(From Cullen's "Darien Canal.")
In enumerating the advantages likely to accrue from the emancipation of South America, a writer in the Edinburgh Review of January, 1809, laid great stress upon a passage across the isthmus. It was the most important to the peaceful intercourse of nations of anything that presented itself to the enterprise of man. So far from being a romantic and chimerical project, it was not only practicable, but easy. The river Chagré, about eighteen leagues westward of Porto Bello, was navigable as far as Cruzes, within five leagues of Panama. But there was even a better route; at about five leagues from its mouth the Chagré received the river Trinidad, which was navigable to Embarcadero, from which Panama was only distant thirty miles through a level country. The ground had been surveyed, and not the practicability only, but the facility of the work completely ascertained. Further north was the grand lake of Nicaragua, which by itself almost extended the navigation from sea to sea. The Governor of St. John's Castle (Fort San Juan) had been instructed by the king of Spain to refuse permission to any British subject desirous of passing up or down this lake, "for if ever the English came to a knowledge of its importance and value they would soon make themselves masters of this part of the country."
But not only had the best places for a canal been selected at this early time, but the many advantages to be derived from its construction had been well considered. The same writer went on to say that from this splendid and not difficult enterprise, not merely the commerce of the western shores of America would be brought, as it were, to their doors, but that of the South Sea whalers, who would be saved the tedious and dangerous voyage round Cape Horn. Then the whole of the vast interests of Asia would increase in value to a degree that was then difficult to conceive, by having a direct route across the Pacific. It would be as if, by some great revolution of the globe, they were brought nearer. Immense would be the traffic which immediately would begin to cover the ocean—all the riches of India and China moving towards America. Then also the commodities of Europe and America would be carried towards Asia. As a result of this, vast depôts would be formed at the two extremities of the canal, to soon develop into great commercial cities. Never before had such an opportunity been offered to a nation as Great Britain had then before her, owing to a wonderful combination of circumstances.
Mr. Robinson, a United States merchant, in 1821, said that the most ardent imagination would fail in an attempt to portray all the important and beneficial consequences of such a work, the magnitude and grandeur of which were worthy the profound attention of every commercial nation. The powers of the old and new world should discard all selfish considerations, and unite to execute it on a magnificent scale, so that when completed it might become, like the ocean, a highway of nations, the enjoyment of which should be guaranteed by all, and be exempt from the caprice or regulation of any one kingdom or state.
Such were the views promulgated at the beginning of this century, but nothing was done until about 1850, when the pressure of circumstances again brought the isthmus into note.
Darien and Panama are in the Republic of New Granada, but north of these come the small states of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, and Guatemala. All of these are inhabited by true Americans—native races who have to a considerable extent absorbed the slight admixture of European blood introduced by their conquerors. Some places are so inaccessible as to be virtually outside the pale of civilisation. The roads are nothing but mule tracks, full of quagmires where the animals have to wade up to their girths in mud—in fact, little better than the paths so well described by Lionel Wafer. The rivers are numerous, and, on account of the heavy rainfall, their currents are very strong, and all the more dangerous from the numerous sandbanks and rapids which obstruct their course. Since the states gained their independence they have passed through so many changes of government that at the beginning hardly a month passed without a revolution in one or the other. This went on until 1848 without interference from outside, but with the discovery of gold in California came an invasion of ruffians of all nations.
The old freebooters almost seemed to have come to life again. Hardy adventurers from all parts of the world rushed off to the new "El Dorado," woke the sleepy Nicaraguans on the San Juan river, and roused the people of Chagres. Over the isthmus of Panama or through the Nicaragua lake they flocked by thousands, necessitating the establishment of Transit Companies to provide them with mules, boats, and steamers. The easiest, although longest, route was through Nicaragua, which was controlled by the Vanderbilt Company, and during the time the "rush" lasted they took over two or three thousand per month. The Company had steamers on the lake to meet the throng of diggers as they arrived, and they passed through at regular intervals like a tide. The overland part of the route presented a strange spectacle, with their pack mules and horses. Men of all nationalities, armed with pistols and knives, which they were prepared to use on the Greasers (natives) at the slightest provocation, put these altogether in the background. A traveller has spoken of them as a string of romantic figures that could not be matched in any other part of the world. Some glowed with fervent passion, as if on fire, others were hard, cold, and rugged as the rocky passes they traversed, while a few were worn, old, and decaying, under the effects of the hardships and reverses of their stormy existence. Every line in their faces had a meaning, if it could only have been interpreted, telling of sin and suffering—of adventures more terrible than were ever portrayed by the pen of the romantic writer, and of experiences as fascinating as they had been dangerous.
Among the results of this rush through Nicaragua was the expedition of William Walker, the great filibuster of this century. With fifty-five men he went forth from California to conquer Central America, and in the end nearly succeeded. He got himself elected President of Nicaragua, but ultimately raised such a storm that he was brought to bay by some forces from Honduras and Costa Rica, and had to surrender to the captain of a British man-of-war, by whom he was handed over to his enemies to be shot.
With this wonderful traffic across the isthmus arose the old canal schemes, as well as a new one for a railway. Easy and rapid transit must be obtained in some way or other, and this time being in the age of steam, it naturally followed that the project for a railway gained immediate support. It was commenced in 1850, at which time the terminus on the Gulf side was settled, and the foundations of the new town of Aspinwall or Colon laid a few miles east of Chagres. The difficulties were enormous, on account of the marshy ground and the number of rivers to be crossed. The wooden bridges were almost immediately attacked by wood ants, floods carried away the timbers, but more distressing than all was the loss of life through sickness. Chinese labourers were imported in great numbers, only to fall victims to the same deadly climate which had given Porto Bello and the isthmus generally their evil reputation. However, the railway was completed in 1864, at the enormous cost of $7,500,000, although its length is only 47½ miles. Thus one part of the great project was carried out, and a good road provided for passengers and light goods, the annual value of which latter is now about £15,000,000.
But those in favour of a canal were not sleeping all this time. The old routes were again mooted, that through Lake Nicaragua being put down at 194 miles in length, while the other, since known as the Panama, was only 51. Dr. Edward Cullen, however, in 1850 went out and made some surveys, with the result that he advocated the old Darien line as the shortest and most practicable. He would start from the same Port de Escoces that witnessed the downfall of William Paterson's scheme, and which he said was a most commodious harbour for the terminus of a canal. The isthmus was here only 39 miles across, and free from many of the difficulties which beset the other routes.
As a result of Dr. Cullen's reports, in 1852 it was proposed to establish "The Atlantic and Pacific Junction Company," with a capital of fifteen millions sterling. The prospectus stated that the period had arrived when the spread of commerce and the flow of emigration to the western shores of America, Australasia, and China, demanded a passage more direct than those by way of the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn. Various projects had been formed for uniting the two oceans, but all these were open to the objection that they fell short of supplying a continuous channel from sea to sea, for vessels of all dimensions, by which alone transhipment could be obviated. Sir Charles Fox, Mr. John Henderson, Mr. Thomas Brassey, and Dr. Cullen had received a concession of territory from New Ganada to the extent of 200,000 acres, on condition that a deposit of £24,000 be made within twelve months. It was believed that the work could be completed for twelve millions.
The Times spoke disparagingly of the new Company, and this probably prevented its acceptance by the financial world. The line, it said, had not been actually surveyed, but only superficially examined, and, after all, if it were finished, it could only come into competition with the Nicaragua Canal, every foot of which had been the subject of precise estimates, and which would only cost four millions. Several letters from the projectors and supporters of the Company followed, with other leaders, the result being that the Darien Canal never went beyond a project. Presently also the rush for California abated, and the railway met the wants of the passengers; all the canal schemes were therefore again shelved for a time.
Then came an almost Utopian project for a ship railway, the cars of which would run down into the water, take up the largest vessel, and carry it over without trouble or difficulty. This met with little encouragement, and was soon dropped.
In 1879 Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had achieved such a glorious success with the Suez Canal, took up the matter of a canal between the two oceans, and summoned a congress of savants, engineers and seamen, to inquire into and discuss the questions of its possibility, and of the most suitable place for its excavation. A number of projects were considered, among them that of Dr. Cullen, brought forward by M. de Puydt, which, however, did not receive much attention, as there was a difference of opinion as to the reliability of the figures.
The schemes were ultimately reduced to two—those for the Nicaragua and Panama routes. The position of the great lake caused the former to be thoroughly discussed; but there were several almost insurmountable difficulties in the way of its adoption. To clear the San Juan river, and make it into a great canal, would entail great labour and expense, and then seven or eight locks would be required. On the Pacific side locks would also be required for the Rivas, while the harbours of Greytown on the Gulf side, and Brito on the Pacific, were quite unsuited as termini for a canal. The total length would be 182½ miles, and the time occupied in the passage four and a half days. There was also another great draw-back: Nicaragua was and is subject to earthquakes, which would be likely at times to interfere greatly with such heavy works as were required. It followed, therefore, that notwithstanding the powerful support of the Americans, this line was abandoned in favour of that from Port Simon to Panama, not far from the railway.
Two French officers, MM. Wyse and Reclus, had explored the country, and proposed to carry the canal through the Chagres river, and thence, by means of a great tunnel, into the valley of the Rio Grande; but, on consideration, the tunnel was abandoned in favour of a deep cutting, which would not exceed 290 feet. The great objection to this was the floods of the Chagres river, which sometimes rose twenty-five feet in a single night; but this was got over by arranging for a separate bed for the canal. There were a few other difficulties, but propositions were made to obviate them; and at last the sub-commission reported that "the Panama Canal on the level technically presents itself under the most satisfactory conditions, and ensures every facility, as it gives every security, for the transit of vessels from one sea to another."
Now came the question of cost. The Nicaragua Canal was estimated at £32,000,000, and that at Panama £40,000,000. (The reader will compare these with former estimates, especially that of Nicaragua as stated by the Times.) The former was rejected absolutely, on account of the necessity for locks, and all further discussion was concerned with the latter. It was then calculated that, with transit dues of fifteen francs per ton, the net annual profit would be £1,680,000.
M. de Lesseps was elected to the Academy in 1885, when M. Renan said he had been born to pierce isthmuses, and that antiquity would have made him a god. Carried away by enthusiasm, the great projector saw no difficulties; he had already completed a work which had been declared almost impossible, now he would carry out a project similar to that proposed by William Paterson. However, Panama was not Suez, a rainless desert, but a place where floods, marshes, and quagmires took the place of almost level sands.
M. Wyse had vainly tried to start a Company; but when Lesseps, with all the prestige of his Suez Canal, joined him, there was comparatively little difficulty. Personally, Lesseps seems to have known little of Panama—all his knowledge was gained at second hand. The first public subscription was invited in July, 1879, the capital being 400,000,000 francs (£16,000,000), in 800,000 shares at 500 francs each. This large sum, however, was not obtained at once, only £3,200,000 being applied for. However, Lesseps was not discouraged, but determined to go on with the work, trusting that money would flow in as it was wanted, which ultimately proved to be the case, until the project appeared hopeless. He visited the isthmus, and made a triumphal progress over the line; he even witnessed one of the great floods of the Chagres river, which rose forty feet and covered the railway. Undaunted by this, he went over to Panama, and on the 5th of January, 1880, inaugurated the great canal with a ceremony and fête. He then stated that success was assured, and declared, upon his word of honour, that the work would be much easier on the isthmus than in the desert of Suez.
In March following he visited New York, where he was but coldly received, on account of American jealousy of European influence. The President said that the capital invested in such an enterprise by corporations or citizens of other countries must be protected by one or more of the great Powers, but no European Power could intervene for such protection without adopting means which the United States would deem inadmissible. This did not damp his enthusiasm; if other countries would not assist, all the credit would go to France. The Company had a concession from the Columbian Republic for twelve years, and the United States would not be likely to interfere.
It will be interesting here to compare the estimates for the canal by different persons and at different times within two years:—
| M. Wyse, 1879 | £17,080,000 |
| The Paris Congress, 1879 | 41,760,000 |
| The Lesseps Commission, February, 1880 | 33,720,000 |
| M. de Lesseps himself, " " | 26,320,000 |
| Rectified estimate, September, 1880 | 21,200,000 |
Lesseps said he had an offer from a contractor to complete the work for twenty millions. Backed by the press and the deputies, the Company's shares sold freely, and on the 3rd of March, 1881, it was fully established. It was promised that in the course of that year the line of the canal should be cleared, and dredging commenced. Lesseps expected to finish in 1887, but in 1884 and the two following years he was obliged to advance the time to 1890. The canal was to be 47 miles long, 70 feet wide at the bottom, and 29 feet deep.
Little was done in 1881, but the work was divided into five sections, and in the following year dredging and excavating were commenced. But, even thus early, it was found to be more difficult than had been expected. Up to March, 1883, only 659,703 metres had been excavated, which was reckoned to be about 1/130th of the whole. This would not do, as it meant that over a century would pass before its completion. About seven thousand labourers, mostly Jamaica negroes, were employed at that time, and this number was increased until, in 1888, there were 11,500. In 1884 the average amount excavated was 600,000 metres per month, against Lesseps' estimate of two millions. Yet, with all that, it was calculated that in this year only 1/180th of the material had been taken out.
The difficulties were enormous. First, there was trouble to find dumping places, where the earth would not be again washed into the excavations by heavy floods. Then came the rank vegetation, which was continually stretching from either side to choke the clearing. Weeds grew six to eight feet high in a rainy season, and these, with the straggling vines, kept a little army at work to clear them away from the embankments and tracks. The workmen suffered greatly from yellow and other fevers, and £600,000 was spent on hospitals and their appurtenances. Money was spent profusely on such things as grand offices and a magnificent house to lodge the President, if he should ever come to inspect the works. All along the route were ornamental bungalows, and the director-general at Panama had a salary of £20,000, besides a house and other allowances. Even he suffered from fever, and his wife and daughter died of it.
Up to 1888 about fifty millions sterling had been spent, and hardly a fifth of the work was finished. Then financial difficulties led to an arrangement for merging it in a new Company, which proposed to complete the canal on a new plan. Notwithstanding all the objections to locks, it was now proposed to save such an immense work of excavation by erecting four on either side, thus bringing the highest water level to 123 feet. Eighteen and a half miles were said to have been completed, of which five were on the Pacific side and the remainder on the Gulf. To carry out the new plan, £36,000,000 more were required, but, as a matter of fact, only a third of the work necessary for this revised scheme had been done.
Then came the downfall, which has been compared to that of the South Sea Bubble. When the Company went into liquidation, scores of shady transactions came to light. Editors of newspapers and deputies had been bribed to gain their support, and money had been wasted in almost every possible manner. In February, 1893, M. Ferdinand de Lesseps and four other directors were prosecuted, with the result that he, MM. C. de Lesseps, Fontaine, and Cottin, were convicted of breach of trust and swindling, the two former being sentenced to five years' imprisonment and 3,000 francs fines each, and the latter two years and 20,000 francs fines. M. Eiffel, the architect of the great tower of Paris, was found guilty of breach of trust, and sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 20,000 francs. Nine persons were then charged with receiving bribes, one of whom, M. Baïhaut, admitted that he got 375,000 francs. Three were found guilty, sentenced to imprisonment, fines, and to pay the liquidators of the company the amount of M. Baïhaut's bribe. Charles de Lesseps appealed against the charges of swindling, and these were quashed on the ground that the transactions had occurred more than five years before, thus getting the longer terms of imprisonment and fines of the three principals reduced.
Ferdinand de Lesseps hardly knew what was going on; he was old, feeble, and in a state of apathy and stupor. Pity for his condition prevented the carrying out of the sentence as far as he was concerned, and he died on the 7th of December, 1894. The Times, in noticing his death, said the story was a most pitiful one. The blame of the Panama affair must be laid upon the people and the public temper. Bribery and corruption were symptoms of a thoroughly unhealthy state of things. An infatuated public provided enormous sums; when these were spent, more went the same way, and to get these contributions everything possible was done. Lesseps was no engineer, but a diplomatist, planning great schemes and the means of carrying them out. He was the man of the moment in France. He was neither a financier nor an engineer, neither an impostor nor a swindler. He was a man of great originality, of indomitable perseverance, of boundless faith in himself, and of singular powers of fascination over others.
Meanwhile several attempts had been made to get money to carry on the work, one of which was by means of a lottery. But the French people were discouraged, and were no longer prepared to throw good money after bad. It followed, therefore, that although in 1894 a new company, with a capital of sixty-five million francs, was proposed, and that it was announced in August that eight hundred workmen were engaged, it does not appear that anything is being done. If, as has been stated, only a third of the work has been accomplished for, say, thirty millions, allowing for waste of money, it can hardly be expected that double this amount will ever be obtained. What with the heavy floods and rank vegetation, a great deal will have to be done to recover lost ground; in fact, some of the excavations must be filled up by this time. Those who know the country can easily understand that the handsome bungalows, hospitals, and workmen's houses must be overrun by wood-ants, and that the machinery is mostly spoilt by rust. Even if the canal is ever finished with locks, it is doubtful whether it could pay a dividend, as the work of keeping it open by dredging would be very expensive. No doubt it would be a boon to the world if it were finished, but capitalists expect profit, and will hardly be inclined to assist without such expectations.
(From Stedman's "Surinam.")
The Nicaragua canal has been in course of excavation for several years past by an American Company. As finally adopted, it is to have a total length of 169.4 miles, of which 56½ will be through the lake, and 64½ through the San Juan river. There are to be three locks on either side, which may cause trouble in case of a violent earthquake; and then, again, the length of the journey will be against it as compared with that of Panama. It has been attempted in the United States to make it a national work, and the sum of a hundred million dollars is asked from the American Government, or at least a guarantee on the issue of bonds to that amount. We believe that very little enthusiasm for the project has been shown. In August, 1893, the Company was unable to meet its obligations, and a receiver was appointed, since which time we believe the work is being continued, and that it has been decided to complete it as soon as possible. M. de Varigny, in L'Illustration of June the 1st, 1895, gives the following opinion on the work and its political importance:—
"That the Washington statesmen take account of the fact that the cutting of the isthmus is difficult, costly, and, in case of a rupture with England, dangerous, we cannot doubt. But such is the fascination of great enterprises, of grand words and grand theories, that senators and representatives hesitate to oppose the current of opinion that is bearing along the masses.
"The work has begun, and we can only hope that it will succeed. There cannot be too many gates of communication between different peoples. The United States undertake to open this. Can they do it, and doing it, will they give up the advantages they will thereby acquire? The future will show."
INDEX
- Acosta, Pedro de, explorer of the Orinoco, 43
- African slavery, 157
- Aguirre the Tyrant, 38
- Alfinger, Ambrosio de, searches for "El Dorado," 34
- Altienza, Donna Inez de, murdered by Aguirre, 39
- Amazon Company, 83
- Amazon, expedition of Ursua and Aguirre, 38
- American Indian, his character, 1
- Amis des Noirs, 257
- "Angel Gabriel," John Sayers Orr, rouses the negroes of Demerara, 335
- Antigua, 165
- Anti-slavery party, 289, 298
- Apprenticeship, negro, 306
- Araby, a leader of bush negroes, 227
- Arawaks,
- Araya, Dutch at, 75
- Armada, Spanish, 63, 64
- Aruba, 277
- Aspinwall, 352
- Assiento contract to supply slaves, 196
- Ayscue, Sir George, reduces Barbados for the Parliament, 124
- Bahamas,
- Baïhaut, M., bribed by Panama Canal Company, 361
- Bannister, Major, English Governor of Surinam, 169
- Barbados,
- first colonised, 85
- protests against grant to Earl of Carlisle, 117
- result of the English revolution, 117
- Charles II. proclaimed king, 122
- Sir George Ayscue arrives to subdue the island, 124
- attack on Hole Town, 126
- the island surrenders, 128
- sufferings of a bond-servant in, 151
- De Ruyter driven off from, 161
- its unique position, 208
- negro plots, 213
- anti-slavery insurrection, 293
- result of emancipation, 328
- confederation disturbances, 341
- Barker, Andrew, a rover, 62
- Baron, a bush negro chief, 229
- Basco, Michael de, a buccaneer, 99, 102
- Baskerville, Sir Thomas, a companion of Drake, 65
- Beaudierre, Mons. de, a sympathiser with the coloured people of Hayti, 259
- Berbice,
- Belize, 250
- Berrie, one of Ralegh's captains, 74
- Berrio, Antonio de, Spanish Governor of Trinidad, 69
- Bolivar, Simon, Liberator of Venezuela, 279
- Bond-servants, 149
- Boyer, President of Hayti, 275
- Brethren of the coast, 93
- British Guiana, 328, 334
- British Legion in Venezuela, 286
- Bull of Partition,
- Bush negroes, 225
- Buxton, Fowell, 300
- Byam, Major, Governor of Surinam, 128
- Byron, Admiral, 241, 242
- Caciques of the Indians, their position, 4
- California rush, 351
- Campeachy, Bay of, 96, 200
- Cannibals, 20, 31
- Canning's declaration of neutrality, 285
- Caribana, 75
- Caribbee Islands, 20, 85
- Caribs,
- Carlisle, Earl of, Grantee of Caribbee Islands, 85, 122
- Carthagena,
- Cary, Colonel, favours the buccaneers, 165
- Casas, Las, 46
- Cassard, Jacques,
- Cattle, wild, 21
- "Cavaliers" and "Roundheads" in Barbados, 119
- Central American Republics, 288
- Chagres, 352
- Charbon, Jan Abraham, 219
- Charles I. and the Colonies, 114
- Charles II.
- Chinese labourers introduced, 327
- Christianity forced on the natives, 8, 27
- Christophe, a Haytian leader, 269, 274
- Clervaux, a Haytian leader, 271
- Clifford, Jeronomy, case of, 173
- Cochrane, Admiral, 277
- Codrington, Colonel, 119
- Coffee, 143
- Coffee, leader of rebel slaves in Berbice, 221, 223
- Coke, John, 84
- Colon, 352
- Colonies, Spanish, in Hispaniola, 11, 14
- Coloured people in Hayti, 257
- Columbian Republic, 288
- Columbus' opinion of the natives, 6
- Confederation in Barbados, 341
- Contraband trade with Spanish colonies, 53, 57, 201
- Convict labour, 147
- Coolies, East Indian, 327
- Cooper, Anthony Ashley, 147
- Corsairs, 49, 177
- Corteso, Juan, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
- Costa Rica, 288
- Cottin, M., 360
- Cotton, 15, 18, 141
- Council for Plantations, 135, 146
- Cromwell and the West Indies, 129
- Cudjo, a maroon chief, 215
- Cuba, 20
- Cullen, Dr. E., projector of the Darien Canal, 353
- Curaçao, 115, 152, 165, 180, 238
- Darbey, John, an English prisoner in Cuba, 171
- Darien Canal, 353
- Darien scheme, 188
- Delgado, Augustine, an "El Dorado" seeker, 46
- Demerara, 213, 246, 252, 301
- Dessalines,
- Dogs,
- Dominica, 91, 116, 238, 241, 249
- Dominus Vobiscum, one of the first English vessels in the West Indies, 49
- D'Oyley, Governor of Jamaica, 134
- Drake, Sir Francis,
- Drax, Colonel, 120
- Du Casse, a French corsair, 177
- Dudley, Sir Robert, 66
- Dutch, 67, 75, 84, 86, 115, 129, 166
- Edwards, Bryan, 157
- Eiffel, M., 360
- "El Dorado,"
- Elizabeth, Queen, 67
- Emancipation,
- Enambuc, M. d', first French settler, 87-8, 116
- Enciso, Bachelor, 29
- English and Dutch, 67, 68, 114
- Essequebo, 213
- Everson, a Dutch pirate, 177
- Eyre, Governor of Jamaica, 339
- Fedreman, Nicholas, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
- Ferdinand and Isabella,
- Fontaine, Father, a Catholic missionary, 134
- Fontaine, M., a Panama defaulter, 360
- Fourgeaud, Colonel, 227
- Franklin, Washington, 294
- Free trade, 324
- French,
- George of Spires, an "El Dorado" seeker, 35
- German knights in Venezuela, 33
- Gold-hunting, 11, 15, 23, 29, 73
- Gordon, Mr., a Member of the Jamaica Assembly, executed, 340
- Grasse, Count de, 241, 249
- Grenada, 238
- Groenwegel, Commander of Essequebo, 86
- Guadeloupe, 238, 251
- Guanin, 23
- Guatavita, Lake of, 32
- Guatemala, 288
- Guiana, 23, 69
- Guianians, 44
- Guichen, Admiral de, 241, 249
- Güiria, 282
- Guzman, Fernando de, 38
- Haïti, Hayti, or Hispaniola,
- Hall, Captain, exploit of, 206
- Harcourt, Robert, in Guiana, 76
- Harry, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77, 78
- Hartop, Job, a prisoner in Mexico, 58
- Havana,
- Hawkins, Sir John,
- Hawkins, William, voyage to Brazil, 52
- Hennessy, Governor John Pope, of Barbados, 341, 345
- Henri I. (Christophe), Emperor of Hayti, 274
- Henry VIII. of England sends an expedition to the West Indies, 49
- Herera, Alonzo de, 45
- Hogs naturalised in Hispaniola, see Haïti
- Hondo river, 250
- Hood, Sir Samuel, 238
- Hoogenheim, Wolfert Simon van, Governor of Berbice, 218
- Huten, Philip von, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
- Jackson, Colonel, captures Santiago de la Vega, 116
- Jacques I. (Dessalines), Emperor of Hayti, 274
- Jamaica,
- James I.,
- Jeffreys, Judge, sends prisoners to Barbados, 150
- Jenkins, Captain, and his ear, 202
- Jervis, Admiral Sir John, 251
- Jews in the West Indies, 239, 245
- Labour difficulties, 14, 137, 321
- Lafayette, 260
- Lawrence, Captain, an English pirate, 99
- Legrand, Pierre, a French pirate, 99
- Leigh, Charles, first English settler in Guiana, 76
- Lesseps, Ferdinand de, and his Panama scheme, 356
- Lolonois, the great pirate, 101
- Macatoa, reported a very rich city, 36
- Madeirans imported into British Guiana, 327
- Maltese imported into British Guiana, 327
- Manoa, city of, fabulous residence of "El Dorado," 44
- Margarita, 114, 152
- Marino, Dictator of Venezuela, 283
- Maroons or Simarons, 59, 211, 232
- Martinez, Juan de, his report of "El Dorado,"43
- Martinique, 116, 182, 238, 251, 259
- Mauduit, Captain, murdered in the Haytian revolt, 262
- Merrifield, Ralph, one of the first settlers in St. Kitt's, 85
- Methodists, 295
- Miranda, Francisco, leader of the revolution in Venezuela, 277, 347
- Missionaries, Protestant, 295, 327
- Montbar, the French pirate, 100
- Montserrat, 161, 165, 249
- Morgan, Captain (afterwards Sir Henry), the English buccaneer, 102, 177
- Morgan, Colonel, 162
- Morillo, Marshal, Spanish leader in Venezuela, 284
- Navio de permisso, 199
- Negro slavery, 52, 59, 139, 156, 210
- Negroes, free, difficulties with, 329
- Nelson, Lord,
- Nevis, 161, 249
- New Edinburgh, 192
- New Granada, 32, 33, 281, 288
- New World, 1
- Nicaragua and the canal scheme, 288, 346, 351, 355, 362
- North, Roger, a settler in Guiana, 83, 85
- Nueva Dorado, 70
- Ojeda, Alonzo de, 27
- Omaguas, reported a rich nation, 36
- Ophir, 15, 23
- Ordas, Diego de, explores the Orinoco, 43
- Orders in Council, 300
- Orr, John Sayers, "the Angel Gabriel," creates a disturbance in Demerara, 335
- Ouverture, Toussaint L', leader of the Haytian negroes, 268
- Oxenham or Oxnam, John, crosses the Isthmus, 61
- Oyapok, English colonies in the, 76, 83
- Panama, 186, 347, 350
- Panama Canal, 347, 353, 355
- Panama Railway, 352
- Parima Lake, 33
- Paterson, William, and the Darien scheme, 188
- Penn and Venables, Generals, expedition to the West Indies, 130
- Perez, Diego, a gallant Spaniard, 50
- Petion, President of Hayti, 274, 285
- Philips, Miles, an English prisoner in Mexico, 58
- Pirates in the West Indies, 49, 90
- Pitman, Henry, a bond-servant, 150
- Pitt, in favour of a Panama Canal, 347
- Plantations, 143, 154, 291
- Pointis, de, a leader of buccaneers, 178
- Pomeroon, 75, 161
- Pope, The,
- Popham, Captain, captures Spanish letters, 69
- Porto Bello,
- Porto Rico, 20, 49
- Prince of Orange in England, 252
- Privateers, 96, 98
- Proclamations to the Indians, 27, 30
- Providence Island, 86
- Puerto Cabello, 277
- Quesada, Herman de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 36
- Ralegh Sir Walter,
- Reclus, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356
- Regapo, Leonard, a Guiana Indian, in London, 77
- Repartimientos, 15
- Robespierre, 260
- Rodney, Admiral, 237, 242
- Rossy, Sieur du, 116
- Route of Spanish trade, 49
- Rovers to the Main, 49, 66
- Royal African Company for introducing slaves, 149
- Rupert, Prince, 124
- Ruyter, Admiral de, attacks Barbados, 161
- St. Christopher's, or St. Kitt's,
- St. Croix or Santa Cruz, riots in, 311, 329
- St. Domingo,
- St. Eustatius, 86, 161, 181, 238, 243
- St. Lucia, 238, 241, 251
- St. Martin's, 115, 116
- St. Thomas, 239
- St. Vincent, 238
- Salle, General de la, French Governor of St. Kitt's, 162
- San Juan river, 346
- Santa Martha, captured by French pirates, 51
- Santiago de Cuba, gallant fight at, 50
- Santiago de la Vega captured by English, 116
- Savile, Henry, his "Libel of Spanish Lies," 66
- Sedenno, Antonio, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
- Serfdom, 137, 145
- Shelley, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
- Simarons, see Maroons
- Slaves,
- Smith, Rev. John, a missionary sentenced to death in connection with a slave revolt, 303-6
- South Sea Bubble, 187, 196
- Spain,
- "Spiriting" or kidnapping white servants, 146
- made felony 147
- Sugar cane, 19, 141
- Suicides, 18
- Surinam, 161, 165, 167, 171, 179
- Sylva, Gaspar de, an "El Dorado" seeker, 45
- Tison, Thomas, first English trader to West Indies, 49
- Tobacco, 141
- Tobago, 115, 238, 251
- Toledo, Don Frederic de, captures St. Kitt's, 114
- Tortuga, the great rendezvous of the buccaneers, 95, 102, 165
- Trade forced upon the Spanish settlers, 53, 57
- Transported convicts, 147
- Treasure seeking, 23
- Trelawny Town, 232
- Tribute imposed on natives, 15
- Trinidad, 70, 328
- Valdivia, his shipwreck, 30
- Van Horn the pirate, 103
- Vanderbilt Transit Company, 351
- Venables and Penn, Generals, their expedition, 130
- Venezuela,
- Vernon, Admiral, 204, 205, 337
- Virgin Islands, 96
- Virginia, 113
- Wafer, Lionel, his journey across the Isthmus, 105
- Walker, William, the modern filibuster, 352
- Walrond, Colonel, a "Cavalier" in Barbados, 121
- Warner, Thomas, founder of the colony of St. Kitt's, 84, 85, 88
- Wars,
- England and Spain, 63, 114, 130
- Holland and Spain, 87, 114
- France and Spain, 116
- England and Holland, 129, 160
- England and France against Holland and Spain, 170
- France against England and Holland, 177
- Spain, England, and Holland against France, 178
- England and Holland against France and Spain, 195
- England and Spain, 203
- England and her revolted colonies, 241
- France, Spain, and Holland join in the quarrel, 243
- commencement of the great French war, 251
- England and the United States, 255
- Watts, Governor, of St. Kitt's, 162
- Welsers of Augsburg, 33
- West India Company of Holland, 87
- William III. and the Darien scheme, 194
- Willoughby, Lord, Governor of Barbados, 122, 124-8, 164
- Wyse, M., a Panama Canal projector, 356