The Vertebrate Skeleton

Fig. 106. Manus of Perissodactyles.

A. Left Manus of Tapirus. (After von Zittel.)

B. Right Manus of Titanotherium. (After Marsh.)

C. Left Manus of Chalicotherium gigantium. (After Gervais.)

1. scaphoid.	6. unciform.
2. lunar.	7. trapezium.
3. cuneiform.	II, III, IV, V. second, third,
4. trapezoid.	fourth and fifth digits.
5. magnum.

While the manus of the Artiodactyla is symmetrical about a line drawn between the third and fourth digits, that of the Perissodactyla is symmetrical about a line drawn through the middle of the third digit, which is larger than the others and has its ungual phalanx evenly rounded and symmetrical in itself. The most reduced manus in the whole of the mammalia is found in the Horse and its allies, in which the third digit, terminated by a very wide ungual phalanx, is the only one functional. Small splint bones representing the second and fourth metacarpals are attached to the upper part of the third metacarpal. In Hipparion[174] and other early horse-like animals the second and fourth digits, though very small and functionless, are complete and are terminated by small hoofs. In Rhinoceros the second and fourth digits are equally developed and nearly as large as the third, and reach the ground in walking, a vestige of the fifth is also present. In the Tapir (fig. 106, A) and Hyracotherium the fifth digit is fully developed but is scarcely functional. In Titanotherium (Brontops) (fig. 106, B) it is nearly as well developed as any of the others, and there is little or no difference between the relative development of the third and fourth digits.

The Chalicotheriidae [175], though distinctly Perissodactyles in various respects such as their cervical vertebrae and teeth, differ not only from all other Perissodactyles, but from almost all other Ungulates, in the very abnormal character of their manus. For while the carpus and metacarpus are like those of ordinary Perissodactyles, the phalanges resemble those of Edentates, each second phalanx having a strongly developed trochlea, and each distal one being curved, pointed and deeply cleft at its termination (fig. 106, C).

The Macraucheniidae, while agreeing with Perissodactyles in having only three digits, with the limb symmetrical about a line drawn through the middle of the third, have a carpus which approaches closely to the subungulate condition, the magnum articulating regularly with the lunar, and only to a slight extent with the scaphoid.

In the Subungulata the manus sometimes has five functional digits, and a considerable part of it rests on the ground in walking. The bones of the carpus retain their primitive relation to one another, the magnum articulating with the lunar, but not with the scaphoid. This character does not however hold in the Toxodontia, for in most of the animals belonging to this group the magnum does articulate with the scaphoid. The corner of the scaphoid just reaches the magnum also in Amblypoda.

As far as is known the Toxodontia generally have three, sometimes five digits to the manus, and the third is symmetrical in itself—a Perissodactyloid feature.

In Phenacodus (fig. 107, B) (Condylarthra) all five digits are well developed, the pollex being the smallest. The carpal bones retain their primitive arrangement, the magnum articulating with the lunar and not with the scaphoid. There is no separate centrale.

Fig. 107. Left manus of

A. Coryphodon hamatus. (After Marsh.) × ¹/₅.

B. Phenacodus primaevus. (After Cope.) × ¹/₃.

C. Procavia (Dendrohyrax) arboreus. (After von Zittel.) × ⁶/₇.

1. scaphoid.	7. unciform.
2. lunar.	8. centrale.
3. cuneiform.	9. pisiform.
4. trapezium.	I, II, III, IV, V. first, second,
5. trapezoid.	third, fourth and fifth
6. magnum.	digits respectively.

In the Hyracoidea (fig. 107, C) the manus is very similar to that in Phenacodus, but a centrale is present and the pollex is much reduced.

The manus of the Amblypoda, such as Coryphodon (fig. 107, A) and Uintatherium, is short and broad, with five well developed digits and large carpal bones. The carpals however interlock to a slight extent, and the corner of the magnum reaches the scaphoid.

In the Proboscidea the manus is very short and broad, with large somewhat cubical carpals which articulate by very flat surfaces and do not interlock at all. All five digits are present, and none of them are much reduced in size. The manus in Proboscidea and in Coryphodon is subplantigrade.

In the Tillodontia the manus is plantigrade and has pointed ungual phalanges, in this respect approaching the Carnivora. It differs however from that of all living Carnivora in having the scaphoid and lunar distinct.

In Rodentia the manus nearly always has five digits with the normal number of phalanges: the pollex may however be very small as in the Rabbit, or absent as sometimes in the Capybara. The scaphoid and lunar are generally united, and a centrale may be present or absent. In Pedetes caffer the radial sesamoid is double and the distal bone bears a nail-like horny covering. In Bathyergus the pisiform is double. It is upon these facts that the contention for the former existence of prehallux and post-minimus digits has partly been based.

In living Carnivora the scaphoid, lunar and centrale are always united, forming a single bone. All five digits are present, but as a rule in Carnivora vera the pollex is small, and in Hyaena is represented only by a small metacarpal. Sometimes, as in Cats and Dogs, the manus is digitigrade, sometimes, as in Bears, plantigrade. The ungual phalanges are large and pointed, and in forms like the Cats, whose claws are retractile, they can be folded back into a deep hollow on the ulnar side of the middle phalanx; a small radial sesamoid is often present.

In Pinnipedia the manus is large and flat and the digits are terminated by ungual phalanges which are blunt (sea lions and walrus), or slightly curved and pointed (seals). The pollex is nearly or quite as long as the second digit, and as a rule the digits then successively diminish in size.

The Creodonta differ from living Carnivora in the fact that the scaphoid and lunar are usually separate.

In Insectivora the scaphoid and lunar are sometimes united, sometimes separate, and a separate centrale is usually present. There are generally five digits, but sometimes the pollex is absent. In the Mole the manus is greatly developed and considerably modified. It is very wide, its breadth being increased by the great development of the radial sesamoid which is very large and sickle-shaped. The ungual phalanges are also large and are cleft at their extremities.

In the Chiroptera the manus is greatly modified for the purpose of flight. The pollex is short and is armed with a rather large curved claw, the other digits are enormously elongated, the elongation in the case of the Insectivorous bats being mainly due to the metacarpals, and in the Frugivorous bats to the phalanges. In the Frugivorous bats the second digit is clawed as well as the pollex, in other bats this claw is always absent, and so is often the ungual phalanx, the middle phalanx then tapering gradually to its termination.

In Primates as a rule the manus is moderately short and wide. The carpus has the scaphoid and lunar distinct, and generally also the centrale; sometimes however, as in Man, the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and some Lemurs, the centrale has apparently fused with the scaphoid. There are almost always five well-developed digits, but in the genera Colobus and Ateles the pollex is vestigial.

The magnum in man is the largest bone of the carpus. The pisiform also is well developed, but there is no radial sesamoid. In Man, the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and Orang, the carpus articulates only with the radius, in most Primates it articulates also with the ulna. The third digit of the Aye-Aye (Chiromys) is remarkable for its extreme slenderness.

The Pelvic Girdle.

The pelvic girdle in all mammals except the Sirenia and Cetacea consists of two halves, usually united with one another at the symphysis in the mid-ventral line, and connected near their upper ends, with the sacral vertebrae. Each half forms one of the innominate bones, and includes at least three separate elements, a dorsal bone, the ilium, and two ventral bones, the ischium and pubis. Very often a fourth pelvic element, the acetabular or cotyloid bone, occurs.

In the Monotremata the pelvis is short and broad, and the pubes and ischia meet in a long symphysis. The acetabulum is perforated in Echidna as in birds, but not in Ornithorhynchus. A pair of elongated slender bones project forwards from the edge of the pubes near the symphysis; these are sesamoid bones formed by ossifications in the tendons of the external oblique abdominal muscles, and are generally called marsupial bones.

In the Marsupialia the ilia are generally very simple, straight, and narrow, while the pubes and ischia are well developed and meet in a long symphysis. Marsupial bones are nearly always prominent, but are not developed in Thylacinus or Notoryctes. The ischium often has a well-marked tuberosity and in Kangaroos the pubis bears a prominent pectineal process on its anterior border close to the acetabulum. The pelvis in Notoryctes differs much from that in all other Marsupials, the ilium and ischium being ankylosed with six vertebrae in a manner comparable to that of many Edentates.

In the Edentata the pelvis is generally well developed, but the symphysis is very short. In the Sloths the pelvis is rather weak and slender, the obturator foramina are very large and the ischia do not meet in a symphysis. In the Megatheriidae the pelvis is exceedingly wide and massive, and is firmly ankylosed with a number of vertebrae. In the Armadillos, Glyptodonts, Anteaters, and Pangolins it is much developed and firmly united to the vertebral column by both the ilia and the ischia. In Orycteropus however the ischium does not become united to the vertebral column, and the pubis generally has a strongly developed pectineal process.

In the Sirenia the pelvis is quite vestigial. In the Dugong it consists on each side of two slender bones, one of which represents the ilium and the other the ischium and pubis; the two bones are placed end to end and are commonly fused together. The ilium is attached by ligament to the transverse process of one of the vertebrae. In the Manatee each half of the pelvis is represented by a triangular bone connected by ligaments with its fellow and with the vertebral column. In neither Manatee nor Dugong is there any trace of an acetabulum but one can be made out in Halitherium.

In the Cetacea the pelvis is even more vestigial than in the Sirenia, consisting simply of a pair of small straight bones which probably represent the ischia, and lie parallel to and below the vertebral column at the point where the development of chevron bones commences.

In Ungulata vera the pelvis is generally rather long and narrow. The ilium is flattened and expanded in front (fig. 103, 8), but becomes much narrower and more cylindrical before reaching the acetabulum. Both pubis and ischium contribute to the symphysis which is often very long. The ischia are large and have prominent tuberosities, especially in Artiodactyles. In most Ruminantia there is a deep depression, the supra-acetabular fossa above the acetabulum, but this is not found in the Suina or Tylopoda.

Subungulata. In Procavia the pelvis is long and narrow, and bears resemblance to that in Artiodactyles.

The Proboscidea have a very large pelvis set nearly at right angles to the vertebral column; the ilium is very wide, having expanded iliac and gluteal surfaces, and a narrow sacral [176] surface. The pubes and ischia are rather small, but both meet their fellows in the symphysis. Uintatherium (suborder Amblypoda) also has a large and vertically placed pelvis (fig. 108) with a much expanded ilium. The pelvis however differs from that of the Proboscidea in the fact that the ischia do not meet in a ventral symphysis.

In many Rodentia the ilia have their gluteal, iliac, and sacral surfaces of nearly equal extent; in the Hares, however, the gluteal and iliac surfaces are confluent. The pubes and ischia are always well developed and sometimes, as in the Hares, the acetabular bone also. In these animals the pubis does not take part in the formation of the acetabulum, and the ischium bears on its outer side a well-marked ischial tuberosity.

In the Carnivora the pelvis is long and narrow. The iliac surfaces (fig. 78, A, 5) are very small and the sacral large; the crest or supra-iliac border is formed by the union of the sacral and gluteal surfaces. The symphysis is long and includes part of both pubis and ischium. The ischial tuberosity (fig. 78, A, 10) is often well marked, and sometimes as in Viverra the acetabular bone is distinct. In the Pinnipedia the pelvic symphysis is little developed, or sometimes not developed at all, and the obturator foramina are remarkably large.

In some Insectivora such as Galeopithecus, there is a long pelvic symphysis, in others such as Erinaceus and Centetes, it is very short, in others again such as Talpa and Sorex, there is no pelvic symphysis. The acetabular bone is exceptionally large in Talpa and Sorex.

In Chiroptera the pelvis is small and narrow, and in the great majority of cases the two halves do not meet in a ventral symphysis. The pubis has a strongly developed pectineal process, which occasionally unites with a process from the ilium enclosing a large pre-acetabular foramen.

Primates. In Man and the Anthropoid Apes the pelvis is very large and wide, and the ilium has much expanded iliac and gluteal surfaces. The symphysis is rather short and formed by the pubis alone. The acetabulum is deep and the obturator foramen large, and there is frequently a well-marked ischial tuberosity. In the lower Anthropoidea the ilium is long and narrow and has a small iliac surface. The ischial tuberosities are large in the old world monkeys.

Fig. 108. Left anterior and posterior limb and limb girdle of

Uintatherium mirabile. The anterior limb is to the left, the posterior

to the right × ¹/₁₀. (From casts, Brit. Mus.)

1. ilium.	11. prescapular fossa.
2. head of femur.	12. coracoid process.
3. great trochanter.	13. humerus.
4. patella.	14. radius.
5. fibula.	15. ulna.
6. tibia.	17. unciform.
7. second digit of pes.	18. cuneiform.
8. ungual phalanx of fifth	20. lunar.
digit of pes.	21. first metacarpal.
9. calcaneum.	22. fifth metacarpal.
10. postscapular fossa.

The Thigh and Shin.

In the Monotremata the femur is short, rather narrow in the middle, and expanded at each end. The great and lesser trochanters are large and about equally developed, but there is no third trochanter. The fibula is very large and is expanded at its proximal end, forming a flattened plate much resembling an olecranon. The patella is well developed.

In the Marsupialia there is no third trochanter to the femur, the fibula is well developed but not the patella as a general rule. Notoryctes has a femur with a prominent ridge extending some little way down the shaft from the great trochanter; the tibia has a remarkably developed crest, and the fibula has its proximal end much expanded and perforated; there is an irregularly shaped patella closely connected with the proximal end of the tibia.

Edentata. In the Sloths the leg bones are all long and slender. The femur has no third trochanter, and the fibula is complete and nearly equal in size to the tibia. In the Megatheriidae the leg bones are extraordinarily massive, the circumference of the shaft of the femur in Megatherium equalling or exceeding the length of the bone. There is no third trochanter in Megatherium. In most of the remaining Edentata the leg bones are strongly developed. The femur in the Armadillos and Aard Varks has a strong third trochanter, and the tibia and fibula are both large and are commonly ankylosed together at either end. The limb bones are very massive also in the Glyptodonts.

Sirenia. In no living Sirenian is there any trace of a hind limb, but in Halitherium a vestigial femur is found, which articulates with the pelvis by a definite acetabulum.

Fig. 109. Left femur of an Ox (Bos taurus) (to the left) and of

a Sumatran Rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis) (to the right). × ¹/₆.

(Camb. Mus.)

1. head.	4. third trochanter.
2. great trochanter.	5. shaft.
3. lesser trochanter.	6. condyles.

In the Mystacoceti among the Cetacea small nodules of bone or cartilage occur connected with the vestigial pelvis, and may represent the femur and tibia. No trace of the skeleton of the hind limb is known in the Odontoceti.

In the Ungulata vera the femur is noticeable for the size of the great trochanter (fig. 109, 2); there is no definitely constricted neck separating the head from the rest of the bone, and the lesser trochanter (fig. 109, 3) is not very prominent. All Perissodactyles except the Chalicotheriidae show a strongly marked third trochanter, but this is absent in all known Artiodactyles. The development of the fibula in general corresponds to that of the ulna. In Rhinoceros, Macrauchenia, Tapirus and the Suina it is distinct and fairly well developed; in the Tragulina on the other hand it is vestigial, being reduced to the proximal end only. In the Ruminantia and Tylopoda also, it is much reduced forming merely a small bone attached to the distal end of the tibia, sometimes, as in the Red deer a slender vestige of the proximal end also is preserved quite detached from the distal portion; in the Horse this proximal portion is all that there is found of the fibula. The progressive diminution of the fibula can be well seen in the series of forms that are regarded as the ancestors of the Horse. The patella of the Ungulata vera is well ossified, but fabellae [177] are not usually found.

Subungulata. Of the Toxodontia, Toxodon has no third trochanter while Typotherium and Astrapotherium have one. In the Condylarthra the femur has well-marked lesser and third trochanters, and the fibula and patella are well developed. In the Hyracoidea there is a slight ridge on the femur in the place of the third trochanter, the fibula is complete, but is generally fused to the tibia at its proximal end.

Of the Amblypoda, Coryphodon has a third trochanter, but Uintatherium has none; in this respect, in the vertical position and general appearance (fig. 108) of the limb, and in the articulation of the fibula with the calcaneum, the leg of Uintatherium closely approaches that of the Proboscidea.

In the Proboscidea the femur is very long and straight, the development of trochanters is slight, and the fibula though slender is complete and articulates with the calcaneum.

A third trochanter is found in the Tillodontia.

In Rodentia the femur is variable, the great trochanter is generally large and so sometimes is the third as in the Hares. In most Rodents as in the Beaver the fibula is distinct, sometimes as in the Hares it is united distally with the tibia. The patella is well developed, and so too are the fabellae as a general rule.

Carnivora. In the Carnivora vera the femur (fig. 79, A) is generally rather straight and slender, and has a very distinct head. The fibula (fig. 79, C) is always distinct and there is generally a considerable interval between it and the tibia. Fabellae (fig. 79, 7) are commonly present.

In the Pinnipedia the femur is short, broad and flattened, having a prominent great trochanter. The fibula is nearly as large as the tibia, and the two bones are generally ankylosed together at their proximal ends.

The Creodonta differ from all living Carnivores in having a femur with a third trochanter.

In the Insectivora a third trochanter is sometimes developed. The fibula is sometimes distinct, sometimes fused distally with the tibia, thus differing from that of a Carnivore.

In Chiroptera the femur is straight, slender and rather short, with a small but well-developed head. The fibula may be well developed or quite vestigial or absent. Owing to the connection of the hind limb with the wing membrane the knee joint is directed backwards.

In Primates the femur is rather long and slender, having a nearly spherical head and large great trochanter. The tibia and fibula are always distinct and well developed. Fabellae are not found in the highest forms but are generally present in the others.

The Pes.

The skeleton of the pes is in most respects a counterpart of that of the manus. Just as in the manus if one digit is absent it is the pollex, so in the pes it is the hallux. But while in the manus the third digit is always well developed, however much the limb may be modified, in the pes any of the digits may be lost. In all mammals the tibiale and intermedium fuse to form the astragalus, and the fourth and fifth tarsalia to form the cuboid. Sesamoid bones are considerably developed. In almost every case the phalanges and first metatarsal have epiphyses only on their proximal ends, while the remaining four metatarsals have epiphyses only on their distal ends.

In the Monotremata all the usual tarsal bones are distinct, and the five digits have the normal number of phalanges. Several sesamoid bones are developed, the most important one, found only in the male, being articulated to the tibia and bearing the curious horny spur. The ungual phalanges of the pes like those of the manus, are deeply cleft at their extremities. In the Echidnidae the pes is turned outwards and backwards in walking.

In the Marsupialia the pes is subject to great modifications, but in every case the seven usual tarsal bones are distinct. In the Didelphyidae the foot is broad, all five digits are well developed, and the hallux is opposable to the others. In the Dasyuridae the foot is narrow, and the hallux may be very small, or as in Thylacinus completely absent. In Notoryctes the pes is much less abnormal than the manus, and all five digits have the usual number of phalanges. The fifth metatarsal has a curious projecting process, and there is a large sesamoid above the hallux. In the Wombats (Phascolomyidae) the foot is short and broad, the digits are all distinct, and the hallux is divaricated from the others.

In the remaining marsupials the second and third metacarpals and digits are very slender, and are enclosed within a common integument. This condition is known as syndactylism, and its effect is to produce the appearance of one toe with two claws. In the Kangaroos (Macropodidae) the pes is very long and narrow, owing to the elongation of the metacarpals. The fourth digit is greatly developed, the fifth moderately so, while the hallux is absent, and the second and third digits are very small. The Peramelidae have the foot constructed on the same plan as in the Kangaroos, and in one genus Choeropus the same type of foot is carried to a greater extreme than even in the Kangaroos. Thus the fourth digit is enormously developed, the second and third are small, and the fifth smaller still, while the hallux is absent. In the Phalangers and Koalas though the second and third toes are very slender, the hallux is well developed and opposable.

Edentata. In the Sloths the pes much resembles the manus, being long and narrow, but in both genera the second, third and fourth digits are well developed. Most of the other Edentates have a but little modified pes with the normal number of tarsal bones and the complete series of digits. In Cycloturus however the hallux is vestigial and it is absent in Glyptodonts. Megatherium has a greatly modified pes, the hallux is absent, and the second digit vestigial, while the third is very large, having an enormous ungual phalanx. The calcaneum too is abnormally large.

No trace of the pes occurs in either Sirenia or Cetacea.

In the Ungulata the pes like the manus is subject to much variation and is of great morphological importance.

In the Ungulata vera the pes is never plantigrade and never has more than four digits, the hallux being absent. The cuboid always articulates with the astragalus, and the tarsal bones strongly interlock. As was the case also with the manus, the pes is formed on two well-marked types characteristic respectively of the Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla.

Artiodactyla. Just as in the manus, the third and fourth digits are well and subequally developed; their ungual phalanges have the contiguous sides flat, and the axis of the limb passes between them, and between the cuboid and navicular. The astragalus has both the proximal and distal surfaces pulley-like, and articulates with the navicular and cuboid by two facets of nearly equal size. The calcaneum articulates with the lower end of the fibula if that bone is fully developed.

In the Suina four toes are developed, and though in the Peccaries the third and fourth metatarsals are united, they are all distinct in most members of the group, as are all the tarsal bones. In the Hippopotami the four digits are of approximately equal size, and the middle ones do not have the contiguous faces of their ungual phalanges flattened.

In the Tragulina the cuboid, navicular, and two outer cuneiforms are united forming a single bone; all four metatarsals are complete and the two middle ones are united. In the Tylopoda and Anoplotherium commune only the third and fourth digits are developed, their metatarsals are free distally, but are elsewhere united. In the Ruminantia the cuboid and navicular are always united and so are the second and third cuneiforms, while in Cervulus all four bones are united together. The third and fourth metatarsals in Ruminants are always united in the same way as are the third and fourth metacarpals, while the second and fifth are always wanting. In Deer the second and fifth digits are usually each represented by three small phalanges, but in the Giraffe and most Bovidae the bones of these digits are wanting.

Fig. 110. A. Left pes of a Tapir (Tapirus americanus). × ¹/₆.

B. Right pes of a Rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis). × ¹/₈.

C. (Cast of) right pes of Hipparion gracile. × ¹/₇.

D. Right pes of a Horse (Equus caballus). × ¹/₁₀. (All Camb. Mus.)

1. calcaneum.	5. external cuneiform.
2. astragalus.	6. middle cuneiform.
3. navicular.	7. internal cuneiform.
4. cuboid.

In the Perissodactyla the pes like the manus is symmetrical about a line drawn through the third digit; this line when continued passes through the external cuneiform, navicular and astragalus. The astragalus has its distal portion abruptly truncated, and the facet by which it articulates with the cuboid is much smaller than that by which it articulates with the navicular. The calcaneum does not articulate with the fibula. The tarsus in Macrauchenia like the carpus differs from that of other Perissodactyles and resembles that of Subungulates in having the bones arranged in lines with little or no interlocking. The calcaneum resembles that of Artiodactyles in having a small facet for articulation with the fibula. Tapirus (fig. 110, A), Rhinoceros (fig. 110, B) and Titanotherium have a short and broad foot with the usual tarsal bones and three well-developed digits,—a number never exceeded by any Perissodactyle. From this tridactylate limb a series of stages is exhibited by various extinct forms leading gradually to the condition met with in the Horse (fig. 110, D) in which the third toe is greatly developed, while the second and fourth are reduced to slender metatarsals attached to the proximal half of the third metatarsal.

In Chalicotherium and Agriochoerus the pes has the same abnormal characters as the manus, the digits being clawed and the ungual phalanges in Chalicotherium deeply cleft.

In the Subungulata the pes is sometimes plantigrade and pentedactylate, the cuboid sometimes does not articulate with the astragalus, and the tarsal bones sometimes do not interlock.

In Typotherium (Toxodontia) the hallux is absent and the other four digits are well developed; in Toxodon and Nesodon the pes is tridactylate. The tarsal bones have the regular Subungulate arrangement, the cuboid not articulating with the astragalus. The calcaneum articulates with the fibula as in Artiodactyles. The astragalus in most forms, but not in Astrapotherium, resembles that of the Ungulata vera in having a grooved proximal surface.

In Phenacodus (Condylarthra) the tarsus is very little modified, five digits are present, the first and fifth being small and not reaching the ground.

In Procavia only the three middle digits are present with a vestige of the fifth metacarpal.

In the Amblypoda the pes (fig. 108) is very short and broad, all five digits are functional, and at any rate in Coryphodon plantigrade, the hallux being the smallest. The astragalus is very flat, and the tarsals interlock to a slight extent, the cuboid articulating with both calcaneum and astragalus.

The pes in the Proboscidea much resembles that in the Amblypoda, but differs in that the astragalus does not articulate with the cuboid, the tarsals not interlocking at all.

In the Rodentia the structure of the foot is very variable. In Beavers the foot is very large, all five digits being well developed; the fifth metatarsal articulates with the outer side of the fourth metatarsal, and not with the cuboid, and there is a large sesamoid bone on the tibial side of the tarsus. In the Rats, Porcupines and Squirrels, there are five digits, in the Hares only four, and in the Capybara and some of its allies only three. In the Jerboa (Dipus) a curious condition of the pes is met with, as it consists of three very long metatarsals fused together and bearing three short toes, each formed of three phalanges. Lophiomys differs from all other Rodents in having the hallux opposable.

Carnivora. In the Carnivora vera the pes is regular and shows little deviation from the normal condition. All the usual tarsal bones are present, but sometimes as in the Dogs, Cats, and Hyaenas, the hallux is vestigial. Sometimes as in the Bears the pes is plantigrade, sometimes as in the Cats and Dogs it is digitigrade. In this respect and in the character of the ungual phalanges, the pes closely corresponds with the manus. In the Sea Otter (Latax) the foot is large and flattened and approaches in character that of the Pinnipedia.

In the Pinnipedia the pes differs much from that in the Carnivora vera. In the Seals in which the foot cannot be used for walking, and is habitually directed backwards, the first and fifth digits are much longer and stouter than any of the others. In the Sea Lions which can use the pes for walking, the digits are all of nearly the same length, and in the Walrus the fifth is somewhat the longest.

In the Insectivora the pes is almost always normal, and provided with five digits.

In the Chiroptera the pes is pentedactylate, and the digits are terminated by long curved ungual phalanges. In some genera the toes have only two phalanges. The calcaneum is sometimes produced into a long slender process which helps to support the membrane between the leg and the tail.

Among the Primates Man has the simplest form of pes. In Man all five digits are well developed, the hallux being considerably the largest. Sesamoid bones occur only under the metatarso-phalangeal joint of the hallux.

In the other Primates the internal cuneiform has a saddle-shaped articulating surface for the hallux, which is obliquely directed to the side of the foot and opposable to the other digits. Two sesamoid bones are usually developed below each metatarso-phalangeal joint, and one below the cuboid. The second digit in Lemurs, and all except the hallux in Chiromys have pointed ungual phalanges; in all other cases the ungual phalanges are flat. In some of the Lemuroidea, especially Tarsius, the tarsus is curiously modified by the elongation of the calcaneum and navicular.

LIST OF AUTHORS REFERRED TO.

Abbott, E.C., 112
Ameghino, F., 351, 424
Andrews, C.W., 299
Balfour, F.M., 16
Ballowitz, E., 424
Bardeleben, K., 504
Bateson, W., 50, 344
Baum, H., 374
Baur, G., 27, 189, 190, 344, 346
Beneden, P.J. van, 353
Benham, W.B., 51
Bettany, G.T., 16, 87, 154
Boulenger, G.A., 169
Brandt, J.F., 352
Bridge, T.W., 123
Brühl, C.B., 210
Burmeister, H., 351, 424
Cope, E.D., 135, 199, 204, 351, 359, 361, 363, 368
Credner, H., 135
Dean, B., 63, 104
Dobson, G.E., 369, 370
Earle, C., 432
Ecker, A., 151
Ellenberger, W., 374
Flower, W.H., 28, 42, 351, 420, 422, 434
Fritsch, A., 135
Fürbringer, M., 295
Gadow, H., 40, 112, 190, 295, 343, 350
Gegenbaur, C., 127
Gervais, P., 353
Günther, A.C.L.G., 70, 104
Haslam, G., 151
Hasse, C., 112, 113
Haswell, W.A., 127
Hertwig, O., 169
Hoffmann, C.K., 190, 202, 210
Howes, G.B., 164, 451
Hubrecht, A.A.W., 104
Hulke, J.W., 192, 204
Hurst, C.H., 71, 297
Hutton, F.W., 299
Huxley, T.H., 11, 13, 133, 135, 191, 210, 295, 297, 334, 343, 351, 374, 437
Kirkaldy, J.W., 51
Klein, E., 11
Kölliker, A., 9
Kükenthal, W., 349, 422
Lankester, E. Ray, 51
Leche, W., 344, 423
Lindsay, B., 336
Lydekker, R., 36, 42, 190, 195, 495
Macbride, E.W., 50
Marsh, O.C., 204, 209, 299, 348, 361, 364, 365, 508
Marshall, A.M., 71, 151
Masterman, A.T., 51
Meyer, H. v., 135
Miall, L.C., 135, 243
Mivart, St G., 369
Morgan, C. Lloyd, 11
Newton, E.T., 283
Osborn, H.F., 348, 420, 429, 508
Owen, R., 191, 204, 210, 297, 348, 351, 420
Parker, T.J., 83, 96, 299
Parker, W.K., 16, 24, 53, 87, 154, 173, 200, 243, 465, 489
Pavlow, M., 358, 508
Pollard, H.B., 119
Poulton, E.B., 422
Pycraft, W.P., 297
Ridewood, W.G., 106, 164
Röse, C., 422
Sagemehl, M., 104
Schäfer, E., 11
Scott, W.B., 368
Seeley, H.G., 191, 212
Selenka, E., 40, 295
Shufeldt, R., 123
Smith, E. Noble, 11
Stirling, E.C., 423
Swirski, G., 103
Taeker, J., 427
Thomas, O., 349, 362, 370, 422, 424, 425
Tomes, C.S., 420
Traquair, R.H., 55, 58
Vogt, C., 297
Wiedersheim, R., 25, 134, 136
Wincza, H., 358, 495
Woodward, A. Smith, 34, 54, 58, 62, 127, 210
Wortman, J.L., 508
Wray, R.S., 303
Zittel, K.A. v., 36, 205, 212

INDEX.

Every reference is to the page: words in italics are names of genera or species; figures in italics indicate that the reference relates to systematic position; figures in thick type refer to an illustration; f. = and in following page or pages; n. = note.

Aard Vark, 44, 352;
femur, 517;
sacrum, 452;
teeth, 425;
see Orycteropus
Aard wolf, 48;
see Proteles
Abdominal ribs, crocodile, 260;
reptiles, 286
Abdominal shield, turtle, 215
Acanthias, 32;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
pectoral fins, 130
Acanthodes, 32, 64
Acanthodii, 32;
general characters, 64;
spines, 106
Acanthomys, 47;
spines, 417
Acanthopterygii, 34
Accipitres, 41
Acetabular bone, 25, 513;
dog, 409 f.;
frog, 165
Acetabulum, 25;
crocodile, 266;
dog, 409;
duck, 324;
frog, 165;
newt, 149;
turtle, 235
Acipenser, 32, 117;
exoskeleton, 67;
distribution, 66;
pectoral fins, 131;
plates, 104;
skull, 121, 122;
spinal column, 112
Acipenseridae, 32
Acrodont, defined, 199;
teeth of reptiles, 273
Acrodus, 32;
teeth, 109
Acromion, dog, 405
Actinotrocha, 30;
organ regarded as double notochord, 51
Ad-digital quill, duck, 303
Adjutant, 41;
clavicles, 338
Ægithognathous, 335
Æluroidea, 48, 369;
teeth, 437
Æpyornis, 40;
tibio-tarsus, 341
Æpyornithes, 40, 299
Aftershaft, 328
Agama, 38;
teeth, 273
Agamidae, 38;
premaxillae, 284
Aglossa, 36
Agouti, 48;
see Dasyprocta
Agriochoeridae, 45
Agriochoerus, 45;
pes, 525
Ala spuria, duck, 304
Alcidae, 42;
see Auks
Alisphenoid, 19;
crocodile, 247;
duck, 317;
dog, 386
Alligator, 39, 210, 212;
hyoid, 285;
limbs, 264;
pectoral girdle, 262;
pelvis and sacrum, 267;
scutes, 271;
skull, 245, 248, 253
Alligatoridae, 39
Alytes, 36;
fronto-parietal fontanelle, 179;
vertebrae, 172
Amblypoda, 47;
general characters, 363;
manus, 510;
pes, 525;
skull, 473;
teeth, 433;
thigh and shin, 519
Amblystoma, 35;
skull, 175
American monkeys, 373;
see Cebidae
American vultures, 41;
vomers, 335
Amia, 33;
distribution, 66;
exoskeleton, 67;
pectoral fin, 131;
scales, 105;
skull, 123;
tail, 115, 117;
vertebrae, 114
Amiidae, 33
Ammocoetes, 31, 55
Amphibia, 35;
anterior limb, 185;
exoskeleton, 168;
general characters, 133;
hyoid apparatus, 180;
pectoral girdle, 184;
pelvic girdle, 187;
posterior limb, 188;
ribs, 182;
skull, 173;
sternum, 182;
teeth, 169;
vertebral column, 170
Amphicoelous, defined, 14
Amphioxus, 30;
skeleton, 51 f.;
spinal column, 112
Amphisbaena, 38, 272;
loss of limbs, 289
Amphisbaenidae, 38, 200;
pectoral girdle, 288;
skull, 277;
vertebral column, 275
Amphitheriidae, 43
Amphiuma, 35, 135;
manus, 187;
pes, 188;
skull, 174
Amphiumidae, 35
Anacanthini, 33
Anal shield, turtle, 215
Anas, 41;
A. boschas, see Duck
Ankylosis, defined, 12
Angel fish, 32
Angler, attachment of teeth, 107
Anguidae, 38
Anguilla, 33;
see Eel
Anguis, 38;
loss of limbs, 289;
scutes, 271
Angular, 22;
cod, 100;
crocodile, 258;
duck, 319;
salmon, 94;
turtle, 231
Angulo-splenial, frog, 161
Ankle joint, duck, 327;
reptiles, 294
Anomodontia, 36
Anoplotheriidae, 45
Anoplotherium, 45;
manus, 506;
pes, 523;
tail, 454;
teeth, 428
Anser, 41
Anseres, 41;
aftershaft, 329;
claws, 330
Anseriformes, 41
Anteaters, 352;
absence of teeth, 424;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 513;
skull, 458;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447;
Spiny —, 43;
Great and Two-toed —, 44
Antelope, 359;
manus, 507;
Four-horned A., 46
Anterior limb, 26;
Amphibia, 185;
birds, 338;
crocodile, 263;
dog, 405;
duck, 322;
frog, 164;
newt, 147;
reptiles, 290;
turtle, 232
Anthropoid apes, 373;
arm-bones, 503;
pelvis, 515
Anthropoidea, 49;
general characters, 372;
sacrum, 452;
skull, 482;
teeth, 441
Anthropopithecus, 49;
ribs, 493
Antiarcha, 31;
general characters, 55
Antibrachium, see fore-arm
Antilocapra, 46;
horns, 417
Antilocapridae, 46
Antitrochanter, duck, 325
Antlers, 8, 358;
Cervidae, 469
Antorbital process, 18
Anura, 36;
general characters, 136;
hyoid apparatus, 180;
pelvis, 187;
posterior limb, 188;
skull, 179;
sternum, 182;
vertebrae, 172
Apatornis, 40;
vertebrae, 332
Apteria, 328
Apteryges, 40
Apteryx, 40, 299;
aftershaft, 329;
anterior nares, 333;
claws, 330;
foot, 342;
manus, 338;
pectineal process, 341;
pectoral girdle, 338;
pneumaticity of skeleton, 331;
A. oweni, pelvic girdle and sacrum, 340
Aqueductus vestibuli, dogfish, 74
Arcade:
infratemporal—, crocodile, 255;
Sphenodon, 283;
inner —, duck, 318;
outer —, duck, 318;
supratemporal —, crocodile, 257;
reptiles, 281
Archaeoceti, 44;
general characters, 356;
skull, 461;
teeth, 426
Archaeopteryx, 40, 297;
claws, 330;
fibula, 341;
mandible, 335;
metatarsals, 342;
pelvis, 341;
ribs, 336;
sacrum, 333;
skull, 333;
tail, 333;
teeth, 330;
wing, 338
Archaeornithes, 40;
characters, 297
Archegosaurus, 35, 136;
palatines, 177
Archipterygium, Ceratodus, 127;
Ichthyotomi, 62
Arcifera, 36, 185
Arctoidea, 48, 369;
teeth, 438
Ardea, 41;
see Heron
Ardeae, 41
Arm, see fore-arm and upper arm
Armadillo, 44, 352;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
femur, 517;
humerus, 501;
lumbar vertebrae, 447;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 513;
ribs, 491;
sacrum, 452;
scales, 417;
scutes, 419;
skull, 459;
teeth, 424
Armour plates, 8
Arthrodira, 34;
characters, 70
Articular, 22;
cod, 100;
crocodile, 258;
duck, 319;
newt, 144;
salmon, 94;
turtle, 231
Artiodactyla, 45;
characters, 358;
manus, 506;
odontoid process, 445;
pes, 522;
ribs, 491;
skull, 465;
teeth, 427;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Asses, 360
Asterolepis, 31, 55
Asterospondyli, 114
Astragalus, 27;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 414;
mammals, 521
Astrapotheriidae, 46
Astrapotherium, 46, 361;
dental formula, 432;
femur, 519;
pes, 525
Ateles, 49;
pollex, 512;
tail, 454
Atlantosauridae, 38
Atlas, 15;
crocodile, 240;
dog, 379, 380;
duck, 309;
ox, 445;
turtle, 219
Attachment of teeth, 4;
in fish, 107
Auchenia, 45;
see Llama
Auditory aperture or meatus:
external —, crocodile, 250;
dog, 402;
turtle, 228;
internal —, crocodile, 246, 251;
dog, 392;
turtle, 228
Auditory capsule, 20;
cod, 96;
crocodile, 250;
dog, 390;
dogfish, 74;
frog, 156;
newt, 143;
turtle, 227
Auditory ossicles, crocodile, 251;
dog, 393;
duck, 320;
mammals, 485 f.;
turtle, 228
Auks, 42;
thoracic vertebrae, 332
Autostylic, 61, 119
Aves, 40;
characters, 295;
see Birds
Axial skeletal rods, 50
Axial skeleton, crocodile, 239;
cod, 83;
dog, 377;
dogfish, 72;
duck, 307;
frog, 152;
newt, 138;
turtle, 218
Axis vertebra, crocodile, 241;
dog, 380;
duck, 309;
turtle, 220
Axolotl, 35;
see Siredon
Aye Aye, 49;
see Chiromys
Babirussa, 45;
dental formula, 428
Baboon, 49;
see Cynocephalus
Balanoglossus, 30, 50
Balaena, 44, 357;
scapula, 495;
B. mysticetus baleen, 419
Balaenidae, 44
Balaenoidea, 44;
general characters, 356
Balaenoptera, 44, 357;
manus, 506;
thoracic vertebrae, 448;
scapula, 495;
B. musculus, cervical vertebrae, 444
Baleen, 3, 418
Balistes, 33;
teeth, 111
Balistidae, 33
Ball and socket joints, 13
Bandicoot, 43
Barb, 302
Barbule, 303
Barramunda, 34;
see Ceratodus
Basalia, dogfish, 79
Basibranchial, dogfish, 78;
cod, 101;
duck, 320;
newt, 145;
salmon, 95
Basi-branchiostegal, cod, 101;
salmon, 95
Basicranial axis, 19;
dog, 384
Basidorsalia, dogfish, 72
Basi-hyal, dogfish, 78;
dog, 399;
duck, 320
Basilar plate, 17
Basilingual plate, Anura, 180;
crocodile, 259;
frog, 161;
turtle, 231
Basi-occipital, 19;
crocodile, 246;
cod, 97;
dog, 386;
duck, 315;
salmon, 89;
turtle, 224
Basipterygium, cod, 103;
dogfish, 82
Basisphenoid, 19;
crocodile, 247;
dog, 386;
salmon, 91;
turtle, 225
Bastard wing, duck, 304
Bathyerginae, palate, 366
Bathyergus, 47;
auditory ossicles, 488;
manus, 511
Batoidei, 32, 64
Batrachoseps, 35;
teeth, 169
Bats, claws, 418;
Horseshoe bats, 49;
see Chiroptera
Bdellostoma, 31, 55;
teeth, 57
Beak, 3;
birds, 329;
duck, 302;
Siren, 168;
tadpoles of Anura, 168;
turtle, 215
Bears, 48, 369;
manus, 511;
pes, 526;
sacral vertebrae, 452;
skull, 479;
Isabelline — mandible, 438
Beaver, 47;
fibula, 520;
humerus, 502;
pes, 526;
sacrum, 452;
tail, 454
Belodon, 39, 211;
frontals, 277;
palate, 281;
vertebrae, 275
Bichir, 33;
see Polypterus
Bicipital groove, dog, 405
Bilophodont, defined, 345;
teeth of Tapiridae, 429
Bipes, 38;
limbs, 289
Birds, anterior limb, 338;
endoskeleton, 331 f.;
exoskeleton, 328 f.;
general characters, 295;
hyoid, 336;
pectoral girdle, 336;
pelvic girdle, 339;
posterior limb, 341;
ribs, 336;
skull, 333;
sternum, 336;
teeth, 330;
vertebral, 332
Bison, 46;
occipital crest, 468
Blind snake, 38;
see Typhlops
Blind worm, 38;
see Anguis
Boidae, 38
Bombinator, 36;
vertebrae, 172
Bone, development of, 10 f.
Bone cells, 10
Bony Ganoids, fins, 105;
pelvic fin, 132;
ribs, 126;
skull, 123;
vertebral column, 114;
see Holostei
Border:
alveolar —, of dog's jaw, 398;
coracoid, glenoid, and suprascapular — of dog's scapula, 405
Bos, 46;
occipital crest, 468;
ribs, 491;
see Ox
Bottlenose, 44;
see Hyperoödon
Bovidae, 46;
pes, 523;
skull, 468
Bow-fin, 33;
see Amia
Brachial ossicles, cod, 103
Brachium; see upper arm
Brachydont, defined, 345;
teeth of Ungulates, 429 f.
Brachycephalus, 36;
bony plates of, 168
Brain case, crocodile, 245;
dog, 384;
duck, 314;
frog, 154;
newt, 140;
turtle, 224
Bradypodidae, 43;
see Sloths
Bradypus, 43;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
pectoral girdle, 495;
skull, 457;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Branchial arches, Amphibia, 180 f.;
cod, 101;
dogfish, 78;
fish, 120 f.;
newt, 145;
salmon, 95;
— basket, Marsipobranchii, 38;
— skeleton, Amphioxus, 52;
Balanoglossus, 50
Branchiosaurus, 35;
branchial arches, 180
Branchiostegal rays, cod, 100
Brontops, 46;
see Titanotherium
Brontosaurus, 38, 207;
sternum, 288
Bubalus, 46;
ribs, 491;
see Buffalo
Buccal skeleton, Amphioxus, 52
Buceros, 42;
see Hornbill
Buckler, of Labyrinthodonts, 168, 184
Buffalo, 46;
Cape —, skeleton of, 492
Bufo, 36;
hyoid, 182;
jaws, 169;
B. viridis, carpus, 186
Bufonidae, 36
Bunodont, defined, 345;
teeth of Ungulata, 427 f.
Buno-selenodont, defined, 432
Caeciliidae, 35
Caiman, 39;
C. latirostris hyoid, 285,
limbs, 264,
lateral view of skull, 248,
palatal view of cranium and mandible, 245,
longitudinal section of skull, 253,
pectoral girdle, 262,
pelvic girdle and sacrum, 267;
C. sclerops, scutes, 271
Ca'ing whale, 45;
see Globicephalus
Calamoichthys, 33;
distribution, 66
Calamus, 302
Calcaneum, 27;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 414
Calcar, of frog, 167
Callorhynchus, 32, 66;
teeth, 110
Camel, 45, 359;
manus, 507;
teeth, 428
Camelidae, 45
Camelus, 45;
see Camel
Camptosauridae, 39
Canal:
alisphenoid —, dog, 402;
carotid —, duck, 315;
Eustachian —, crocodile, 247;
dog, 402;
duck, 316;
interorbital —, dogfish, 76
Canaliculi, 10
Canidae, 48;
humerus, 502;
skull, 479;
see Dog
Canine, 344;
dog, 376 f.
Canis, 48;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450;
see Dog
Capitosaurus, 35;
skull, 176
Capybara, 48;
manus, 511;
pes, 526;
skull, 476;
tail, 454
Carapace, Chelonia, 271;
Dermochelys, 272;
Glyptodonts, 419;
Green turtle, 215;
Loggerhead turtle, 216
Carcharidae, 32
Carina sterni, duck, 321
Carinatae, 40;
general characters, 300;
quadrate, 334
Carnassial teeth, 368;
carnivora, 436;
dog, 376 f.
Carnivora, 48;
arm bones, 502;
auditory ossicles, 488;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
general characters, 367;
manus, 511;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 526;
ribs, 493;
sacral vertebrae, 452;
skull, 478;
sternum, 490;
tail, 454;
teeth, 437;
thigh and shin, 520;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Carnivora vera, 48;
general characters, 368;
scapula, 497
Carp, 33;
pharyngeal teeth, 111
Carpo-metacarpus, duck, 324
Carpus, 26;
crocodile, 265;
dog, 408;
duck, 323;
frog, 164;
newt, 147;
turtle, 233
Cartilage, structure of, 10
Cartilaginous ganoids, cranium, 121;
pelvic fin, 132;
spinal column, 112;
see Chondrostei
Cassowary, 40, 299;
aftershaft, 328;
bony crest, 334;
claws, 330;
pelvic girdle and sacrum, 340;
secondaries, 329
Castor, 47;
see Beaver
Castoridae, 47
Casuarius, 40;
see Cassowary
Cataphracti, 34
Cat, 48, 369;
hallux, 526;
manus, 511;
skull, 479
Cat-fish, 33
Cathartae, 41
Cathartes, 41;
see American vulture
Caudal fin, Cetacea, 453;
fish, 116;
— vertebrae, crocodile, 243;
cod, 85;
dog, 383;
duck, 312;
general characters, 16;
newt, 140;
turtle, 222
Cavia, 48;
tail, 454
Caviidae, 48
Cebidae, 49, 373;
ribs, 493;
skull, 484;
teeth, 441
Coenolestes, 43, 424
Cement, 5
Centetes, 49;
caudal vertebrae, 454;
pelvic symphysis, 515;
spines, 417;
teeth, 440;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Centetidae, 49;
auditory ossicles, 488;
skull, 480
Centrale, 27;
see Carpus and Tarsus
Centre of motion, 448
Centrum, 14
Cephalaspis, 31, 55
Cephalic shield, armadillos, 419
Cephalochordata, 30, 51
Cephalodiscus, 30, 50
Ceratodus, 34, 70;
branchial arches, 124;
cranium, 125;
skeleton, 128;
skull, 117, 124;
spinal column, 113;
teeth, 111
Cerato-branchial, cod, 101;
dogfish, 78;
duck, 320;
salmon, 95
Cerato-hyal, 23;
cod, 100;
dog, 399;
dogfish, 78;
salmon, 95
Ceratophrys, 36;
bony plates of, 168;
teeth, 170
Ceratops, 39;
see Polyonax
Ceratopsia, 39;
characters, 209;
premaxillae, 284
Ceratopsidae, 39
Ceratosaurus, 38, 208;
supratemporal fossae, 283;
C. nasicornis, skeleton, 206
Cercopithecidae, 49, 373
Cervical ribs, crocodile, 260;
reptiles, 285
Cervical vertebrae, crocodile, 239;
dog, 380;
duck, 307;
general characters, 15;
mammals, 442;
turtle, 219
Cervidae, 46;
skull, 469
Cervulus, 46;
pes, 523
Cervus, 46;
C. megaceros, antlers, 469
Cestracion, 32;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
external branchial arches, 121;
pectoral fin, 130;
skull, 118;
suspensorium, 119;
teeth, 109;
vertebral column, 114
Cestraciontidae 32
Cetacea 44, 522;
arm bones, 501;
auditory ossicles, 487;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
cervical vertebrae, 444;
characters, 353;
exoskeleton, 416 f.;
hind limb, 518;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 514;
position of limbs, 28;
ribs, 491;
skull, 461 f.;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 426;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Cetiosauridae, 38
Chalcides, 38;
limbs, 289
Chalicotheriidae, 46;
femur, 519;
manus, 509
Chalicotherium, 46;
femur, 360;
pes, 508, 525;
teeth, 432
Chamaeleon, 38, 199 f.;
epipubis, 293;
ilia, 291;
manus, 291;
skull, 278
Chamaeleonidae, 38
Charadriidae, 42
Charadriiformes, 42
Chauna, 41;
interorbital septum, 333;
ribs, 336;
C. derbiana, spurs, 330
Chelone, 37, 194;
plastron, 271, 218;
see Turtle
Chelonia, 37;
beaks, 271;
carapace, 271;
general characters, 193;
humerus, 290;
limbs, 290;
palate, 281;
pectoral girdle, 288;
pelvic girdle, 291;
skull, 277 f.;
tarsus, 293;
vertebrae, 275 f.
Chelonidae, 37
Chelydae, 37
Chelydra, 37;
carpus, 26, 291
Chelydridae, 37
Chelys, 37, 195
Chersidae, 37
Chevron bones, 16;
crocodile, 243;
mammals, 453 f.;
reptiles, 276
Chevrotain, 45, 359;
teeth, 429
Chimaera, 32,, 66;
attachment of fins, 130;
pelvic girdle, 127;
skull, 65;
teeth, 110
Chimaeridae, 32
Chimaeroidei, general characters, 65
Chimpanzee, 49;
carpus, 512;
ribs, 493;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Chinchilla, 47;
auditory ossicles, 488
Chinchillidae, 47
Chiromyidae, 49
Chiromys, 49,, 372;
manus, 512;
pes, 527;
teeth, 441
Chiroptera, 49;
auditory ossicles, 488;
arm bones, 503;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
general characters, 370;
manus, 512;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 527;
sacrum, 452;
shoulder girdle, 499;
skull, 481;
sternum, 490;
tail, 454;
teeth, 440;
thigh and shin, 520;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Chirotes, 38;
limbs, 289
Chlamydophorus, 44,, 272;
scutes, 419;
skull, 459
Chlamydoselache, 31;
branchial arches, 121
Choeropus, 43;
manus, 504;
pes, 522
Choloepus, 43;
ribs, 491;
shifting of pelvis, 451;
skull, 458;
sternum, 489;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447;
C. hoffmanni cervical vertebrae, 443
Chondrocranium, salmon, 87
Chondroid tissue, Balanoglossus, 50
Chondrostei, 32;
fins, 105;
general characters, 67;
teeth, 110;
see Cartilaginous ganoids
Chordal sheath, Amphioxus, 52
Chrysochloridae, 49
Chrysochloris, 49;
auditory ossicles, 488;
claws, 418;
teeth, 440
Ciconia, 41;
see Stork
Ciconiiformes, 41
Cingulum, 376
Civet, 48,, 369;
teeth, 437
Cladoselache, 31,, 63; fin, 129
Clasper, 132;
dogfish, 82
Clavicle, 25;
birds, 338;
cod, 102;
duck, 322;
dog, 405;
fish, 126;
frog, 163;
mammals, 494 f.;
reptiles, 289
Claws, 3;
birds, 330;
crocodile, 237;
dog, 374;
duck, 302;
mammals, 417;
turtle, 215
Clupeidae, 33
Clupeus, 33
Cnemial crest, dog, 412;
duck, 326
Coccosteus, 34, 70
Coccyx, man, 454
Cochliodontidae, 31
Cochliodus, 31;
dental plates, 109
Cod, 33;
appendicular skeleton, 101 f.;
cranium, 96;
mandibular and hyoid arches, 99;
median fins, 86;
pectoral girdle and fin, 102;
ribs, 86;
skull, 96 f.;
vertebral column, 83 f.
Coelogenys, 48;
zygomatic arch, 477
Coenolestes, 43, 424
Coffer-fish, 33;
see, Ostracion
Colobus, 49;
pollex, 512
Colubridae, 38
Columbae, 42
Columbidae, 42
Columella, crocodile, 251;
duck, 320;
frog, 157;
turtle, 228
Columella cranii, 200 n;
see epipterygoid
Colymbi, 40
Colymbiformes, 40
Compsognathidae, 38
Compsognathus, 38, 208
Condylar ridge, duck, 326
Condyle of humerus, dog, 406;
of mandible, dog, 398
Condylarthra, 47;
femur, 519;
general characters, 361;
manus, 509;
skull, 472;
teeth, 432
Contour feather, duck, 303
Copula, 23
Coracias, 42;
see Roller
Coraciae, 42
Coraciiformes, 42
Coracoid, 25;
cod, 103;
crocodile, 263;
duck, 322;
frog, 163;
Monotremata, 493;
newt, 147;
reptiles, 288;
turtle, 232
Coracoid groove, duck, 321
Cormorant, 41;
foot, 342;
skull, 335
Cornu, see hyoid
Cornua trabeculae, 18
Coryphodon, 47;
femur, 519;
manus, 510;
pes, 525;
skull, 473;
teeth, 433;
C. hamatus, manus, 510
Coryphodontidae, 47
Costal plate, turtle, 215;
— process, duck, 321;
— shield, turtle, 214
Cotyloid bone, 25, 513;
see Acetabular bone
Cotylopidae, 45
Cotylops, 45;
pollex, 506;
skull, 468
Coverts, 306, 328
Cranium, 18;
cod, 96 f.;
crocodile, 244 f.;
development of, 16 f.;
dog, 384 f.;
dogfish, 73 f.;
duck, 314;
frog, 154 f.;
newt, 140 f.;
turtle, 222 f.
Cranio-facial axis, dog, 384
Creodonta, 48;
carpus, 512;
femur, 520;
general characters, 368;
skull, 479;
teeth, 439
Cribriform plate, dog, 388, 400
Crocodile, 210, 212;
anterior limb, 263;
exoskeleton, 237;
pectoral girdle, 262;
pelvic girdle, 266;
posterior limb, 268;
ribs and sternum, 259;
skeleton, 237 f.;
skull, 243 f.;
tarsus, 293;
teeth, 238;
vacuities in surface of cranium, 256;
vertebral column, 239
Crocodilia, 39;
general characters of, 210;
palate, 281;
skull, 277 f.;
succession of teeth, 274;
teeth, 273
Crocodilidae, 39
Crocodilus, 39;
C. palustris, sternum and associated bones, 261;
late thoracic and first sacral vertebrae, 242;
C. vulgaris, cervical vertebrae, 239
Crossopterygii, 33;
general characters, 68
Crotalidae, 38
Crotalus, 38;
jaws, 280;
see Rattlesnake
Crows, 42
Crura of stapes, dog, 393
Cruro-tarsal, ankle joint, 345
Crus, 26;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 412;
duck, 326;
frog, 166;
newt, 149;
turtle, 235
Crusta petrosa, 5
Cryptobranchus, 35, 135;
skull, 175;
C. lateralis, sacral vertebrae, 171
Cryptodira, 37;
characters, 194
Ctenoid scales, 8, 60, 105
Cubitals, 303 f.
Cuboid, 27;
dog, 415
Cuckoo, foot, 342
Cuculi, 42
Cuculiformes, 42
Cuneiform bones, 27;
dog, 414 f.
Cyclodus, 38;
see Tiliqua
Cycloid scales, 8, 60, 105;
cod, 83
Cyclopidius, 45;
skull, 468
Cyclospondyli, 114
Cyclostomata, 31;
general characters, 53
Cycloturus, 44;
hallux, 522;
manus, 505
Cygnus, 41;
see Swan
Cynocephalus, 49;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
skull, 482
Cynoidea, 48, 369;
dental formula, 437
Cynognathus, 36;
occipital condyle, 277;
teeth, 273
Cyprinidae, 33
Cyprinus, 33;
see Carp
Cypseli, 42
Cypselidae, 42;
see Swifts
Cystignathidae, 36
Dactylopterus, 34;
pectoral fins, 131
Dasypodidae, 44
Dasyprocta, 48;
auditory ossicles, 488;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Dasyproctidae, 48
Dasypus, 44;
manus, 505;
skull, 459;
stapes, 487;
teeth, 424
Dasyuridae, 43, 350;
dentition, 423;
pes, 521;
skull, 456
Deer, 359;
manus, 507;
pes, 523;
Chinese water —, 46,
see Hydropotes;
Musk —, 46,
see Moschus;
Red — fibula, 519
Delphinidae, 45
Delphinus, 45, 357;
lumbar vertebrae, 448;
skull, 462 f.
Deltoid ridge, crocodile, 263;
dog, 406;
frog, 164
Dendrohyrax, 363
Dental formula, regular, 344, 422;
Anthropoidea, 441;
Astrapotherium, 432;
Babirussa, 428;
Camel, 428;
Chiromys, 441;
Chiroptera (many), 440;
Cynoidea, 437;
Dinotherium, 434;
Dog, 376;
Duplicidentata, 435;
Elephas, 434;
Erinaceus, 440;
Felis, 437;
Galeopithecus, 440;
Hippopotamus, 427;
Horse, 430;
Hydromys, 436;
Hyracoidea, 362;
Macropodidae, 423;
Manatus, 425;
Notoryctes, 423;
Otaria, 439;
Procavia, 432;
Pteropus, 441;
Rodentia (most), 435;
Ruminantia, 429;
Squalodon, 427;
Sus, 428;
Tapiridae, 429;
Thylacinus, 423;
Uintatherium, 433;
Ursus, 439;
Zeuglodon, 426
Dentary, 22;
crocodile, 258;
cod, 100;
duck, 320;
frog, 161;
newt, 144;
salmon, 94;
turtle, 230
Dentine, 5
Derbian Screamer, spurs, 330
Dermal exoskeleton, crocodile, 237;
fish, 105;
mammals, 419;
reptiles, 271;
turtle, 215
Dermo-supra-occipital, Labyrinthodontia, 177;
Polypterus, 122
Dermochelydidae, 37
Dermochelys, 37, 194, 214, 270;
carapace and plastron, 272
Dermoptera, 48;
general characters, 370
Derotremata, 35
Desmodus, 49;
teeth, 441
Desmognathous, 319, 335
Development of bone, 10;
of cranium, 16;
of teeth, 7
Dicynodon, 36, 192;
beak, 271;
supratemporal fossa, 283;
teeth, 273
Didelphia, 43;
general characters, 349
Didelphyidae, 43, 350;
auditory ossicles, 486;
pes, 521;
teeth, 423
Didelphys, 43;
atlas, 443;
teeth, 422
Didus, 42;
see Dodo
Digitigrade, defined, 358 n.
Digits, 26;
see Manus and Pes
Dimetrodon, 36;
thoracic vertebrae, 276
Dinichthys, 34, 70
Dinocerata, 364;
see Uintatheriidae
Dinornithes, 40, 299;
see Moas
Dinosauria, 38;
general characters, 204;
humerus, 290;
ischium, 291;
pectoral girdle, 288;
pes, 293;
pre-orbital vacuity, 284;
ribs, 285;
vertebrae, 275 f.
Dinotheriidae, 47
Dinotherium, 47, 365;
dental formula, 434;
teeth, 345
Diodon, 33;
beaks, 111;
D. hystrix, scales, 105
Diphycercal tail, 60, 116
Diphyodont, defined, 7, 344
Diplacanthus, 32, 64
Dipneumona, 34
Dipnoi, 34;
general characters, 69;
pelvic fins, 131;
skull, 124;
spinal column, 113;
tail, 116;
teeth, 111
Dipodidae, 47
Diprotodont, 423
Diprotodontia, 43;
characters, 350
Dipteridae, 34, 70;
cranium, 124;
tail, 117;
teeth, 111
Dipus, 47;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
pes, 526
Discoglossidae, 36
Discoglossus, 36;
ribs, 182;
vertebrae, 172
Distal, defined, 23 n.
Divers, 40;
thoracic vertebrae, 332
Docidophryne, 36;
shoulder girdle and sternum, 183
Dodo, 42;
wing, 338
Dog, 48;
arm bones, 407;
anterior limb, 405;
atlas and axis, 379;
cranium, 384, 389, 396;
dentition, 375;
innominate bone, 410;
leg bones, 411;
manus, 408, 413, 511;
pectoral girdle, 404;
pelvic girdle, 409;
pes, 413, 414;
posterior limb, 412;
ribs, 402;
second lumbar vertebra, 382;
second thoracic vertebra, 382;
skull, 383, 387;
sternum, 403, 404;
vertebral column, 378
Dogfish, 64;
cranium, 73;
exoskeleton, 71;
median fins, 79;
pectoral girdle and fin, 79;
pelvic girdle, 81;
pelvic fin, 81;
ribs, 73;
skull, 73, 75;
vertebral column, 72;
visceral skeleton, 77;
Spotted and Spiny —, 32
Dolphin, 45, 357;
lumbar vertebrae, 448;
Gangetic —, 45,
see Platanista
Donkey, skull, 431
Dorcatherium, 45;
manus, 507
Dorsal vertebra, 16
Dorsal shield, crocodile, 238
Down feathers, 306
Draco, 38;
ribs, 286
Dromaeognathous, 335
Dromaeus, 40, 299;
see Emeu
Duck, 41, 334;
beak, 329;
claws, 330;
cranium, 313;
exoskeleton, 302;
pectoral girdle, 321;
pelvic girdle, 324, 311, 325;
pes, 327;
posterior limb, 326;
ribs, 320;
skull, 312, 312, 313;
sternum, 321;
vertebral column, 307;
wing, 322, 304, 305
Duckbill, 43;
see Ornithorhynchus
Dugong, 44;
humerus, 501;
pelvis, 514;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448;
see Halicore
Duplicidentata, 48, 366;
dental formula, 435;
skull, 478
Eagles, 335
Eared Seals, 369;
scapula, 498;
see Otariidae
Echidna, 43;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
manus, 504;
pelvis, 513;
sacral vertebrae, 451;
shoulder-girdle and sternum, 494;
skull, 455;
spines, 417;
spur, 418;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Echidnidae, 43;
pes, 521
Ectethmoid, 21 n.
Ectocondylar ridge, dog, 406
Edentata, 43;
auditory ossicles, 487;
arm bones, 500;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
manus, 504;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pes, 522;
pelvis, 513;
ribs, 491;
sacrum, 452;
skull, 457;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 424;
thigh and shin, 517;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Eel, 33;
scales, 105
Elasmobranchii, 31;
cranium, 118 f.;
clasper, 132;
general characters, 61;
pelvic fins, 131;
ribs, 125;
teeth, 109;
vertebral column, 113 f.;
visceral arches, 120
Elasmotherium, 46;
mesethmoid, 470
Elephant, 47;
auditory ossicles, 487;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
ribs, 491;
skull, 473 f., 474 and, 475;
tusks, 420;
see also Proboscidea
Elephantidae, 47
Elephas, 47, 364;
dental formula, 434;
E. planifrons, 435;
see Elephant
Elginia, 36;
skull, 191, 283
Embolomerous, 172
Emeu, 40, 299;
aftershaft, 328;
claws, 330
Enamel, 4;
— cap, 7;
— organ, 7
Endochondral ossification, 11
Endoskeleton, Amphibia, 170;
birds, 331 f.;
cod, 83 f.;
crocodile, 239, f.;
dog, 377 f.;
dogfish, 71 f.;
duck, 306 f.;
fish, 112 f.;
frog, 151 f.;
mammals, 442 f.;
newt, 138 f.;
reptiles, 275 f.;
turtle, 218 f.
Engystomatidae, 36
Entoplastron, turtle, 217
Epanorthidae, 43, 350
Epi-branchial, cod, 101;
dogfish, 78;
salmon, 94
Epicoracoid, 25;
frog, 163;
turtle, 232;
Monotremes, 493;
vestiges of in Rodentia, 497
Epicrium, 35;
orbit, 179
Epidermal exoskeleton, birds, 328;
crocodile, 237;
dog, 374;
duck, 302;
mammals, 416;
reptiles, 270;
turtle, 214
Epi-hyal, cod, 100;
dog, 399;
salmon, 94
Epi-otic, 20;
cod, 96;
crocodile, 250;
Labyrinthodontia, 177;
reptiles, 278;
salmon, 89;
turtle, 227
Epiphysis, 11
Epiplastron, turtle, 217
Epiprecoracoid, Amphibia, 184;
turtle, 232
Epipterygoid, Lacertilia, 200;
reptiles, 278
Epipubis, crocodile, 267;
newt, 149;
turtle, 235
Episternum, 217;
frog, 163
Equidae, 46;
mane, 416;
scapula, 496;
skull, 471
Equus, 46;
see Horse
Erinaceidae, 49
Erinaceus, 49;
dental formula, 440;
pelvic symphysis, 515;
presternum, 490;
see Hedgehog
Esocidae, 33
Esox, 33;
attachment of teeth, 107
Ethmoid, 394;
see median ethmoid
Ethmoidal plane, 390;
— region, 21
Ethmo-palatine ligament, dogfish, 77
Ethmo-turbinal, dog, 395
Euchirosaurus, 35;
vertebrae, 171
Eustachian canal, see Canal
Eusuchia, 39;
general characters, 212
Eutheria, 43;
general characters, 351
Exocaetus, 33;
pectoral fins, 131
Exoccipital, 19;
cod, 97;
crocodile, 246;
dog, 386;
duck, 314;
frog, 154;
newt, 141;
salmon, 89;
turtle, 224
Exoskeleton, 2;
Amphibia, 168;
birds, 328;
crocodile, 237;
dog, 374;
dogfish, 71;
duck, 302;
fish, 104;
ganoids, 66;
mammals, 442;
reptiles, 270;
turtle, 214
Extensor side, defined, 29
Extra-branchial, dogfish, 79
Extra-columella, crocodile, 251;
turtle, 228
Fabella, dog, 412
Falco, 41
Falcon, 41, 335
Falconiformes, 41
Feathers, 3, 328;
duck, 302
Felidae, 48;
claws, 418
Felis, 48;
dental formula, 437;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Femoral shield, turtle, 215
Femur, 26;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 412;
duck, 326;
frog, 166;
mammals, 517 f.;
newt, 149;
ox and rhinoceros, 518;
turtle, 235
Fenestra ovalis, crocodile, 250 f.;
dog, 392;
duck, 316;
frog, 157;
turtle, 228;
— rotunda, dog, 392;
duck, 316
Fenestral recess, duck, 316
Fibula, 26;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 412;
duck, 327;
frog, 166;
newt, 149;
turtle, 235
Fibulare, 27;
see Tarsus
File-fish, 33;
see Balistes
Filoplume, 306
Finches, 42
Fins, fish, 115;
caudal —, Cetacea, 453;
cod, 87;
fish, 116;
Ichthyosauria, 195;
median —, cod, 86;
dogfish, 79;
pectoral —, cod, 103;
dogfish, 79;
pelvic —, cod, 103;
dogfish, 81
Fin-rays, 105, 115;
cod, 83, 103;
dogfish, 79
Firmisternia, 36, 185
Fish, appendicular skeleton, 126;
endoskeleton, 112 f.;
exoskeleton, 104;
general characters, 60 f.;
paired fins, 127 f.;
ribs, 125 f.;
skull, 117 f.;
spinal column, 112 f.;
teeth, 106 f.
Fissipedia, 48;
general characters, 368
Flamingo, 335
Flexor side, defined, 29
Floating ribs, dog, 402;
mammals, 490
Flower, Sir W.H., on succession of teeth in elephants, 434
Flying-fish, 33;
— fox, 49, 371,
skull, 481,
see Pteropus;
— gurnard, 34,
see Dactylopterus;
— lemur, 48,
see Galeopithecus;
— lizard, 38,
see Draco
Fontanelle, salmon, 89;
anterior —, dogfish, 74;
frog, 154;
posterior —, frog, 154
Foot, crocodile, 269;
dog, 414;
frog, 167;
newt, 149 f.;
turtle, 236
Foramen:
anterior palatine —, dog, 401;
condylar —, dog, 401;
— cordiforme, reptiles, 292;
ect-epicondylar —, Sphenodon, 290;
ent-epicondylar —, 191 n.;
Carnivora vera, 502;
Cebidae, 503;
Choloepus, 500;
Condylarthra, 362, 502;
Creodonta, 368;
Insectivora, 503;
Lemurs, 503;
Marsupials, 500;
reptiles, 290;
external mandibular —, crocodile, 258;
inferior dental —, dog, 399;
infra-orbital —, dog, 401;
Rodents, 477;
ilio-sciatic —, duck, 325;
internal mandibular —, crocodile, 258;
internal orbital —, dog, 401;
interparietal —, Labyrinthodontia, 173, 177;
reptiles, 277;
— lacerum anterius, dog, 388, 400;
— lacerum medium, dog, 402;
— lacerum posterius, dog, 392, 401;
lachrymal —, dog, 394, 401;
— magnum, cod, 97;
crocodile, 257;
dog, 386, 402;
dogfish, 76;
duck, 314;
frog, 154;
newt, 141;
salmon, 89;
turtle, 224;
mental —, dog, 399;
obturator —, duck, 326;
dog, 410;
ophthalmic —, dogfish, 74;
optic —, dog, 400;
dogfish, 74;
orbitonasal —, dogfish, 74;
— ovale, crocodile, 249;
dog, 400;
pneumatic —, duck, 323;
pneumogastric —, dogfish, 76;
posterior palatine —, dog, 401;
postglenoid —, dog, 402;
pre-acetabular —, Chiroptera, 515;
— rotundum, dog, 400;
stylomastoid —, dog, 392 f., 400;
thyroid —, dog, 410;
trigeminal —, duck, 316;
— triosseum, duck, 322
Fore-arm, 26;
crocodile, 265;
dog, 406;
duck, 323;
frog, 164;
newt, 147;
turtle, 233
Fossa:
cerebellar —, dog, 392;
cerebral —, dog, 392;
digital —, dog, 412;
floccular —, dog, 392;
infratemporal —, see lateral temporal —;
lachrymal —, Ruminants, 469;
lateral temporal —, crocodile, 257;
Sphenodon, 283;
olecranon —, dog, 406;
prescapular —, dog, 405;
postscapular —, dog, 405;
post-temporal —, Sphenodon, 283;
pterygoid —, crocodile, 257;
suborbital —, Ruminants, 469;
supra-acetabular —, Ruminants, 514;
supratemporal —, crocodile, 249, 256;
reptiles, 283;
supra-trochlear —, dog, 406;
temporal —, dog, 398;
trochanteric —, dog, 412
Fowl, 41, 335;
claws, 330;
skeleton, 301
Fox, 48
Frigate bird, 41;
clavicles, 338
Frog, anterior limb, 164;
cranium, 155, 157;
hyoid apparatus, 161;
pelvic girdle, 165;
posterior limb, 166;
shoulder-girdle and sternum, 183;
skull, 154 f., 155, 159;
teeth, 151;
vertebral column, 152;
Common —, Edible —, Fire-bellied —, Green-tree —, Horned —, Midwife —, Painted — and Toad —, 36;
Frontal, 19;
cod, 96;
crocodile, 249;
dog, 388;
duck, 314;
newt, 141;
salmon, 91;
turtle, 225;
— segment, crocodile, 249;
dog, 388;
turtle, 225
Fronto-parietal, frog, 156
Frugivorous bats, manus, 512;
see Pteropidae
Fulcra, 67;
Polypterus, 106
Furcula, 296; duck, 322
Gadidae, 33
Gadus, 33;
see Cod
Galeopithecidae, 48
Galeopithecus, 48, 370;
dental formula, 440;
inter centra, 450;
pelvic symphysis, 515;
skull, 480
Galesaurus, 36, 192; teeth, 273
Galeus, 32;
occipital joint, 118
Galli, 41
Galliformes, 41
Gallus, 41;
G. bankiva skeleton, 301
Gannet, 41; wing, 339
Ganoid scales, 8, 60, 104
Ganoidei, 32;
general characters and distribution, 66;
pectoral girdle, 126;
pelvic fins, 132;
teeth, 110;
skull, 121 f.;
spinal column, 112 and, 114
Garialidae, 39
Garialis, 39, 212
Garial, 210
Gar pike, 33;
see Lepidosteus
Gavialis, 39
Gazella, 46
Gazelle, 46;
skull, 468
Geckonidae, 37;
see Gecko
Gecko, 37;
epipubis, 293;
parietals, 277;
supratemporal fossa, 283;
vertebrae, 275
Gibbon, 49;
ribs, 493;
skull, 482
Gill-rays, dogfish, 78;
salmon, 95
Giraffa, 46
Giraffe, 46, 359;
cervical vertebrae, 445;
manus, 507;
pes, 523;
ulna, 501
Giraffidae, 46; skull, 469
Girdle bone, frog, 156
Glenoid cavity, 25;
crocodile, 263;
dog, 405;
duck, 322;
frog, 162;
newt, 146;
turtle, 232;
—fossa, dog, 394
Globe-fish, 33
Globicephalus, 45;
cervical vertebrae, 354;
manus, 506;
skull, 463
Gluteal surface of ilium, dog, 410
Glyptodon, 44;
carapace, 419;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
manus, 505;
pelvis, 513;
pes, 522;
teeth, 425;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Glyptodontidae, 44, 352;
skull, 459;
see also Glyptodon
Gnathostomata, 31, 59
Golden mole, 49;
see Chrysochloris
Goniopholidae, 39
Goniopholis, 39;
vertebrae, 275
Goose, 334;
beak, 329;
Spur-winged—41
Gorilla, 49;
carpus, 512;
ribs, 493;
scapula, 499;
skull, 483;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Gruidae, 41;
see Cranes
Gruiformes, 41
Guinea-pig, 48;
tail, 454
Gular shield, turtle, 215
Gulls, 42, 335;
aftershaft, 328
Gymnodontidae, 33;
beaks, 111
Gymnophiona, 35;
branchial arches, 180;
general characters, 136;
ribs, 182;
scales, 168;
skull, 177;
teeth, 169;
vertebrae, 172
Gymnura, 49;
teeth, 440;
zygomatic arch, 481
Gypogeranus, 41;
claws, 330
Gyrinophilus, 35;
vertebral column, 171
Haddock, 33
Hadrosauridae, 39
Hadrosaurus, 39;
skull, 284
Hag or hag-fish, 31, 54 f.
Hair, 3;
dog, 374;
mammals, 416
Halicore, 44, 352;
manus, 505;
skull, 460;
teeth, 425;
see Dugong
Halicoridae, 44
Halitheriidae, 44
Halitherium, 44, 352;
femur, 518;
pelvis, 514;
teeth, 425
Hallux, 26;
dog, 415;
duck, 327;
frog, 167
Hamular process, dog, 397
Hand, crocodile, 266;
dog, 408 f.;
duck, 324;
frog, 165;
newt, 147;
turtle, 233
Hapale, 49
Hapalidae, 49, 372 f.;
teeth, 441
Hare, 48, 366;
acetabular bone, 515;
dental formula, 435;
femur, 520;
humerus, 502;
pelvis, 515;
scapula, 497;
skull, 476;
tail, 454;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 449;
Cape jumping —, 47;
see Pedetes
Harpagus, 41;
serrated beak, 334
Harriotta, 32, 66
Hatteria, 37, 197;
see Sphenodon
Haversian canals, 10;
— system, 10
Hawks, beak of, 330
Hedgehog, 49, 370;
auditory ossicles, 488;
humerus, 503;
presternum, 490;
skull, 480;
spines, 417;
see Erinaceus
Hemichordata, 30, 50
Heptanchus, 31;
branchial arches, 63, 120;
vertebrae, 114
Herbivorous dentition, 427, 430
Heron, 41, 335;
interorbital septum, 333;
powder down feathers, 329
Herring, 33
Hesperornis, 40, 299;
caudal vertebrae, 333;
clavicles, 338;
teeth, 330;
wing, 338
Heterocercal tail, 60, 116
Heterodont, 7
Heterostraci, 31;
general character, 54
Hexanchus, 31;
branchial arches, 63, 121
Hinge joint, 13
Hipparion, 46;
manus, 508;
pes, 524
Hippopotamidae, 45
Hippopotamus, 45, 359;
dental formula, 427;
hair, 416;
mandible, 467;
manus, 506;
pes, 523;
scapula, 496;
skull, 467;
teeth, 345
Hoatzin, 41;
see Opisthocomus
Holocephali, 32, 65, 104;
clasper, 132;
spinal column, 113;
tail, 116;
teeth, 109
Holoptychiidae, 33
Holoptychius, 33;
scales, 105
Holostei, 33;
general characters, 68;
teeth, 110;
see Bony Ganoids
Hominidae, 49, 373
Homo, 49;
see Man
Homocercal tail, 60, 69, 117;
codfish, 87
Homodont, defined, 7
Hoofs, 3, 418
Hoopoe, 42, 335
Hoplopterus, spur, 330
Hornbill, 42, 331;
bony crest, 334;
interorbital septum, 333
Horns, 3, 417
Horny plates on palate, 418;
— teeth, Lampreys, 4;
Myxinoids, 57;
Ornithorhynchus, 4
Horse, 46, 360;
fibula, 519;
malleus, 487;
manus, 507;
pes, 524;
skull, 471;
teeth, 345, 430;
ulna, 501
Howling monkey, 49;
see Mycetes
Humerals, duck, 303 f.
Humeral shield, turtle, 215
Humerus, 26;
crocodile, 263;
dog, 405;
duck, 323;
frog, 164;
newt, 147;
turtle, 232;
wombat, 500
Humming-birds, 42, 335
Humpbacked whale, 44, 357
Hyaena, 48, 369;
hallux, 526;
pollex, 511;
sacral vertebrae, 452;
teeth, 437
Hyaenidae, 48;
humerus, 502
Hyaenodon, 48, 368
Hyaenodontidae, 48
Hyaline cartilage, 10
Hydrochaerus, 48;
teeth, 437;
see Capybara
Hydromys, 47;
dental formula, 436
Hydrophidae, 38;
scales, 270
Hydropotes, 46;
canines, 429
Hyla, 36;
fronto-parietal fontanelle, 179;
sternum, 184
Hylidae, 36
Hylobates, 49;
ribs, 493;
skull, 482
Hyoid, 21;
alligator, 285;
Amphibia, 180;
birds, 336;
cod, 100;
crocodile, 259;
dogfish, 77;
dog, 399;
duck, 320;
frog, 161;
newt, 144;
reptiles, 284;
salmon, 94;
turtle, 231, 285
Hyomandibular, 23;
cod, 100;
dogfish, 78;
salmon, 94
Hyomoschus, 45
Hyoplastron, turtle, 217
Hyostylic, 61, 119
Hyotherium, 45;
teeth, 427
Hyperodapedon, 37, 198;
premaxillae, 284
Hyperoödon, 44;
skull, 464;
sternum, 489;
thoracic vertebrae, 448
Hypo-branchial, cod, 101;
dogfish, 78
Hypo-hyal, cod, 100;
salmon, 95
Hypo-ischium, Lacertilia, 292
Hypoplastron, turtle, 217
Hyporachis, 328
Hypsilophodon, 39;
predentary bone, 284
Hypsodont, defined, 345, 429
Hypural bone, cod, 85
Hyracidae, 47
Hyracoidea, 47;
femur, 519;
general characters, 362;
manus, 510;
nails, 418;
skull, 472;
teeth, 432
Hyracotherium, 46;
manus, 508;
scapula, 496
Hyrax, 47, 363;
see Procavia
Hystricidae, 47
Hystricomorpha, 47;
auditory ossicles, 488
Hystrix, 47;
auditory ossicles, 488;
see Porcupine
Ichthyodorulites, 106
Ichthyoidea, 35;
general characters, 134
Ichthyopsida, 31;
general characters, 59
Ichthyopterygium, 130
Ichthyornis, 40;
mandible, 335;
pelvis, 341;
teeth, 330;
vertebrae, 332
Ichthyornithiformes, 40, 300
Ichthyosauria, 37;
general characters, 195;
ribs, 285
Ichthyosauridae, 37
Ichthyosaurus, 37, 197;
limbs, 290;
palatines, 281;
pectoral girdle, 288;
position of limbs, 28;
skull, 196;
teeth, 273;
vertebral column, 275
Ichthyotomi, 31;
general characters, 62;
fins, 130 f.;
tail, 116
Iguana, 38;
teeth, 273
Iguanidae, 38;
zygosphenes, 200, 276
Iguanodon, 39, 208 f.;
jaws, 292;
predentary, 284;
sternum, 288;
teeth, 272 f.;
vertebrae, 275
Iguanodontidae, 39
Iliac surface of ilium, dog, 410
Ilium, 25;
crocodile, 266;
dog, 409;
duck, 325;
frog, 165;
mammals, 513 f.;
newt, 149;
reptiles, 291;
turtle, 235
Incisors, dog, 376 f.;
mammals, 344
Incus, dog, 393;
man, dog and rabbit, 485
Infra-marginal shield, turtle, 215
Infra-pharyngeal bone, cod, 101
Inia, 45;
cervical vertebrae, 444;
lumbar vertebrae, 448
Innominate bone, dog, 409;
mammals, 513
Insectivora, 48;
arm bones, 503;
auditory ossicles, 488;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
general characters, 369 f.;
manus, 512;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 527;
sacrum, 452;
shoulder-girdle, 499;
skull, 480;
sternum, 490;
tail, 454;
teeth, 440;
thigh and shin, 520;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Insectivora vera, 49;
general characters, 370
inter centra, 15;
Galeopithecus, 370;
Ichthyosauria, 195;
Labyrinthodontia, 172;
Sphenodon, 198;
Talpa, 450
Interclavicle, 25;
crocodile, 263;
Monotremata, 494;
reptiles, 289
Intercondylar notch, dog, 412
Intergular shield, turtle, 215
Interhyal, cod, 100
Intermedium, 27;
see Carpus and Tarsus
Intermuscular bones, cod, 86
Internasal septum, dogfish, 76
Interorbital septum, birds, 333;
crocodile, 247;
duck, 317;
reptiles, 277
Interspinous bones, cod, 86
Intertarsal ankle joint, 190
Intervertebral discs, 15, 378
Ischial tuberosity, dog, 411
Ischium, 25;
crocodile, 266;
dog, 410;
duck, 325;
frog, 165;
newt, 149;
turtle, 235
Ischyodus, 32, 66
Ivory, 5
Jacana, 42;
see Parra
Jacare, 39;
scutes, 271
Jaws, 21;
cod, 98 f.;
crocodile, 252 f.;
dog, 395 f.;
dogfish, 77;
duck, 317 f.;
frog, 158 f.;
newt, 143 f.;
salmon, 93 f.;
turtle, 229 f.
Jerboa, 47;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
pes, 526
Joints, kinds of, 13
Jugal, 22;
crocodile, 255;
dog, 398;
duck, 318;
turtle, 229
Jugulares, 132
Kangaroo, 43;
dental formula, 423;
lumbar vertebrae, 447;
pectineal process, 513;
pes, 522;
tail, 453;
teeth, 345
Kestrel, claws, 330
Killer, 45;
see Orca
Kiwi, 40;
see Apteryx
Knee-cap, see patella
Koala, 43;
lumbar vertebrae, 447;
pes, 522;
tail, 453
Kükenthal, W., on teeth of Cetacea, 426;
on teeth of Marsupials, 422
Labial cartilage, dogfish, 77;
Squatina, 119
Labridae, 33
Labrus, 33;
see Wrasse
Labyrinthodontia, 35;
buckler, 168;
general characters, 135;
interparietal foramen, 173;
pelvis, 187;
ribs, 182;
skull, 176;
teeth, 169
Lacertilia, 37;
general characters, 199;
pectoral girdle, 288;
skull, 277;
vertebrae, 275
Lachrymal, 20;
cod, 97;
crocodile, 251;
dog, 394;
duck, 317;
salmon, 93
Lacunae, 10
Lagenorhynchus, 45;
skull, 462
Lagostomus, 47;
maxillae, 477
Lambdoidal crest, duck, 315
Lamella of malleus, dog, 393
Lamnidae, 32
Lamprey, 31, 55 f.
Lancelet, 30;
see Amphioxus
Laridae, 42;
see Gulls
Larks, 42
Larvacea, 30;
notochord, 51
Latax, 48;
pes, 526
Lateral ethmoid, 21;
cod, 97;
salmon, 89 f.
Leathery turtle, 37;
see Dermochelys
Lemuroidea, 49;
caudal vertebrae, 454;
general characters, 372;
nails, 418;
ribs, 493;
sacrum, 452;
skull, 482;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450;
see Lemurs
Lemurs, carpus, 512;
pes, 527;
teeth, 441;
see Lemuroidea
Lenticular, 485;
dog, 393
Lepidosiren, 34, 70;
branchial arches, 125;
fins, 130
Lepidosteidae, 33
Lepidosteus, 33;
attachment of teeth, 108;
distribution, 66;
pectoral fins, 131;
scales, 67, 104;
skull, 123;
tail, 117;
vertebrae, 68
Lepidotus, 33;
teeth, 110
Leporidae, 48
Lepospondyli, 35
Lepus, 48;
see Hare
Leptoptilus, 41;
see Adjutant
Lialis, 37, 289
Limbs, general account, 26;
modifications in position of, 28;
reptiles, 289
Llama, 45, 359;
cervical vertebrae, 445;
skeleton, 496;
teeth, 428
Limicolae, 42
Lingual apparatus, lampreys, 58;
myxinoids, 57
Lion, 48
Loemanctus longipes, shoulder girdle and sternum, 287
Loggerhead turtle, carapace, 216
Lophiodon, 46;
teeth, 345, 429
Lophiodontidae, 46
Lophiomyidae, 47
Lophiomys, 47;
pes, 526;
skull, 476
Lophius, attachment of teeth, 107
Lower jaw, see Mandible
Lumbar vertebrae, 16;
crocodile, 242;
dog, 378 f.;
duck, 311
Lunar, 27;
dog, 408
Macacus, 49;
cervical vertebrae, 446
Machaerodus, 48;
upper canines, 437
Macrauchenia, 46, 358;
calcaneum, 360;
cervical vertebrae, 445;
fibula, 519;
tarsus, 523;
ulna, 501
Macraucheniidae, 46, 509
Macropodidae, 43, 350;
dental formula, 423;
pes, 522
Macropus, 43;
see Kangaroo
Macroscelidae, 49
Macroscelides, 49;
skull, 480
Magnum, 27;
see Carpus
Malar, 22;
see jugal
Malleus, dog, 393;
man, dog and rabbit, 485
Mammalia, 42;
auditory ossicles, 485;
cervical vertebrae, 442;
exoskeleton, 416;
general characters, 343;
manus, 503;
Mesozoic —, 348;
pectoral girdle, 493;
pelvic girdle, 512;
pes, 521;
ribs, 490;
sacral and caudal vertebrae, 451;
skull, 455;
sternum, 489;
thigh and shin, 517;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Man, 49;
arm bones, 503;
auditory ossicles, 488;
caudal vertebrae, 454;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 527;
ribs, 493;
scapula, 499;
skull, 483;
sternum, 490;
teeth, 441
Manatee, 44;
see Manatus
Manatidae, 44
Manatus, 44;
cervical vertebrae, 444;
dental formula, 425;
humerus, 501;
manus, 505;
pelvis, 514;
skull, 460;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 345;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Mandible, birds, 335;
cod, 100;
crocodile, 258;
dog, 398;
duck, 319;
frog, 160;
Hippopotamus, 467;
Isabelline bear, 438;
newt, 144;
salmon, 94;
turtle, 230
Manidae, 44;
see Manis
Manis, 44;
auditory ossicles, 487;
manus, 504;
scales, 3, 417;
skull, 459;
M. macrura xiphisternum, 489;
see Pangolin
Manubrium of malleus, 486;
dog, 393;
— sterni, dog, 404
Manus, 26;
crocodile, 265;
dog, 408, 413;
duck, 323;
frog, 164;
mammalia, 503;
newt, 147;
Perissodactyles, 508;
turtle, 233
Marginal plate, turtle, 216;
— ray, 131;
— shield, turtle, 214
Marmoset, 49, 372 f.
Marmot, frontals, 476
Marsipobranchii, 31, 53;
spinal column, 56
Marsupial bones, 513
Marsupial mole, 43;
see Notoryctes
Marsupialia, 43;
arm bones, 499;
auditory ossicles, 486;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
general characters, 349;
manus, 504;
pectoral girdle, 494;
pelvis, 513;
pes, 521;
ribs, 491;
sacral vertebrae, 451;
skull, 456;
teeth, 422;
thigh and shin, 517;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Mastodon, 47, 365;
teeth, 434
Mastodonsaurus, 35, 136;
pelvis, 187
Mastoid portion of periotic, dog, 391
Maxilla, 22;
cod, 98;
crocodile, 254;
dog, 397;
duck, 318;
frog, 159;
newt, 144;
turtle, 229
Maxillo-mandibular arch, 21
Maxillo-palatine, duck, 318
Maxillo-turbinal, dog, 395
Meatus, external auditory —, crocodile, 250;
dog, 393;
turtle, 228;
internal auditory —, crocodile, 251;
dog, 392, 400;
turtle, 228
Meckel's cartilage, 22;
cod, 100;
dogfish, 77;
salmon, 94
Median ethmoid, 21;
cod, 98;
Gymnophiona, 179;
salmon, 91;
— fin, Amphibia, 52;
cod, 86;
dogfish, 79
Megachiroptera, 49;
general characters, 371
Megalobatrachus, 35, 135;
carpus, 186;
skull, 175
Megalosauridae, 38
Megalosaurus, 38, 208
Megapodius, spur, 330
Megaptera, 44, 357
Megatheriidae, 44, 352;
humerus, 501;
leg bones, 517;
pelvis, 513;
sacrum, 452;
teeth, 424;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Megatherium, 44;
femur, 517;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pes, 522;
skull, 458
Megistanes, 40, 299
Membranous cranium, 17
Menobranchidae, 35
Menobranchus, 35, 135;
carpus, 185;
pes, 188;
skull, 174;
teeth, 169
Menopoma, 35;
see Cryptobranchus
Mento-meckelian, 22;
frog, 161;
reptiles, 284
Merganser, 41;
beak, 329
Mergus, 41
Merrythought, duck, 322
Mesethmoid, 20;
dog, 390;
duck, 317
Mesoplodon, 44;
teeth, 427
Mesopterygium, 79
Mesosauridae, 37
Mesosaurus, 37
Mesosternum, dog, 404
Metacarpal quill, duck, 303
Metacarpo-digital, duck, 303
Metacarpus, 26;
see Manus
Metacromion, hares and rabbits, 497
Meta-pterygium, 79
Metatarsus, 26;
see Pes
Metatheria, 43;
general characters, 349
Metriorhynchus, 39, 278
Microchiroptera, 49;
general characters, 371
Microgale, 49;
caudal vertebrae, 454
Mid-digital quill, duck, 303
Milk-teeth, 344;
dog, 377;
horse, 430
Moa, 40, 299;
aftershaft, 328;
pectoral girdle, 336;
wing, 338
Molar teeth, 344;
dog, 376 f.
Mole, 49, 370;
auditory ossicles, 488;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
humerus, 503;
manus, 512;
presternum, 490;
shoulder girdle, 499;
skull, 481;
teeth, 440;
Golden —, 49;
see Chrysochloris;
Marsupial —, 43;
see Notoryctes
Molge, 35, 135;
see Newt
Monitor, 38;
see Varanus
Monkey, 49, 373;
see under Primates
Monodelphia, 43;
characters of, 351
Monodon, 45, 357;
see Narwhal
Monophyodont, defined, 7, 344
Monopneumona, 34
Monotremata, 42;
arm bones, 499;
auditory ossicles, 486;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
general characters, 346;
manus, 504;
pectoral girdle, 493;
pelvis, 513;
pes, 521;
ribs, 490;
sacral vertebrae, 451;
skull, 455;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 422;
thigh and shin, 517;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Morosaurus, 38, 207;
pes, 294
Mosasaurus, 38, 204
Moschus, 46;
canines, 429
Mouse, 47;
teeth, 437;
see Mus
Mud-fish, 34
Multituberculata, 43, 348
Muntjac, 46;
see Cervulus
Muraenidae, 33
Muridae, 47
Mus, 47;
M. musculus, teeth, 437;
M. sylvaticus, sternum and shoulder girdle, 498
Musk deer, 46;
canines, 429
Mustelidae, 48;
teeth, 439
Mycetes, 49;
hyoid, 485;
mandible, 484;
skull, 482
Myliobatidae, 32;
teeth, 109
Myomorpha, 47
Myrmecobius, teeth, 423
Myrmecophaga, 44;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
skull, 458
Myrmecophagidae, 44, 424;
see Anteaters
Mystacoceti, 44;
general characters, 356;
hind limb, 518;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
skull, 461;
teeth, 426
Myxine, 31, 55;
fins, 115;
notochordal sheath, 9
Myxinoidei, 31, 55
Nails, 3;
Amphibia, 168;
mammals, 417
Nares:
anterior —, crocodile, 252, 257;
dog, 401;
duck, 317;
newt, 143;
turtle, 225, 229;
posterior —, crocodile, 257;
dog, 402;
duck, 318;
frog, 158;
newt, 143;
turtle, 230
Narial cavity, salmon, 89;
— passage, crocodile, 254;
dog, 395;
— septum, dog, 401
Narwhal, 45, 357;
teeth, 427
Nasal, 21;
crocodile, 252;
dog, 394;
duck, 317;
frog, 158;
newt, 143;
turtle, 228;
— capsule, 20;
cod, 97;
crocodile, 252;
dog, 394;
dogfish, 74;
frog, 158;
newt, 143;
turtle, 228;
— cavity, dog, 388;
— fossae, salmon, 89;
— horns, rhinoceros, 3
Navicular, 27;
dog, 414
Neornithes, 40;
general characters, 298
Nesodon, 46, 361;
pes, 525;
teeth, 432
Nesodontidae, 46
Neural arch, 14;
— plate, turtle, 215;
— spine, 14
Neuromere, defined, 112
Newt, 35;
anterior limb, 147;
hyoid apparatus or visceral arches, 144, 181;
pelvic girdle, 149;
ribs, 145;
shoulder girdle, 146;
skull, 140;
sternum, 145;
vertebral column, 138
Notidanidae, 31;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
pectoral fins, 130;
vertebral column, 113;
visceral arches, 63, 119 f.
Notochord, Amphioxus, 52;
Balanoglossus, 50;
dogfish, 72;
Tunicates, 51
Nothosaurus, 37, 193;
supratemporal fossae, 283
Nothosauridae, 37
Notoryctes, 43;
arm bones, 500;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
claws, 418;
dental formula, 423;
manus, 504;
pelvis, 513;
pectoral girdle, 494;
pes, 521;
ribs, 491;
sacrum, 452;
skull, 457;
sternum, 489;
thigh and shin, 517
Notoryctidae, 43, 350
Nuchal plate, turtle, 215;
— shield, crocodile, 238;
turtle, 214
Nyrania, 35;
palatines, 177
Occipital condyle, crocodile, 246;
dog, 386;
duck, 315;
frog, 154;
turtle, 224;
— crest, dog, 386;
— segment, crocodile, 246;
dog, 384;
turtle, 224
Odontaspis, 32;
succession of teeth, 107
Odontoblast, 7
Odontoceti, 44;
general characters, 357;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
skull, 462;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 426
Odontolcae, 40;
general characters, 299
Odontopteryx, 40;
jaws, 334
Ogmorhinus, 48;
mandibular ramus, 439
Olecranon process, dog, 406;
duck, 323;
frog, 164
Olfactory capsule, see nasal capsule;
— cavity, dog, 388;
— chamber, dog, 395;
— fossa, dog, 390
Olm, 35
Omosaurus, exoskeleton, 272
Omosternum, frog, 163
Onychodactylus, 35;
nails, 168
Operculum, cod, 101;
salmon, 95
Ophidia, 38;
general characters, 202;
jaw bones, 280;
scales, 270;
skull, 277 f.;
vertebral column, 275
Ophisaurus, 38;
limbs, 289;
pectoral girdle, 289
Opisthocoelous, defined, 14
Opisthocomus, 41;
skull, 334
Opisthotic, 20;
cod, 96;
crocodile, 250;
salmon, 89 f.;
turtle, 227
Opossum, 43;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
teeth, 423
Optic capsule, 20;
crocodile, 251;
dog, 394;
turtle, 228
Orang, 49;
carpus, 512;
ribs, 493;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Orbit, crocodile, 257;
dogfish, 74;
duck, 317
Orbital ring, cod, 97;
salmon, 93
Orbitosphenoid, 19;
dog, 388;
duck, 317;
newt, 141
Orca, 45;
teeth, 427
Oreodon, 45;
see Cotylops
Ornithodelphia, 42;
general characters, 346
Ornithosauria, 212
Ornithorhynchidae, 43
Ornithorhynchus, 43;
beak, 3, 418;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
manus, 504;
pelvis, 513;
sacral vertebrae, 451;
shoulder girdle, 347;
skull, 455;
spur, 418;
tarsus, 27 n.;
teeth, 4, 346, 422;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Ornithopoda, 39;
general characters, 209
Orthopoda, 39;
general characters, 208;
pubes, 292
Orycteropodidae, 44;
teeth, 425
Orycteropus, 44;
hair, 416;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 513;
skull, 459;
see Aard Vark
Osborn, H.F., on Mesozoic Mammals, 348
Os entoglossum, duck, 320
Osteoblast, 11
Osteoclast, 11
Osteodentine, 108
Osteostraci, 31;
general characters, 54
Ostracion, 33, 69;
plates, 105
Ostracionidae, 33
Ostracodermi, 31;
general characters, 54
Ostrich, 40, 299;
aftershaft, 329;
cervical vertebrae, 331;
claws, 330;
foot, 342;
manus, 338;
pelvic girdle and sacrum, 340;
pubis, 341;
tibio-tarsus, 341;
wing, 339
Otaria, 48;
dentition, 439;
tympanic bulla, 480
Otariidae, 48, 369;
auditory ossicles, 488;
scapula, 498;
skull, 480
Owen's apteryx, pelvic girdle and sacrum, 340
Owen's chameleon, epidermal horns, 271
Owls, 42, 335;
aftershaft, 329;
foot, 342
Owl-parrot, 42;
see Stringops
Ox, 46, 359;
atlas and axis, 445;
three cervical vertebrae, 15;
femur, 518;
manus, 507;
teeth, 345;
two thoracic vertebrae, 449
Paca, 48
Paired fins, 127
Palaeoniscidae, 32
Palaeoniscus, 32;
scales, 67
Palaeospondylidae, 31
Palaeospondylus, 31, 58
Palaeosyops, 46;
teeth, 432
Palaeotheriidae, 46
Palaeotherium, 46;
skull, 471;
teeth, 430
Palamedea, 41;
spur, 330, 338
Palamedeae, 41
Palate, reptiles, 280 f.
Palatine, cod, 98;
crocodile, 254;
dog, 397;
duck, 318;
frog, 160;
salmon, 93;
turtle, 230
Palato-pterygo-quadrate bar, 22;
dogfish, 77;
fish, 120 f.;
salmon, 93
Palm civet, 48
Pangolin, 44;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 513;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
see Manis
Parachordals, 17
Paradoxurus, 48;
tail, 454
Parasphenoid, 21;
cod, 97;
frog, 156;
newt, 141;
reptiles, 278;
salmon, 93
Parasuchia, 39;
general characters, 211
Parethmoid, 21 n.
Pariasauria, 36
Pariasaurus, 36, 192;
pectoral girdle, 289;
pelvis, 292;
supratemporal fossa, 283;
teeth, 273
Parietal, 19;
cod, 96;
crocodile, 247;
dog, 386;
duck, 314;
newt, 141;
salmon, 91;
turtle, 225;
— segment, crocodile, 247;
dog, 386;
turtle, 225
Paroccipital process, dog, 386
Parra, 42;
spur, 330
Parrots, 335;
aftershaft, 328;
beak, 330;
epiphyses of centra, 332;
foot, 342;
powder-down feathers, 329;
skull, 334
Parrot fish, 33;
see Scarus
Passeres, aftershaft, 328
Passeriformes, 42
Patella, dog, 412;
duck, 327
Pavo, 41;
P. cristatus, shoulder girdle and sternum, 337
Peacock, 41;
see Pavo
Peccary, pes, 523
Pecora, 46, 359;
teeth, 429
Pectinated incisors, Galeopithecus, 370, 440;
Procavia, 362
Pectineal process, duck, 326
Pectoral fins, cod, 103;
dogfish, 79;
— girdle, 24;
Amphibia, 184;
birds, 336;
cod, 101;
crocodile, 262;
dog, 404;
dogfish, 79;
duck, 321;
fish, 126;
frog, 162;
mammalia, 493;
newt, 145;
reptiles, 288;
turtle, 231;
— shield, turtle, 215
Pedetes, 47;
manus, 511;
tail, 454
Pelican, 41, 335;
clavicles, 338
Pelicanus, 41;
P. conspicillatus shoulder girdle and sternum, 337
Pelobates, 36;
vertebrae, 172;
P. cultripes teeth, 169
Pelobatidae, 36
Pelvic fins, cod, 103;
dogfish, 82;
fish, 131;
— girdle, 25;
Amphibia, 187;
birds, 339;
crocodile, 266;
dog, 409;
dogfish, 81;
duck, 324;
fish, 127;
frog, 165;
mammals, 512;
newt, 149;
Ratitae, 340;
Reptilia, 291;
turtle, 235
Penguin, 40;
distribution of feathers, 328;
fibula, 341;
foot, 342;
manus, 338;
metatarsus, 342;
pneumaticity of skeleton, 331;
skull, 333;
sternum, 336;
thoracic vertebrae, 332;
wing, 329, 339
Penna, duck, 303
Pentedactylate, defined, 26
Perameles, 43;
atlas, 443;
pectoral girdle, 494
Peramelidae, 43, 350;
auditory ossicles, 486;
pes, 522
Perca, 34
Perch, 34;
pelvic fin, 132;
urostyle, 117
Percidae, 34
Perennibranchiata, 35;
characters, 135
Perichondrium, 10
Perichordal sheath, 16
Periosteal ossification, 10
Periosteum, 10
Periotic, dog, 390;
— capsule, see Auditory capsule
Perissodactyla, 46;
cervical vertebrae, 445;
general characters, 359;
manus, 507;
pes, 523;
ribs, 491;
scapula, 496;
skull, 470;
teeth, 429;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Persistent pulps, 5
Pes, 26;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 413, 414;
duck, 327;
frog, 166;
mammals, 521;
reptiles, 293;
turtle, 236;
of Tapir, Rhinoceros, Hipparion and Horse, 524
Petromyzon, 31, 55 f.;
notochordal sheath, 9
Petromyzontidae, 31, 55
Petrous portion of periotic, dog, 391
Pezophaps, 42;
see Solitaire
Phacochaerus, 45;
teeth, 428
Phaëthon, 41;
metatarsals, 342
Phalacrocorax, 41
Phalangeridae, 43, 350
Phalanges, 26;
see Manus and Pes
Phaneroglossa, 36
Pharyngo-branchial, cod, 101;
dogfish, 78;
salmon, 95
Pharyngognathi, 33
Phascolarctus, 43;
see Koala
Phascolomyidae, 43, 350
Phascolomys, 43, 349;
see Wombat
Phascolotherium, 43, 348
Phenacodontidae, 47
Phenacodus, 47, 362;
caudal vertebrae, 454;
manus, 510;
pes, 525;
scapula, 497;
skull, 472;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 449
Phocaena, 45, 357;
skull, 462;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448;
P. phocaenoides, ossicles, 420
Phocidae, 48, 369;
scapula, 497;
tympanic bulla, 480
Phoronis, 30, 50 f.
Phororhacos, 41;
anterior nares, 333;
ischia, 341
Physeter, 44;
cervical vertebrae, 444;
manus, 505;
skull, 464;
teeth, 426
Physeteridae, 44;
ribs, 491;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Physodon, 44;
teeth, 426
Physodontidae, 44
Physostomi, 33
Phytosauridae, 39
Phytosaurus, 39;
see Belodon
Pici, 42
Picus, 42;
see Woodpecker
Pig, 45, 359;
skull, 465 f., 466;
teeth, 345, 427
Pigeons, 42, 334 f.;
aftershaft, 329;
pneumaticity of skeleton, 331
Pike, 33;
pelvic fin, 132;
teeth, 107, 110
Pinnipedia, 48;
arm bones, 502;
auditory ossicles, 488;
general characters, 369;
manus, 511;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 526;
skull, 480;
teeth, 439;
thigh and shin, 520;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Pipa, 36;
hyoid apparatus, 182;
jaws, 169;
skull, 180;
sternum, 184;
vertebrae, 172
Pipidae, 36
Pisces, 31;
general characters, 60
Piscivorous dentition, 426, 440
Pisiform, 345, 504;
crocodile, 265;
dog, 408;
turtle, 233
Pituitary fossa, crocodile, 247;
— space, 17
Placodontia, 36
Placodus, 36, 192;
teeth, 273
Placoid scale, 4, 60, 104
Plantigrade, defined, 358 n.
Plastron, Dermochelys, 272;
Chelone midas, 217, 218, 271
Platanistidae, 45
Platanista, 45;
cervical vertebrae, 444;
skull, 464
Plectognathi, 33;
vertebrae, 115
Plectropterus, 41;
P. gambensis, spur, 330
Plesiosauridae, 37;
limbs, 193;
parasphenoid, 192;
skull, 278
Plesiosaurus, 37, 193;
position of limbs, 28
Pleuracanthidae, 63;
fins, 115
Pleurodira, 37;
general characters, 195
Pleurodont, 159, 199, 273
Pleuronectidae, 33
Pleuropterygii, 31, 63
Pliosaurus, 37, 193
Plovers, 42, 334;
thoracic vertebrae, 332
Pneumaticity of bird's skeleton, 331
Polacanthus, 39;
exoskeleton, 272
Pollex, 26;
see Manus
Polyodon, 32, 104;
distribution, 66;
pectoral fins, 131;
skull, 122;
spinal column, 112;
teeth, 110
Polyodontidae, 32
Polyonax, 39, 209;
beak, 271;
frontals, 277;
jaw, 274;
predentary, 284
Polyprotodont, 423
Polyprotodontia, 43;
general characters, 350
Polypteridae, 33
Polypterus, 33, 68;
distribution, 66;
exoskeleton, 67;
pectoral fins, 131;
pelvic fins, 132;
pelvis, 127;
scales, 104;
skull, 122;
tail, 116
Pontoporia, 45;
cervical vertebrae, 444;
teeth, 426
Porcupine, 47;
pes, 526;
skull, 476, 477;
spines, 417
Porpoise, 45, 357;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Postaxial, 28
Posterior cornu, duck, 320;
turtle, 231;
— limb, 26;
Amphibia, 188;
birds, 341;
dog, 412;
duck, 326;
frog, 166;
newt, 149, 148;
reptiles, 293;
turtle, 235, 234
Postfrontal, 21;
crocodile, 250;
turtle, 225
Postorbital bar, crocodile, 250, 255 f.;
Hatteria, 283;
— groove, dogfish, 76
Post-temporal, cod, 102;
reptiles, 283;
— bar, crocodile, 256;
Hatteria, 283
Potamogale, 49, 367, 370;
shoulder girdle, 499;
teeth, 440
Potamogalidae, 49
Powder-down feathers, 329
Pre-axial, 28
Precoracoid, 25;
frog, 163;
newt, 147;
reptiles, 288;
turtle, 232
Predentary, reptiles, 284
Predigital quill, duck, 303
Prefrontal, 21;
crocodile, 249;
reptiles, 278;
turtle, 225
Prefronto-lachrymal, newt, 141
Prehallux, frog, 167 f.
Premaxilla, 22;
cod, 98;
crocodile, 252;
dog, 398;
duck, 314, 318;
frog, 158;
newt, 143;
salmon, 94;
turtle, 230
Premolar, dog, 370, 377;
mammals, 344
Prenasal process, frog, 158
Pre-orbital vacuity, reptiles, 283
Presphenoid, 19;
dog, 388
Prespiracular ligament, dogfish, 77
Presternum, dog, 404
Primaries, duck, 303
Primates, 49;
arm bones, 503;
auditory ossicles, 488;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
general characters, 372;
manus, 512;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 527;
ribs, 493;
sacrum, 452;
shoulder girdle, 499;
skull, 482 f.;
sternum, 490;
tail, 454;
teeth, 441;
thigh and shin, 520;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Priodon, 44;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
manus, 505;
stapes, 487;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 424
Pristidae, 32
Pristis, 32;
snout or rostrum, 109, 119
Proboscidea, 47;
arm bones, 502;
cervical vertebrae, 445;
general characters, 364;
femur, 519;
manus, 511;
pelvis, 514;
pes, 526;
scapula, 497;
skull, 473;
teeth, 433;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 449
Procavia, 47, 363;
auditory ossicles, 487;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
dental formula, 432;
humerus, 502;
manus, 510;
pelvis, 514;
pes, 525;
ribs, 491;
scapula, 497;
skull, 433, 472;
tarsus, 27;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 449
Process, alinasal —, frog, 158;
basi-pterygoid —, birds, 334;
coracoid —, dog, 405;
coronoid — (of mandible), dog, 398;
duck, 319;
coronoid — (of ulna), dog, 408;
pectineal —, duck, 326;
postfrontal —, duck, 316;
postglenoid —, dog, 394;
postorbital — (of frontal), dog, 388;
postorbital — (of jugal), dog, 398;
posterior articular —, duck, 319;
zygomatic —, dog, 394
Processus brevis, 486;
— gracilis, 486;
— longus, 486;
dog, 393
Procoelous, defined, 14
Prodelphinus, 45;
skull, 462
Proganosauria, 37
Prone position, 29
Prongbuck, 46;
horns, 417
Pro-otic, 20;
frog, 157;
turtle, 227
Pro-pterygium, dogfish, 79
Proteidae, 35
Proteles, 48;
teeth, 437
Protelidae, 48
Proterosauridae, 37
Proterosaurus, 37;
teeth, 198, 274;
vertebrae, 197
Proteus, 35, 135, 182;
branchial arches, 180;
digits, 187;
pes, 188;
skull, 174
Protopterus, 34, 70, 117;
branchial arches, 121, 124;
fins, 130;
skull, 124;
vestigial gill on pectoral girdle, 129
Prototheria, 42;
general characters, 346
Proximal, defined, 23 n.
Psephurus, distribution, 66
Pseudopus, 38;
limbs, 289
Psittaci, 42;
see Parrots
Pteranodon, 39, 274;
pectoral girdle, 289
Pteranodontidae, 39
Pteraspis, 31, 54
Pterichthys, 31, 55
Pterocles, 42;
see Sandgrouse
Pteroclidae, 42
Pterodactylidae, 39
Pterodactylus, 39, 213
Pteropidae, 49;
skull, 481
Pteropus, 49;
dental formula, 441;
tail, 454
Pterosauria, 39;
general characters, 212;
ischia, 292;
limbs, 291;
pre-orbital vacuity, 284;
ribs, 285;
sternum, 287;
vertebrae, 275 f.
Pterotic, 20;
cod, 96;
salmon, 90 f.
Pterygoid, cod, 98;
crocodile, 255;
dog, 397;
duck, 318;
frog, 160;
newt, 144;
salmon, 93;
turtle, 230;
— fossa, crocodile, 255;
— plate, dog, 388
Pterylae, 328
Pubis, 25;
crocodile, 266 f.;
duck, 325;
dog, 411;
frog, 165;
newt, 149;
reptiles, 292;
turtle, 235
Pygal plate, turtle, 217;
— shield, turtle, 214
Pygopodidae, 37
Pygostyle, duck, 307, 312
Python, 38;
ischio-pubis, 292;
jaws, 280;
vestiges of limbs, 289, 293
Pythonomorpha, 38;
general characters, 204;
limbs, 290;
teeth, 273
Quadrate, 22;
cod, 98;
crocodile, 255;
duck, 319;
frog, 160;
newt, 144;
salmon, 93;
turtle, 229
Quadratojugal, 22;
crocodile, 255;
duck, 318;
frog, 160;
turtle, 229
Quill, duck, 302
Rabbit, 48, 366;
pollex, 511
Raccoon, 369
Rachis, duck, 302
Rachitomous, defined, 171
Radiale, 27;
see Carpus
Radialia, 115;
dogfish, 79 f.
Radio-ulna, frog, 164
Radius, 26;
crocodile, 265;
dog, 406;
duck, 323;
newt, 147;
turtle, 233
Raia, 32;
calcification of vertebrae, 114
Raiidae, 32
Rana, 36;
see Frog
Ranidae, 36;
shoulder girdle, 185
Rat, pes, 526
Ratitae, 40;
caudal vertebrae, 333;
clavicles, 338;
foot, 342;
general characters, 298;
skull, 333;
sternum, 336;
vomers, 334;
wing, 338
Rattlesnake, 38;
rattle, 3, 270
Ray, pectoral fin, 130;
Eagle —, Electric — and Sting —, 32
Rectrices, 303, 329
Reed-fish, 33
Reindeer, antlers, 469
Remicle, duck, 304
Remiges, 303, 329
Reptiles, anterior limb, 290;
exoskeleton, 270;
fossae in skull, 281;
pectoral girdle, 288;
pelvic girdle, 291;
posterior limb, 293;
ribs, 285;
skull, 276;
sternum, 287;
teeth, 272;
vertebral column, 275
Reptilia, 36;
general characters, 190;
see Reptiles
Rhabdopleura, 30, 50
Rhamphastos, 42;
see Toucan
Rhamphorhynchidae, 39
Rhamphorhynchus, 39, 213, 274
Rhea, 40;
aftershaft, 329;
claws, 330;
ischia, 341;
manus, 338;
R. macrorhyncha, pelvic girdle and sacrum, 340
Rheornithes, 40
Rhina, 32;
see Squatina
Rhinal process, frog, 158
Rhinoceros, 46, 360, 419;
femur, 518;
fibula, 519;
malleus, 487;
manus, 508;
nasal horns, 3, 417;
pes, 525;
skull, 421, 470;
teeth, 430;
ulna, 501;
R. antiquitatis, 470
Rhinocerotidae, 46
Rhinolophidae, 49
Rhiptoglossa, 38
Rhizodontidae, 33
Rhizodus, 33;
teeth, 110
Rhynchocephalia, 37;
general characters, 197;
humerus, 290;
teeth, 273 f.;
vertebrae, 275
Rhynchosauridae, 37;
maxillae, 198
Rhytina, 44, 352, 425;
humerus, 501;
skull, 460
Rhytinidae, 44
Ribs, 23;
Amphibia, 182;
birds, 336;
cod, 86;
crocodile, 259;
dog, 402;
dogfish, 73;
duck, 320;
fish, 125;
frog, 153;
mammalia, 490;
newt, 145;
reptiles, 285
Ridge, supra-orbital and suborbital, dogfish, 74
Rodentia, 47;
auditory ossicles, 488;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
dental formula, 435;
general characters, 365;
pelvis, 515;
pes, 526;
humerus, 502;
manus, 511;
ribs, 493;
sacrum, 452;
shoulder girdle, 497;
skull, 476;
sternum, 489;
tail, 454;
teeth, 421;
thigh and shin, 520;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 449
Roller, 42, 335
Rooted teeth, defined, 5
Rorqual, 44, 357;
cervical vertebrae, 444
Rostrum, crocodile, 247;
dogfish, 74;
duck, 316;
Pristis, 119;
— of sternum, duck, 321
Röse, C., on teeth of Marsupials, 422
Ruminantia, 46, 359;
auditory ossicles, 487;
fibula, 519;
horny plates on palate, 418;
hyoid, 470;
manus, 507;
odontoid process, 445;
pes, 523;
scapula, 495;
teeth, 420, 429
Sabre-toothed lion, 48;
see Machaerodus
Sacral ribs, crocodile, 243;
— surface of ilium, dog, 409;
— vertebrae, 16;
crocodile, 243;
dog, 383;
duck, 312;
frog, 153;
newt, 140;
turtle, 222
Sacrum, duck, 310;
see Sacral vertebrae
Sagittal crest, dog, 386
Saiga, skull, 468
Salamander, 35
Salamandra, 35, 135;
antibrachium and manus of larva, 186;
manus of larva, 185;
tarsus, 27
Salamandrina, 35, 135;
skull, 175;
sternum, 182
Salmo, 33
Salmon, 33;
branchial arches, 95;
chondrocranium, 87;
opercular bones, 95;
pectoral fins, 131;
skull, 87
Salmonidae, 33
Sandgrouse, 42, 335
Sarcophilus, 43;
teeth, 423
Sauropoda, 38;
general characters, 205;
teeth, 273;
vertebrae, 276
Sauropsida, 36;
general characters, 189
Sauropterygia, 37;
general characters, 192;
limbs, 290;
palate, 281;
pectoral girdle, 288;
vertebrae, 276
Saw-fish, 32;
see Pristis
Scales, cod, 83;
crocodile, 237;
ctenoid, 8;
cycloid, 8;
duck, 302;
ganoid, 8;
Gymnophiona, 168;
mammals, 417
Scale-foot, 37
Scalpriform, 366
Scaphirhynchus, 32, 104;
distribution, 66;
exoskeleton, 67;
spinal column, 112
Scaphoid, 27;
mammals, 504 f.
Scapho-lunar, dog, 408
Scapula, 25;
cod, 103;
crocodile, 263;
dog, 404;
duck, 322;
frog, 162;
newt, 146;
turtle, 232
Scapular shield, armadillo, 419
Scapus, duck, 302
Scarus, 33;
beaks, 111
Scelidosauridae, 39
Schizognathous, defined, 335
Scincidae, 38
Scincus, 38;
scutes, 271
Sciuromorpha, 47
Sclerotic, turtle, 228
Screamer, 41;
spurs, 330
Scutes, armadillos, 419;
crocodile, 237;
reptiles, 271
Scylliidae, 32
Scyllium, 32;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
pectoral fins, 130;
suspensorium, 119;
see Dogfish
Scymnus, 32, 118;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
mandibular arch, 120;
pectoral fins, 130
Scythrops, 42;
interorbital septum, 333
Sea leopard, 48;
see Ogmorhinus;
— lion, 48;
manus, 511;
pes, 526;
position of limbs, 29;
— otter, 48;
pes, 526
Seal, 369;
manus, 511;
pes, 526;
sacral vertebrae, 452;
scapula, 497
Secondaries, duck, 303 f.
Secretary-bird, 41;
claws, 330
Selachii, 31;
general characters, 63;
teeth, 108
Selenodont, defined, 345, 428
Sella turcica, crocodile, 247;
dog, 386
Semionotidae, 33
Semiplumae, 328
Sense capsules, see Auditory, Nasal and Optic capsule
Seps, 38;
limbs, 289
Shagreen, 61
Shaft of feather, 302
Shark, 64;
Frill-gilled —, 31;
see Chlamydoselache;
Port Jackson —, 32;
see Cestracion
Sheep, 359;
manus, 507;
teeth, 345
Shields of turtle, 214
Shin, 26;
see Crus
Shoulder girdle, see Pectoral girdle
Shrew, 49, 370;
auditory ossicles, 488;
cervical vertebrae, 446;
presternum, 490;
skull, 481; teeth, 440
Sigmoid notch, dog, 406
Siluridae, 33;
plates, 105
Simia, 49;
ribs, 493;
skull, 484;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Simiidae, 49, 373
Simplicidentata, 47, 366
Siphonops, 35;
S. annulatus, skull, 178
Siredon, 35;
skull, 175;
teeth, 169;
visceral arches, 181
Siren, 35, 135, 188;
beaks, 168;
branchial arches, 180;
digits, 187;
skull, 174;
teeth, 169
Sirenia, 44, 522;
arm bones, 501;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
cervical vertebrae, 443;
general characters, 352;
hair, 416;
horny plates, 418;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 514;
ribs, 491;
skull, 459;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 425;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Sirenidae, 35
Sirenoidei, 34;
general characters, 70
Sivatherium, 46;
skull, 469
Skate, 32
Skeletogenous layer, 14, 16;
Amphioxus, 52, 112
Skeleton, defined, 1;
Cape Buffalo, 492;
Ceratodus, 128;
cod, 83 f.;
crocodile, 237 f.;
dog, 374 f.;
duck, 302 f.;
frog, 151 f.;
llama, 496;
newt, 138 f.;
turtle, 214 f.
Skink, 38;
see Tiliqua
Skull, 16 f.;
Amphibia, 173 f.;
Anura, 179 f.;
birds, 333 f.;
cod, 96 f.;
crocodile, 243 f.;
diagram of Mammalian, 385;
Dipnoi, 124;
dog, 383 f.;
dogfish, 73 f.;
donkey, 431;
duck, 312 f.;
fish, 117;
frog, 154 f., 159;
Globicephalus, 463;
Gymnophiona, 177;
Indian elephant, 474;
Mammalia, 455;
Marsipobranchii, 57;
pig, 466;
Procavia, 433;
reptiles, 276 f.;
Rhinoceros, 421;
Rhytina, 460;
sloth, 458;
Tasmanian wolf, 456;
Teleostei, 124;
turtle, 222 f.;
wombat, 456
Sloth, 43, 352;
auditory ossicles, 487;
arm bones, 500;
claws, 418;
leg bones, 517;
manus, 505;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pelvis, 513;
pes, 522;
ribs, 491;
sacrum, 452;
skull, 457;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 424;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 447
Snake, 38;
see Ophidia
Sole, 33
Solea, 33
Solenodon, 49;
teeth, 440
Solenodontidae, 49
Solitaire, 42, 330;
wing, 338;
wrist, 330
Sorex, 49;
pelvis, 515;
see Shrew
Soricidae, 49;
skull, 481
Spalacidae, 47
Spatularia, 32;
distribution, 66
Spelerpes, 35;
branchial arches, 180;
ribs, 182;
S. belli teeth, 169
Sperm whale, 44, 357;
see Physeter
Sphargis, 37;
see Dermochelys
Sphenethmoid, frog, 156
Sphenisci, 40;
see Penguins
Sphenisciformes, 40
Sphenodon, 37, 197 f.;
carpus, 291;
cervical vertebrae, 275;
fossae in skull, 281;
humerus, 290;
interparietal foramen, 277;
ribs, 286;
skull, 282;
tarsus, 293;
teeth, 274
Sphenodontidae, 37
Sphenoidal fissure, dog, 388
Sphenotic, 20;
cod, 97;
salmon, 89
Spider monkey, 49;
see Ateles
Spinacidae, 32
Spinal column, 13;
Dipnoi, 113;
fish, 112;
Holocephali, 113;
Marsipobranchii, 56
Spines, Elasmobranchs, 61;
mammals, 417
Spiny ant-eater, 43;
see Echidna;
— mouse, 47;
see Acanthomys
Splenial, 22;
crocodile, 258;
duck, 320;
turtle, 231
Spurs, birds, 330;
Monotremata, 418
Spur-winged goose, 330;
— plover, 330
Squalidae, 31, 64
Squalodon, 45, 357;
dental formula, 427
Squalodontidae, 45
Squamata, 37;
general characters, 198;
position of teeth, 272;
skull, 278
Squamosal, 21;
crocodile, 256;
dog, 394;
duck, 316;
frog, 160;
newt, 144;
turtle, 229
Squatina, 32;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
labial cartilages, 119;
tail, 63;
vertebral column, 114
Squatinidae, 32
Squirrels, frontals, 476;
pes, 526
Stapes, dog, 393;
frog, 157;
man, dog, rabbit, 485;
newt, 141
Steganopodes, 41
Stegosauria, 39;
general characters, 209
Stegosauridae, 39
Stegosaurus, 39, 208 f.;
exoskeleton, 272
Steller's sea-cow, 44;
see Rhytina
Stereornithes, 41
Stereospondyli, 35
Sternal ribs, crocodile, 259;
dog, 402;
duck, 320;
mammals, 490 f.
Sternebra, dog, 404
Sternum, 24;
Amphibia, 182;
birds, 336;
crocodile, 260, 261;
dog, 403;
duck, 321;
frog, 163;
Mammalia, 489;
newt, 145;
reptiles, 287
Stork, 335;
White —, 41
Striges, 42;
see Owls
Stringops, 42;
sternum, 336
Struthio, 40, 299;
see Ostrich
Struthiornithes, 40, 299
Sturgeon, 32;
see Acipenser
Stylo-hyal, dog, 399
Suborbital bar, duck, 318;
— ridge, dogfish, 76
Subplantigrade, defined, 358 n.
Subungulata, 46;
arm bones, 502;
general characters, 360;
manus, 509;
pelvis, 514;
pes, 525;
shoulder girdle, 497;
skull, 471;
teeth, 432;
thigh and shin, 519
Suidae, 45
Suina, 45, 358 f.;
fibula, 519;
manus, 507;
odontoid process, 445;
pelvis, 514;
pes, 523;
ulna, 501
Sula, 41;
see Gannet
Supinator ridge, dog, 406
Supine position, defined, 29
Supra-angular, 22;
crocodile, 258;
duck, 319;
turtle, 230 f.
Supracaudal shield, turtle, 214
Supraclavicle, cod, 102
Supra-occipital, 19;
crocodile, 247;
dog, 386;
duck, 315;
turtle, 224
Supra-orbital, 20;
crocodile, 251
Suprapharyngeal bone, cod, 101
Suprascapula, crocodile, 263;
frog, 162
Supratemporal arcade, crocodile, 256;
reptiles, 281
Surinam toad, 36;
see Pipa
Sus, 45;
dental formula, 428;
see Pig
Suspensorium, Amphibia, 173;
dogfish, 78;
duck, 319;
frog, 160;
newt, 144;
Pisces, 61
Sutures, 12
Swan, 41;
cervical and thoracic vertebrae, 332
Swift, 42, 335;
foot, 342
Symplectic, cod, 100;
salmon, 94
Tails, fish, 60
Talpa, 49;
pelvis, 515;
see Mole
Talpidae, 49
Tapir, 46, 360;
malleus, 487;
pes, 524, 525;
teeth, 345;
see Tapirus
Tapiridae, 46;
dental formula, 429
Tapirus, 46;
fibula, 519;
manus, 508;
skull, 471;
see Tapir
Tarsier, 49
Tarsiidae, 49
Tarsipes, 43, 349;
mandible, 457
Tarsius, 49, 372;
pes, 527
Tarso-metatarsus, duck, 327
Tarsus, 26 f.;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 414;
frog, 166;
newt, 150;
turtle, 236
Tasmanian devil, 43;
see Sarcophilus;
— wolf, 43;
see Thylacinus
Tatusia, 44;
stapes, 487;
teeth, 424
Tectospondyli, 114
Tectrices, duck, 306
Teeth, 6;
Amphibia, 169;
birds, 330;
cod, 83;
crocodile, 238;
development, 7;
dog, 374 f.;
fish, 106 f.;
frog, 158 f.;
horses, 5;
mammals, 344, 420 f.;
pharyngeal, 8;
reptiles, 272 f.;
structure, 4;
succession, 7
Teleosauridae, 39
Teleosaurus, 39;
palate, 281;
scutes, 271;
vertebrae, 275
Teleostei, 33;
general characters, 69;
ribs, 126;
skull, 124;
tail, 117;
teeth, 110;
vertebral column, 115
Temnospondyli, 35
Tenrec, 49;
see Centetes
Tentorium, dog, 392
Terrapin, 37
Testudo, 37, 194
Tetraceros, 46;
horns, 417
Thalassochelys, carapace, 216
Thecodont, defined, 273
Theriodontia, 36
Theromorpha, 36;
general characters, 191;
humerus, 290;
pectoral girdle, 288;
ribs, 285;
skull, 278;
teeth, 273;
vertebral column, 275 f.
Theropoda, 38;
general characters, 207;
teeth, 273
Thoracic ribs, crocodile, 259;
see Ribs;
— vertebrae, 16;
crocodile, 241, 242;
dog, 381, 382;
duck, 310;
turtle, 221
Thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, mammals, 447 f.
Thornback skate, 104
Thylacinus, 43;
atlas, 443;
dental formula, 423;
pelvis, 513;
pes, 521;
skull, 456
Thylacoleo, 43;
skull, 457
Thyro-hyal, dog, 399
Tibia, 26;
crocodile, 268;
dog, 412;
newt, 149;
turtle, 235
Tibiale, 27;
see Tarsus
Tibio-fibula, frog, 166
Tibio-tarsus, duck, 326
Tichorhine Rhinoceros, 470
Tiger, 48
Tiliqua, 38;
scutes, 200, 271
Tillodontia, 47, 365;
femur, 520;
manus, 511;
teeth, 435
Tinamidae, 300;
caudal vertebrae, 333;
vomers, 334
Tinamiformes, 41
Tinamus, 41;
ischia, 341
Titanotheriidae, 46;
skull, 470;
teeth, 432
Titanotherium, 46;
humerus, 501;
manus, 508;
pes, 525
Toad, 36;
shoulder girdle, 185
Tope, 32
Torpedinidae, 32
Torpedo, 32, 104
Tortoise, 37;
position of limbs, 28
Tortrix, ischio-pubis, 292;
traces of posterior limb, 293
Toucan, 42;
foot, 342
Toxodon, 46, 361;
femur, 519;
pes, 525;
teeth, 432
Toxodontia, 46;
general characters, 361;
manus, 509;
skull, 472;
teeth, 432
Toxodontidae, 46
Trabeculae, 11;
— cranii, 17
Tragulidae, 45
Tragulina, 45, 359;
fibula, 519;
manus, 507;
odontoid process, 445;
pes, 523;
skull, 468;
teeth, 429;
ulna, 501
Transpalatine, crocodile, 255;
reptiles, 278
Trapezium, 27;
dog, 408
Trapezoid, 27;
dog, 408
Trichechidae, 48, 369
Trichechus, 48;
see Walrus
Trionychia, 37;
general characters, 194
Trionychidae, 37
Trionyx, 37, 193 f.;
exoskeleton, 214, 270;
skull, 283;
vestiges of teeth, 274
Trissolepis, 32;
scales, 104
Tritylodon, 43;
teeth, 348
Trochanter, dog, 412;
duck, 326
Trochilidae, 42;
see Humming-birds
Trochlea, crocodile, 263;
dog, 405 f.;
duck, 323;
turtle, 232
Trogon, 42;
foot, 342
Trogonidae, 42
Tropidonotus, 38;
jaws, 280;
skull, 279
Trunk vertebrae, cod, 84;
see thoracic and lumbar vertebrae
Trygon, 32;
calcification of vertebrae, 114;
caudal spine, 106
Trygonidae, 32
Tuberosities of humerus, dog, 405;
of ischium, dog, 411
Tunicata, 30, 51
Tupaia, skull, 480;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 450
Turbinals, dog, 395
Tursiops, 45;
skull, 462
Turtle, 37;
anterior limb, 232, 234;
cranium, 222 f., 226;
hyoid, 231, 285;
mandible, 230;
pectoral girdle, 231;
pelvic girdle, 235;
pes, 236;
plastron, 217, 218;
posterior limb, 234, 235;
sense capsules, 227;
skull, 222;
vertebral column, 219;
Leathery —, see Dermochelys;
Snapping —, see Trionyx
Tylopoda, 45, 359;
fibula, 519;
manus, 507;
odontoid process, 445;
pelvis, 514;
pes, 523;
skull, 468;
teeth, 428;
ulna, 502
Tympanic, dog, 392;
— cavity, crocodile, 250;
diagram of mammalian, 391;
dog, 393;
duck, 315 f.;
turtle, 228;
— recess, duck, 315
Tympano-hyal, dog, 399
Typhlopidae, 38;
scales, 270;
skull, 278
Typhlops, 38;
ischio-pubis, 292;
traces of posterior limb, 293
Typotheriidae, 46
Typotherium, 46, 358, 361;
clavicle, 495, 497;
femur, 519;
pes, 525;
skull, 472;
teeth, 432
Udenodon, 36, 192;
beak, 271
Uintatheriidae, 47;
skull, 364
Uintatherium, 47;
dental formula, 433;
leg, 519;
limbs and limb girdles, 516;
manus, 510;
pelvis, 514;
skull, 473
Ulna, 26;
crocodile, 265;
dog, 406;
duck, 323;
frog, 164;
newt, 147;
turtle, 233
Ulnare, 27;
see Carpus
Umbilicus, inferior and superior, duck, 303
Uncinate process, 190;
crocodile, 259;
duck, 320
Unciform, 27, 345, 504;
dog, 408
Ungulata, 45;
auditory ossicles, 487;
caudal vertebrae, 453;
cervical vertebrae, 445;
general characters, 357;
manus, 506;
pectoral girdle, 495;
pes, 522;
ribs, 491;
sacrum, 452;
skull, 464 f.;
sternum, 489;
teeth, 427 f.;
thoraco-lumbar vertebrae, 448
Ungulata vera, 45;
arm bones, 501;
general characters, 358;
manus, 506;
pelvis, 514;
thigh and shin, 519
Upper arm, 26;
crocodile, 263;
dog, 405;
duck, 323;
frog, 164;
newt, 147;
turtle, 232
Upupa, 42;
see Hoopoe
Urochordata, 30, 51
Urodela, 35;
general characters, 134;
pelvis, 187;
ribs, 182;
skull, 174
Urohyal, cod, 101;
duck, 320
Urostyle, Anura, 172;
cod, 85;
frog, 153;
Teleostei, 117
Ursidae, 48;
humerus, 502
Ursus, 48;
dental formula, 439;
see Bears
Vacuities, anterior palatine —, crocodile, 252, 258;
— in reptilian skull, 281;
posterior palatine —, crocodile, 254, 257;
pre-orbital —, reptiles, 283 f.
Vampire, 49;
teeth, 441
Vane, of feather, 303
Varanidae, 38
Varanus, 38;
shoulder girdle, 202;
skull, 201
Vasodentine, 108, 272
Vertebral column, 14;
Amphibia, 170;
birds, 332;
cod, 83;
crocodile, 239;
dog, 378;
duck, 307;
Elasmobranchs, 113;
frog, 152;
mammals, 442;
newt, 138;
turtle, 219;
— ribs, crocodile, 259;
dog, 402;
duck, 320;
— shield, turtle, 214
Vertebrata, general characters, 53
Vexillum, of feather, 303
Vibrissae, dog, 374
Viscacha, 47
Visceral skeleton, 21;
dogfish, 77;
Elasmobranchs, 119 f.
Viverra, 48;
acetabular bone, 515
Viverridae, 48
Vomer, 21;
cod, 98;
crocodile, 252;
dog, 395;
duck, 317;
frog, 158;
salmon, 93;
turtle, 229
Vomero-palatine, newt, 143
Vultur, 41
Vulture, 41;
Black —, shoulder girdle and sternum, 337
Waders, 335
Walrus, 48, 367, 369;
canines, 420;
manus, 511;
pes, 526;
position of limbs, 29;
skull, 480;
teeth, 440
Warblers, 42
Wart hog, 45;
teeth, 428
Weasel, 369
Whale, baleen, 3, 418;
Ca'ing —, 45,
see Globicephalus;
Humpbacked —, 44, 357;
Right —, 44, 357;
Sperm —, 44, 357,
see Physeter;
True or Whalebone —, 356
Whiting, 33
Wild duck, 41;
see Duck
Wing, duck, 322;
Gannet, Ostrich, and Penguin, 339
Wolf, 48
Wombat, 43;
atlas, 443;
pes, 521;
sacrum, 451;
skull, 456;
tail, 453;
teeth, 423
Woodpecker, 42, 335;
foot, 342;
hyoid, 336
Wrasse, 33;
teeth, 111
Xenacanthus, 31;
pectoral fins, 130
Xenopidae, 36
Xenopus, 36;
branchial arches, 182;
nails, 168;
pelvis, 188;
ribs, 182
Xiphiplastron, turtle, 217
Xiphisternal horn, crocodile, 260
Xiphisternum, dog, 404;
frog, 163
Xiphoid process, duck, 321
Zeuglodon, 44, 353, 356;
dental formula, 426;
dermal plates, 420
Zeuglodontidae, 44
Zygantra, defined, 199 n.;
reptiles, 276
Zygapophyses, cod, 84;
crocodile, 240 f.;
dog, 379 f.;
duck, 308 f.;
frog, 152 f.;
newt, 139;
turtle, 219 f.
Zygosphene, defined, 199 n.;
reptiles, 276

The Vertebrate Skeleton

About This Book

LIST OF AUTHORS REFERRED TO.

INDEX.