crossing of wild and tame fowls in Burmah. -restricted range of the larger gallinaceous birds. -feral fowls in the Nicobar Islands. -black-skinned fowls occurring near Calcutta. -weight of Gallus bankiva. -degeneration of the turkey in India. -on the colour of gold-fish. -reversion from a cross. -on the Ghor-Khur (Asinus indicus). -on Asinus hemionus. -number of eggs of Gallus bankiva. -on the breeding of birds in captivity. -co-existence of large and small breeds in the same country. -on the drooping ears of the elephant. -homology of leg and wing feathers.
BOETHIUS on Scotch wild cattle.
BOITARD and Corbie, on the breeds of pigeons. -Lille pouter pigeon. -notice of a gliding pigeon. -variety of the pouter pigeon. -dovecote pigeon. -crossing pigeons. -sterility of hybrids of turtle-doves. -reversion of crossed pigeons. -on the fantail. -on the trumpeter. -prepotency of transmission in silky fantail. -secondary sexual characters in pigeons. -crossing of white and coloured turtle-doves. -fertility of pigeons.
BOMBYCIDAE, wingless females of.
Bombyx hesperus.
Bombyx huttoni.
Bombyx mori.
BONAFOUS, on maize.
BONAPARTE, number of species of Columbidae. -number of tail-feathers in pigeons. -size of the feet in Columbidae. -on Columba guinea. -Columba turricola, rupestris and schimperi.
Bonatea speciosa, development of ovary of.
BONAVIA, Dr., growth of cauliflowers in India.
BONER, Mr., semi-feral sheep.
BONES, removal of portions of. -regeneration of. -growth and repair of.
BONIZZI, on pigeons.
BONNET, on the salamander. -theory of reproduction.
BORCHMEYER, experiments with the seeds of the weeping ash.
BORECOLE.
BORELLI, on Polish fowls.
BORNEO, fowls of, with tail-bands.
BORNET, E., condition of the ovary in hybrid Cisti. -self-impotence of hybrid Cisti.
BORROW, G., on pointers.
BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, on gold-fish.
Bos, probable origin of European domestic cattle from three species of.
Bos frontosus.
Bos indicus.
Bos longifrons.
Bos primigenius.
Bos sondaicus.
Bos taurus.
Bos trochoceros.
BOSC, heredity in foliage-varieties of the elm.
BOSSE, production of double flowers from old seed.
BOSSI, on breeding dark-coloured silkworms.
BOSMAN, on dogs of Guinea.
BOUCHARDAT, on the vine disease.
BOUDIN, on local diseases. -resistance to cold of dark-complexioned men.
"BOULANS."
"BOUTON d'Alep."
BOWEN, Prof., doubts as to the importance of inheritance.
BOWMAN, Mr., hereditary peculiarities in the human eye. -hereditary cataract.
BRACE, Mr., on Hungarian cattle.
Brachycome iberidifolia.
BRACTS, unusual development of, in gooseberries.
BRADLEY, Mr., effect of grafts upon the stock in the ash. -effect of foreign pollen upon apples. -on change of soil.
"BRAHMA Pootras," a new breed of fowls.
BRAIN, proportion of, in hares and rabbits.
BRANDT, Dr., origin of the goat. -correlation of teeth and hair.
Brassica, varieties of, with enlarged stems.
Brassica asperifolia.
Brassica napus.
Brassica oleracea.
Brassica rapa.
BRAUN, A., bud-variation in the vine. -in the currant. -in Mirabilis jalapa. -in Cytisus adami. -on reversion in the foliage of trees. -spontaneous production of Cytisus purpureo-elongatus. -reversion of flowers by stripes and blotches. -excess of nourishment a source of variability.
BRAZIL, cattle of.
BREAD-FRUIT, varieties of. -sterility and variability of.
BREE, W.T., bud-variation in Geranium pratense and Centaurea cyanus. -by tubers in the dahlia. -on the deafness of white cats with blue eyes.
BREEDING, high, dependent on inheritance.
BREEDS, domestic, persistency of. -artificial and natural. -extinction of. -of domestic cats. -of pigs produced by crossing. -of cattle. -of goats.
BREHM, on Columba amaliae.
BRENT, B.P., number of mammae in rabbits. -habits of the tumbler pigeon. -Laugher pigeon. -colouring of the kite tumbler. -crossing of the pigeon with Columba oenas. -mongrels of the trumpeter pigeon. -close interbreeding of pigeons. -opinion on Aldrovandi's fowls. -on stripes in chickens. -on the combs of fowls. -double-spurred Dorking fowls. -effect of crossing on colour of plumage in fowls. -incubatory instinct of mongrels between non-setting varieties of fowls. -origin of the domestic duck. -fertility of the hook-billed duck. -occurrence of the plumage of the wild duck in domestic breeds. -voice of ducks. -occurrence of a short upper mandible in crosses of hook-billed and common ducks. -reversion in ducks produced by crossing. -variation of the canary-bird. -fashion in the canary. -hybrids of canary and finches.
BRICKELL, on raising nectarines from seed. -on the horses of North Carolina.
BRIDGES, Mr., on the dogs of Tierra del Fuego. -on the selection of dogs by the Fuegians.
BRIDGMAN, W.K., reproduction of abnormal ferns.
BROCA, P., on the intercrossing of dogs. -on hybrids of hare and rabbit. -on the rumpless fowl. -on the character of half-castes. -degree of fertility of mongrels. -sterility of descendants of wild animals bred in captivity.
BROCCOLI, -rudimentary flowers in. -tenderness of.
BROMEHEAD, W., doubling of the Canterbury Bell by selection.
BROOMFIELD, Dr., sterility of the ivy and Acorus calamus.
Bromus secalinus.
BRONN, H.G., bud variation in Anthemis. -effects of cross-breeding on the female. -on heredity in a one-horned cow. -propagation of a pendulous peach by seed. -absorption of the minority in crossed races. -on the crossing of horses. -fertility of tame rabbits and sheep. -changes of plumage in captivity. -on the dahlia.
BRONZE period, dog of.
BROWN, C.M., prepotency of a greyhound.
BROWN, G., variations in the dentition of the horse.
BROWN-SEQUARD, Dr., inheritance of artificially-produced epilepsy in the guinea-pig. -inherited effects of injuries.
Brunswigia.
BRUSSELS sprouts.
Bubo maximus.
BUCKLAND, F., on oysters. -number of eggs in a codfish.
BUCKLE, Mr., doubts as to the importance of inheritance.
BUCKLEY, Miss, carrier-pigeons roosting in trees.
BUCKMAN, Prof., cultivation of Avena fatua. -cultivation of the wild parsnip. -reversion in the parsnip.
BUCKWHEAT, injurious when in flower to white pigs.
BUD and seed, close analogy of.
BUD-REVERSION.
BUDS, adventitious.
BUD-VARIATION. -contrasted with seminal reproduction. -peculiar to plants. -in the peach. -in plums. -in the cherry. -in grapes. -in the gooseberry and currant. -pear and apple. -and in the banana, camellia, hawthorn, Azalea indica, and Paritium tricuspis. -in the hollyhock and pelargonium. -in Geranium pratense and the chrysanthemum. -in roses. -in sweet williams, carnations, pinks, stocks, and snapdragons. -in wall-flowers, cyclamen, Oenothera biennis, Gladiolus colvillii, fuchsias, and Mirabilis jalapa. -in foliage of various trees. -cryptogamic plants. -by suckers in Phlox and barberry. -by tubers in the potato. -in the dahlia. -by bulbs in hyacinths. -Imatophyllum miniatum, and tulips. -in Tigridia conchiflora. -in Hemerocallis. -doubtful cases. -in Cytisus adami. -summary of observations on.
BUFFON, on crossing the wolf and dog. -increase of fertility by domestication. -improvement of plants by unconscious selection. -theory of reproduction.
Bulimus.
BULL, apparent influence of, on offspring.
BULLACE.
BULLDOG, degeneration of, in India. -recent modifications of
BULLFINCH, breeding in captivity. -attacking flower-buds.
BULT, Mr., on the length of pouter pigeons.
"BUNDTNERSCHWEIN."
BUNTING, reed, in captivity.
BURDACH, crossing of domestic and wild animals. -aversion of the wild boar to barley.
BURKE, Mr., inheritance in the horse.
Burlingtonia.
BURMAH, cats of.
BURMESE ponies, striped.
BURNES, Sir A., on the Karakool sheep. -varieties of the vine in Cabool. -hawks, trained in Scinde. -pomegranates producing seed.
BURR, FEARING, potato-grafting.
BURTON CONSTABLE, wild cattle at.
"BURZEL-TAUBEN."
BUSSORAH carrier.
Buteo vulgaris, copulation of, in captivity.
BUTTERFLIES, polymorphic.
BUXTON, Mr., parrots breeding in Norfolk.
BUZAREINGUES, GIROU DE, inheritance of tricks.
CABANIS, pears grafted on the quince.
CABBAGE. -varieties of. -unity of character in flowers and seeds of. -cultivated by ancient Celts. -classification of varieties of. -ready crossing of. -origin of. -increased fertility of, when cultivated. -growth of, in tropical countries.
CABOOL, vines of.
CABRAL, on early cultivation in Brazil.
CACTUS, growth of cochineal on, in India.
CAESAR, Bos primigenius wild in Europe in the time of. -notice of fowls in Britain. -notice of the importation of horses by the Celts.
CAFFRE fowls.
CAFFRES, different kinds of cattle possessed by the.
"CAGIAS" a breed of sheep.
Cairina moschata.
CALCEOLARIAS. -effects of seasonal conditions on. -peloric flowers in.
CALDWELL, J., sporting of sugar-cane.
"CALONGOS," a Columbian breed of cattle.
CALVER, Mr., on a seedling peach producing both peaches and nectarines.
CALYX, segments of the, converted into carpels.
CAMEL, its dislike to crossing water.
Camellia, bud-variations in. -recognition of varieties of. -variety in, hardiness of.
CAMERON, D, on the cultivation of Alpine plants.
CAMERONN, Baron, value of English blood in racehorses.
Campanula medium.
CANARY-BIRD. -conditions of inheritance in. -hybrids of. -period of perfect plumage in. -diminished fertility of. -standard of perfection in. -analogous variation in.
CANCER, heredity of.
CANFIELD, Dr., on horses with curled hair. -on feral horses in North America.
CANINE teeth, development of the, in mares.
Canis alopex.
Canis antarcticus.
Canis argentatus.
Canis aureus.
Canis cancrivorus, domesticated and crossed in Guiana.
Canis cinereo-variegatus.
Canis fulvus.
Canis ingae, the naked Peruvian dog.
Canis latrans. -resemblance of, to the Hare Indian dog. -one of the original stocks.
Canis lupaster.
Canis lupus, var. occidentalis, resemblance of, to North American dogs. -crossed with dogs. -one of the original stocks.
Canis mesomelas.
Canis primaevus, tamed by Mr. Hodgson.
Canis sabbar.
Canis simensis, possible original of greyhounds.
Canis thaleb.
Canis variegatus.
CANNING, A.S.G., the japanned peacock.
CANTERBURY Bell, doubled by selection.
CAPE of Good Hope, different kinds of cattle at the. -no useful plants derived from the.
CAPERCAILZIE, breeding in captivity.
Capra aegagrus and C. falconeri, probable parents of domestic goat.
CAPSICUM.
CARDAN, on a variety of the walnut. -on grafted walnuts.
CARDOON.
Carex rigida, local sterility of the.
CARLIER, early selection of sheep.
CARLISLE, Sir A., inheritance of peculiarities. -of polydactylism.
"CARME" pigeon.
CARNATION, bud-variation in. -variability of. -striped, produced by crossing red and white. -effect of conditions of life on the.
CARNIVORA, general fertility of, in captivity.
CAROLINE Archipelago, cats of.
CARP.
CARPELS, variation of, in cultivated Cucurbitaceae.
CARPENTER, W.B., regeneration of bone. -number of eggs in an Ascaris.
Carpinus betulus.
Carpophaga oceanica.
CARR, Mr., effect of changed conditions.
CARRIER pigeon. -English. -figured. -skull figured. -history of the. -Persian. -Bussorah. -Bagadotten, skull figured. -lower jaw figured.
CARRIERE, origin of radish. -intermediate form between the almond and the peach. -glands of peach-leaves. -bud-variation in the vine. -bud-variation in the rose. -inheritance in purple-leaved trees. -on variation. -grafts of Aria vestita upon thorns. -variability of hybrids of Erythrina.
CARROT, wild, effects of cultivation on the. -reversion in the. -run wild. -increased fertility of cultivated. -experiments on the. -acclimatisation of the, in India.
Carthamus, abortion of the pappus in.
CARTIER, cultivation of native plants in Canada.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE, frequency of contabescence in the.
CASPARY, bud-variation in the moss-rose. -on the ovules and pollen of Cytisus. -crossing of Cytisus purpureus and C. laburnum. -trifacial orange. -differently-coloured flowers in the wild Viola lutea. -sterility of the horse-radish.