Voyage to the East Indies

Topographical Description of Malabar.

IN describing Malabar I can speak from experience and without trusting to the information of others, as in the course of my travels I had an opportunity of being better acquainted with that country than with my own. The business of my mission; temporal as well as spiritual concerns; visits of state, which, on account of the affairs of Christianity, I was obliged to pay to kings and their ministers; the visitation of churches; continual intercourse with Pagans and Christians; journeys into the interior districts; the settling of disputes which it was my duty to terminate; epistolatory correspondence with the inhabitants, and many unlucky accidents which occurred to me, have all contributed to enable me to give an accurate, clear, and full account of this part of India.

The original and proper Indian name of Malabar is Malayalam. Mala signifies a mountain, Alam a habitation, district or country. Malayalam, therefore, signifies the mountainous land, which indeed Malabar really is; for, except towards the west, where it is bounded by the sea, it is every where surrounded by high mountains: Malanàda and Malangàra have the same signification; and from the latter has been formed, by various contortions, the word Malabar. The opinion of Father Raulin, who contends that Malabar is of Arabic extraction, being compounded of Mala and Barr, has no foundation whatever. The old Samscred name of this country is Kerulara, the kingdom of Kerula. I shall have occasion hereafter to offer some conjectures respecting this appellation. The inhabitants of Malabar call themselves Malayalese, and not Maleatese; as Sonnerat says, the inhabitants of the Gauts, a kind of people who have little intercourse with those who reside in the towns, are called Malays, that is, inhabitants of the mountains.

This kingdom commences in the south at Tovàla, a castle situated on Cape Comari, towards the east, in latitude 8° 6′, and borders on the kingdom of Madura, as well as the coast of Pescaria. On the west it is bounded by the sea, and on the east by the Gauts, the latter of which separate it from Madura and Maïssur. Towards the north it borders on Canara and the mountain Illi, which, according to J. Hamilton Moore, lies in 12° 5′ north latitude, and 75° east longitude. According to the same author, Cochin lies in the latitude of 10° and the longitude of 75° 52′; Calicut in the latitude of 11° 21′; and Cape Comari in the latitude of 7° 55′, and the longitude of 77° 20′. From the Gauts to the sea, that is from east to west, this country is sometimes thirty, forty, thirty-five, or twenty leagues in breadth, according as these mountains extend themselves more or less into the interior parts. Its whole length amounts to more than 120 leagues. It is intersected by a great many rivers, which, falling down from these mountains, pursue their winding courses in different directions, and at last proceed westwards towards the sea. The most remarkable of these rivers are: the Cariapatnam, the Coleci, the Valavaley, and the Modelaposha, which run past Attinga, Ceringa, and Angenga; also the Paru, which flows past Chidàcolam, Paru and Mainàda, and, uniting itself with several other rivers, forms, from Cochin to Codungalur, towards the north, a kind of stagnant lake; so that people can travel through the greater part of Malabar by water. The rivers of less note are: the Vaypur and Porotta; the Feira d’Alva, which in its course washes Maleatur, Cognur, Ciovare, Varapole, Angicaimal and Cochin; the Alangata, which after running past Alangata, Cenotta and Codungalur, discharges itself into the sea at Aycotta; also the Cettuva, the Paniani, the Calicut, the Mahe, the Baliapatnam, and several others, which extend a great way into the country, and form an innumerable multitude of small islands. As this country, besides being intersected by so many rivers, is surrounded also by the sea and by mountains, not only is its interior trade much promoted, because merchandise can be transported in boats and other vessels from the most remote districts to all the towns and places of trade on the sea coast, but it is almost impregnable, because the marching of troops would be rendered extremely difficult, and be much retarded by having so many streams to cross; because cavalry could scarcely any where act in a land so intersected; and because a hostile army, if its commander were not perfectly acquainted with the nature of the interior parts, would every moment have to apprehend an attack from the inhabitants. These are the true reasons why this country has never yet been subjected to a foreign power. The Greeks, Tatars, Moguls and Arabs, who penetrated hither, were merely merchants; and the original Malabar sovereigns still retain peaceful possession of this kingdom, which they have enjoyed for three thousand years. Tippoo Sultan once attempted to subdue it; but his troops were beat, and again driven from the country[59]. It is here, therefore, that the original manners, customs, laws, arts and sciences of the Indians must be studied; for if not quite free from mixture, they have at any rate been preserved much purer than in any other of the provinces or countries of India. Besides, it is highly worthy of notice on account of the trade which it formerly carried on with the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Persians and the Armenians, and of its giving birth to the Christians of St. Thomas, who existed here in the earliest ages of the Church. In the last place, it deserves to be better known, because the Portuguese carried on war for a long time with one of the kings of Calicut, named Samuri, who makes a shining figure in the history of Persia, and because Several Christian congregations were founded here by St. Francis Xavier.

The climate of Malabar is healthful, warm, and somewhat moist, except during the hot months of April and May, a little before the commencement of the rainy season, which begins on the 15th of June, and ends about the 20th of August. In the two former months the atmosphere is so much rarified by the violent heat, that the inhabitants would be in danger of perishing, were there not such a number of rivers in the country, and if, at the periods when the heat has attained to its highest degree, a fresh breeze did not blow from the ocean, by which the air is purified and cooled—A daily proof that Providence has dispensed to all countries and all nations of the earth a certain measure of inconveniences and enjoyments.

Malabar is inhabited not only by Pagan Indians, who are aborigines there, but also by Mahometans, Christians and Jews. The Mahometans and Jews both came from other countries; but the Christians are in part the original inhabitants of India.

The different tribes of people still existing in India are:

1. The original Pagan Indians. They live in a state of oppression from foreigners, and form the greater part of the inhabitants.

2. The Mahometan Arabs. These came to India under the Caliph Valid, in the ninetieth year of the Hegira, or the year 710 of the Christian æra: their descendants are called Afguans or Aghuans; in the Indian language Patans: they are a brave warlike people, and once made themselves masters of the city of Delhi[60].

3. The Mappulians. These are the descendants of Arabian merchants, who, in the eighth century established themselves on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, and married native Indians.

4. The Tatars, or Tartars, who came to this country in 1398, with the conqueror Timur Bec. From these are descended the Mogul emperors, and in general all the Moguls who have existed to the present time in India.

5. The Christians. These are partly the descendants of those original inhabitants of the land who were converted to the Christian faith by the apostle Thomas, and partly other Christians who went from Mesopotamia and Chaldea to India, and with whom the whole coast of Malabar is at present filled.

6. The Ghaurs, Gebers, or worshippers of Fire, who, being expelled from Persia, emigrated to India about the year 630 of the Christian æra, and settled at Surat, Tatta, Bombay, and other parts of Malabar.

7. The Seiks. These worship the only true God, and acknowledge as their chief a Patriarch of their own nation, who has made himself master of the city of Lahur or Laor.

8. The Jews. These people came to India from Persia, after they had been freed from their servitude by Cyrus, about 540 years before the birth of Christ. So at least we are told by a tradition of the Jews who reside at Cochin on the coast of Malabar. It is, however, more probable that they belong to the remainder of those Jewish people who continued in Persia; who were consequently separated from the rest of the tribes, and who, after the downfall of the Persian empire, about 500 years before Christ, fled to India[61].

9. The Portuguese. They went to India in the year 1498, under the reign of the Mogul emperor Akbar, and are still in possession of Goa, and some small places belonging to it.

10. The Dutch. In 1603 they established themselves in the island of Ceylon, and about the year 1658 began gradually to make themselves masters of the Portuguese settlements.

11. The English. They were at first merchants; but became warriors, and subdued the kingdom of Bengal[62].

Idolatry is the oldest and most prevailing religion in India; but toleration is granted to the Jews, Christians and Mahometans, who are all allowed to perform public worship without being in the least interrupted, provided they do not interfere with the established religion or the government of the country; the former of which is Paganism, and the latter unlimited monarchy. The Christians of St. Thomas, who are considered as noble, make a part of the states; attain to public offices and dignified rank, and form among themselves a kind of Christian republic. The king now on the throne is a Pagan by birth, and named Rama Varmer. The king of Cochin is descended from the family of Perumpadapil, which is one of the oldest in Malabar. The English are in possession of the town of Angenga, together with the city and fortress of Talicera. Cochin and the fortress of Collam belong to the Dutch; and the Danes have a factory at Coleci. King Samuri reigns at Calicut; and the city of Cananur, with the district around it, is under the dominion of queen Còlatiri.

After this general view I shall proceed to a description of particular places on the Malabar coast, and begin with Cape Comari; which, according to John Hamilton Moore, lies in lat. 7° 55′, and according to astronomical observations made on board the Calypso frigate, in which I returned to Europe, in the longitude of 80°.

On the western side of Cape Comari lies Covàlam, the Colis or Colias of the ancients, at present a town of very little importance. Advancing farther into the country, you arrive at Arampalli, the Arguropolis of the Greeks, who from the name of this city called the bay of Manar Sinus Argaricus. It was formerly in high repute on account of its cotton stuffs, which were partly manufactured on the spot, and partly brought thither for sale. The next place is Tovàla, a fortress belonging to the king of Travancor. It protects the frontiers of the country, and the king maintains in it a strong garrison to prevent any hostile incursion on the side of Madura, which begins there, and extends towards the north-east. Malabar ladies of rank dare not go to Tovàla, for the natives of Malabar believe themselves to be descended of the noblest families, and are unwilling that their wives and daughters should have any intercourse with the female inhabitants of Madura, or of any of the other cities on the coast of Coromandel. Malefactors, who have been banished by government, are carried beyond the boundaries of Tovàla; and such cases frequently occur on the coast of Malabar.

We next come to Cape Canymuri, or Comari, lying towards the west, where there is a small harbour, and a Christian church founded by St. Francis Xavier, which stands upon a hill. On another hill, a few miles farther up the country, is a monastery inhabited by Pagan philosophers, known under the name of Gymnosophists, or Yoqui[63].

Following the sea-coast we then find the cities of Mannacudi and Rajahcollamangalam, where there are still to be seen the ruins of the celebrated palace of the family of the present king of Travancor, who was born in the latter. Higher up the country lies the town of Sushindram, together with a celebrated temple of the god Kàmadèva. Farther towards the west stands the celebrated city of Còttate, or Cottàram; the Cottona, or Cottiara, of the ancient Greeks and Romans. This city, a considerable place of trade, is upwards of 2000 years old; and is much frequented by merchants from the island of Ceylon, the provinces of Madura, Marava, Tanjaur, and the coast of Coromandel. A river, which flows through the middle of it, divides it into two parts. It contains abundance of merchandise, and is inhabited by a great number of weavers, money-changers, silver-smiths, jugglers, comedians, quacks, dancing-girls, conjurers, and black artists.

Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, in the longitude of 8°, lie Pullatopo, Cariapatnam, Coleci, Curumpana, Patnam and Valavaley. The city of Coleci has a small harbour, where the largest ships are secured from the stormy winds under the protection of some large rocks. This harbour is the general place of shelter resorted to by all the small vessels on the coast of Malabar; and was known to the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks and Persians. Beyond these lie Tiruvancòda, or Tiruvancor, from which the king of Travancor takes his title. As this place was the residence of the court, the Portuguese, who gave themselves very little trouble respecting the proper orthography of Indian titles, called the sovereign king of Travancor, His real title properly is Tripapu, or Bennàti Sorùbam, that is, king of the white earth; for, around this city, the soil to a considerable distance is white, sandy, and dry. Padmanàburam is a considerable castle not far from Tiruvancoda, where the king resides and keeps his treasure. Odeaquiri is also a place of strength, and the king’s principal magazine of arms and warlike stores. There is a garrison in it of European soldiers; and it contains an arsenal, and a cannon foundery.

On the sea-coast, and under the latitude of 8° N. lies also Pulluvalley Bingiam, a town, cape, and small harbour which has the form of a half moon; Valiatora, a town; Puntora, a town, with an entirely new harbour, which the reigning king of Travancor caused to be constructed, and where the European and Chinese ships lie at anchor in order to take in pepper; and Veli and Canantora, two towns inhabited by Christian and Mahometan fishermen. Then follows Tiruvandaram or Tiruvandaburam, the summer residence of the king of Travancor. The garrison of this place consists of four hundred Patan cavalry; about a thousand Nayris, or noble Malabar warriors; and nearly ten thousand seapoys, a corps composed of all kinds of people, but instructed in military discipline according to the English manner. The remainder of the troops are distributed here and there in the country. The castle of Tiruvandaram is exceedingly ill-built. The royal palace is ornamented with a great number of paintings, clocks, and other European pieces of furniture. It is large, exceedingly beautiful, and built in the European taste; but is not inhabited by the king, who prefers residing in a mean edifice which stands in a palm-garden, where he is surrounded by Brahman priests, in whose company he performs his daily ablutions, prayers, and other religious duties. In the year 1787, M. Donaudi, a native of Turin, and a captain in the king’s service, was preparing to supply the castle with gates and cannon. This city is populous, and contains a great number of palm-gardens, each of which is surrounded by a wall eight feet in height. These walls are constructed either of bricks dried in the sun, or of red and yellow clay beat together.

The next places on the sea-coast are: Puttentopo, Caniarata, Puducurici, Perimatorà, Angiutenga—an English colony called by the Europeans Angenga, and the town of Mampulli. Farther on lies Attinga, the residence of the queen, a title always given to the king’s oldest sister, as his spouse cannot nor dare not become queen; also Ciranga, or Cirangapatnam, which is likewise a populous city. All merchandise exported from the country must be here deposited and weighed, after which it is sent to the English at Angenga, who transport it to Bombay and thence to Europe. The interior districts of the country are entirely inhabited by Pagans, whereas on the sea-coast the greater part of the inhabitants are Christians and Mahometans. The reason is, that the Pagan Indians, like the ancient Egyptians and Persians, have a certain aversion to the sea, and approach it only at particular times, when it is absolutely necessary on account of their purifications, which must be performed in it. The Christian congregation at Mampulli was founded by St. Francis Xavier; but at present it has assumed a quite different form.

The next place on the sea coast is Barcale, a town, mountain, and highly celebrated Brahman temple; in the neighbourhood of which is an uncommonly beautiful Colam, or sacred pond, where the king is accustomed to bathe once every year. A spring of very pure, healthful, purgative water has its source in the adjacent mountain. I could not learn why it possessed these qualities till I happened to be in company with Mr. Hutchinson, who informed me, that both the mountain of Barcale and that of Kidàcolam contain abundance of iron. After passing the Barcale you immediately arrive at a river which flows down from the district of Cottàracare, lying towards the west. On this river, which runs past the town of Paru, where it discharges itself into the sea, Vira Martanda, king of Travancor, a predecessor of the present king Rama Varmer, encamped ten years, because the king of Ciangacèri or Collam disputed with him the passage. In 1746 Vira Martanda at length found means to force his way over, and to take prisoner the king of Ciangacèri, as well as that of Ceràva or Porrocàda, together with several petty princes whose dominions extended as far as Cochin. Besides Mainàda there is no other place to be mentioned on this coast, as the eighth degree of northern latitude here ends.

Collam, called by the Europeans, very improperly, Coelan, Coilon, or Coulan, lies under the 9th degree of north latitude. It was built in the year 825 after the birth of Christ and formerly was a city of considerable note. The Christian as well as Pagan natives of Malabar begin their æra at the period of its foundation; for they say, Collam tollairata arravata a manda; that is, 965 years after the founding of Collam; which, according to our mode of computation, corresponds with the year 1789. I must not, however, forget to mention, that the months of the people on the Malabar coast end ten days later than ours; so that the tenth day of their month corresponds with the twentieth of ours. This they call Palè Cänuaca, or the old style. In this city there were formerly a great many weaving looms, as well as manufactories of cotton and stone-ware. Various articles of household furniture were also made here, of Ayani, Benga, Teka, and Biti wood, the last of which is perfectly black, and as highly esteemed as ebony. Even at present the most ingenious artists on the Malabar coast reside at Collam. Cotton, pepper, ginger, cardamoms, and other kinds of merchandise, are carried hither by water, and deposited in warehouses. The Christian congregation here have St. Thomas for their patron, and, though adjacent to the coast, belong to the diocese of the archbishop of Angamali, the true pastor of the Christians of St. Thomas. Alexius Menezes, the first archbishop of Goa, opened here his first conference with the Christians of St. Thomas, when he made them renounce the principles of Nestorius, and embrace the doctrines of the Romish church, to which they are in part united. The same prelate caused an excellent fortress to be built at Collam on the sea-coast; which, however, afterwards fell to ruin, because the Dutch neglected to keep it in repair. The Brahmans possess, in this city, a very ancient temple, which is dedicated to Shiva or Mahadèva; and the Catholics have three congregations. The latter were formerly under the care of the Jesuits, by whom they were founded; but since the destruction of that order, they have been entrusted to the Franciscans at Goa, who have the management there of every thing that relates to ecclesiastical establishments. Between Collam and Cape Comari there are reckoned to be altogether seventy-five Catholic congregations, some of which are large and some small, some poor and some rich, and of which some are on the sea-coast, and others higher up in the country. The climate at Collam is exceedingly mild and healthful. There is here abundance of excellent fish, tortoises, very good rice, bananas, pine-apples and other fruit, pulse, milk, butter, and in short every thing necessary for those who wish to live according to the manner of the Pythagoreans, which is indeed the case with all the Pagan inhabitants on the coast of Malabar.

On the east of Collam, and towards the interior part of the country, lie Perumnàda and Cirumuttu, two beautiful and uncommonly fertile districts, which belong to the ancient kingdom of Kòttaràcare, and which produce great quantities of pepper, ginger, cardamoms, gum-lack, cotton, and various kinds of valuable wood. The river on which these articles are transported takes its rise in the Gauts, and, proceeding past Callare, Tuyam, and on the north side of Collam, discharges itself into the sea, towards the south, not far from the town of Aybica. At the last-mentioned place the king of Travancor causes small ships to be built from time to time, and in general gives employment to a great number of seamen. Lime is burnt here also from oyster and muscle shells, immense quantities of which are found in the neighbouring lakes and between the small islands.

Farther towards the north, on the sea-coast, lies Coyttòta, together with the church of Madre de Deos; and towards the east, Krishnapuram, Puttencarà, Tumhanur, Carimbanàda, and Tevelacare. All these, which are of considerable size, and inhabited by Pagans and Christians, contain a great deal of riches, and carry on an extensive trade with pepper, cardamoms, and pacca, or areca nuts. The areca is an Indian fruit, which the natives wrap up in an aromatic leaf (betel) and chew in their mouths, after they have sprinkled over it fine chalk, which they call Ciunamba. Excellent sugar-canes grow also in this district, and in such abundance that a sugar manufactory might easily be established, were not the king afraid of entrusting the management of it to Europeans. There are found here, likewise in great plenty, all kinds of wood, pepper, cassia root, tamarinds, tyger and buffalo skins, officinal herbs, apes, papajays, virgin wax cotton, and other productions of the like kind. All these articles are conveyed to the two populous cities of Mabalicarè and Cayamcollam, where they are weighed, and preserved till they are transported to Porrocàda or Pòrca, and shipped on board Indian as well as foreign vessels. At Mabalicarè, or Mavelicarè, the king always keeps a civil officer, to settle such disputes as arise between the inhabitants, and to take care of the royal revenue.

Still following the sea-coast we find also Porrocàda or Pòrca, a very populous city, inhabited by a great number of Mahometan, Pagan, and Christian merchants. The Dutch East India Company has a factory here, for the purpose of receiving the pepper, and putting it on board the Dutch ships. Then follows Callurcàda, a district abounding in water, which produces large quantities of rice. It may be called the granary of Malabar.

Farther on, towards the east, lies Callupare, an ancient town of considerable note, inhabited by Schismatics, who were formerly Nestorians, but at present are Jacobites: also Vaypur, where there is a Catholic congregation; and Cagnarapalli, a town celebrated on account of its trade with the kingdom of Madura, and which transports its merchandise thither over the Gauts. In these mountains there are found diamonds, sapphires, opals, and rock crystal. We are informed by Ptolemy, that in his time beryls also were found near Pugnatil: but they must now be exceedingly scarce; for I was acquainted at Barcale with several Brahman families who had expended their whole fortunes in searching for such precious stones, and by these means had reduced themselves to poverty.

We next come to the celebrated temple of Ambalapusha, which lies also on the sea-coast, and is dedicated to Shiva or Mahadèva. This temple, which is exceedingly rich, has belonging to it particular districts and villages, and is under the direction of chiefs who are totally independent of the government of the country. The latter, however, keeps here a Cariacarer, whose business is to watch the conduct of these chiefs. The infamous festival, called Padèni, during which the statue of the god Shiva is carried round in the night time, and before him a lingam, or phallus, is celebrated at this temple. These diabolical nocturnal orgies are attended, not only by the Pagan Indians, but it is required that all the Christians residing in the territories dedicated to the god should be present also. On this occasion the Pagan Indians perform a dance, to which the Christian women are invited; and if they refuse to come voluntarily, they are dragged thither by force. I applied, therefore, at different times, both to Cumàren Cembaga Ràmapulla, a magistrate of distinction, and to his successor Padmanàbha Cembaga Ràmapulla, earnestly intreating that they would prevent the overseers of the temple from thus abusing their power, and no longer suffer them to compel the Christians to be partakers in so detestable a festival. The overseers, however, found means to make a thousand excuses, and always referred to ancient usage. But this did not discourage me from pursuing the accomplishment of my object; and as I was invested with full power by the above magistrate, I caused some Christian fishermen from Cattur and Tumbòli, who had taken a share in the celebration of this festival, to get a severe beating before the church-door, as a warning to other Christians not to participate in such abominations in future[64].

Still following the coast, we arrive at Alapushe, a town of considerable size, inhabited by a great number of Pagans, Mahometans, and Christians of St. Thomas. The king of Travancor caused a large canal to be dug here, in order that the inhabitants might send their merchandise by water, to be put on board foreign ships lying on the coast. In this town one of my friends, Manuel Fernandes, was established as factor for the king, and inspector of the warehouses. We have here a striking instance of the manner in which circumstances change in regard to harbours and places of trade. In the first century after the birth of Christ, the greatest trade was carried on at Covàlam, Arampalli, and Coleci. In the ninth century, when the Arabs settled on the sea coast, Collam was the most celebrated place of trade. After that period the cities of Cochin, Calicut, Porrocàda, and Cubungalur, held the next rank; and at present, by the wise regulations of the king of Travancor, Puntora and Alapushe enjoy the same advantages.

Towards the east, Cianganaceri, Pulingunne, and Nerenam, considerable towns surrounded by abundance of rice-fields, deserve also to be mentioned. Nerenam, which lies on a river, is the residence of Mar Thoma, the schismatic bishop of the Jacobites. He has under his direction thirty-two Jacobite congregations, which however adhere in part to the practices of the Nestorians, and, like the Pagans, admit various superstitious ceremonies. The new bishop, who lodged with me on the 22d of December 1785, called Mar Dionysio, was descended from the family of Palamattam at Corolongatta. I have still in my possession some of his letters, written in answer to a proposal which I made to him, of uniting himself with the Romish church.

Ettumanur is a celebrated temple of Vishnu, and the residence of a Pagan magistrate. The Brahmans here have a very considerable revenue.

Iratushe, a town inhabited by Christians and Pagans, lies at the bottom of the Gauts, and carries on trade with Madura.

Still proceeding along the coast, we arrive at the following places: Tumbòli, Cattur, Artunkel, Tanghi, Mannacodam, Mannacèri, Saude, and Cochin a city and fortress belonging to the Dutch.

Higher up the country lies Muttam, a town of great trade, and inhabited by Christians, black Jews descended from the white Jews of Cochin, Mahometans, and a great number of Pagan Canarians, called also Banyans or Cettis. The last mentioned have a great knowledge of trade, and are active, industrious, moderate, and opulent people.

At Certele, a town of considerable note, inhabited only by Pagans, is a celebrated temple dedicated to Bhagavadi, that is, the fortunate woman, the spouse of the god Shiva. In the month of March 1777 I had an opportunity of seeing the image of this deity during the celebration of her festival. It was exhibited to the populace, amidst the sound of various musical instruments, by a Brahman, who sat upon an elephant, and held an umbrella over it. Some Indian dancing girls preceded the statue; and the procession was closed by an immense multitude of people, who seemed frantic with joy, and who sung all kinds of indecent songs on the subject of generation, which they say is effected by the influence of this female deity, combined with that of her husband Shiva, or the sun. The statue was at last carried to a sacred pond, where it was washed and purified by the Brahmans; who, during the ceremony, repeated a great many prayers. The Pagans worship this deity as the ruler of all fluids, from which every earthly thing was produced by means of heat. Women in labour are under her protection; and the small-pox are the consequence of her pernicious influence. For these and such like reasons the above solemnity was instituted to her honour. A cock is sacrificed before the gate of her temple, and the door-posts are besprinkled with the blood. In the second book of this work, I shall give a more particular account of this divinity. She has several names, such as Parvàdi, Kàli, Umà, and Ishvari. An image of her, made of bronze, is preserved in the Borgian Museum at Velitri.

Vaikam, or Vaikatta, is also a Gràmam, or district belonging to the Brahmans, who are generally accustomed to establish themselves at a distance from the other casts. There is here likewise a celebrated temple of Shiva, together with a Brahman school or academy. The revenue of this temple is very considerable, and arises from rice fields, which are let, without any distinction, to Mahometans and Christians. One of the king’s civil officers resides here. In the years 1788 and 1789, when the cruel Tippoo Sultan Bahader, son of Hayder Aly Khan, persecuted the Brahmans, and caused them either to be unmercifully beat, or circumcised according to the Mahometan manner, a great many of them fled to Vaikatta, where they received every kind of protection possible from the king of Travancor.

Udiamper is the place where the celebrated synod was held, on the 26th of June 1599, at the conclusion of which the Christians of St. Thomas, who had before been Nestorians, returned to the bosom of the Romish Church[65]. The inhabitants of this town, which lies on a river, are at present exceedingly poor.

Farther towards the east lie Cadaturuti, a town with two churches; Badeati, formerly the residence of the court of the king of Travancor; and Muttiera and Corolongatta, where there are two considerable congregations of the Christians of St. Thomas. At the latter place they have a very beautiful church dedicated to St. Mary, in which service is performed by priests who are natives of the country. The Nestorians had formerly a monastery here, inhabited by people of their order from Persia and Chaldea, who were the spiritual guides of the Christians of St. Thomas. There were monasteries also of the like kind at Edapalli, Angamali, and at Maïlapuri on the coast of Coromandel; but they all fell into decline after the Portuguese had established themselves on the coast of Malabar[66]. This district produces a great deal of pepper; and a peculiar kind of potatoes, black on the outside, but exceedingly white internally, and which have a remarkably fine taste. They are called Kàtschil. There is also great abundance of round potatoes, such as ours; but they are of a much superior quality, and have really an aromatic taste[67]. In the forests at the bottom of the Gauts, near Corolongatta, Clagnil, Badagare, Aragoshe, Mailacomba, and Modelacodata, forming districts which I have twice travelled through, there are a great many elephants, buffaloes, parrots of all kinds, deer, and black and white apes. The last-mentioned animals go about in whole flocks of from two to three thousand, and climb up the trees in order to carry away the wild fruits. In these forests there are found also abundance of tygers, and particularly of the so called Royal Tyger, which is almost as large as a small cow[68]. Ràmapurata, Cuincam, and Mohatushe, are connected in commerce with Maïssur, which lies on the other side of the mountains, and send their merchandise to Cochin by water.

Cochin is situated on the sea-coast, and, according to J. Hamilton Moore, in the latitude of 10° N. but according to observations made on board the Calypso in 9° 57′. In the Malabar language it is called Cocci, and obtained that name from a small river which formerly discharged itself there into the sea. In the year 1341, however, when the sea threw up the small island of Vaypi on the north side of Cochin, the waters, which during the rainy season pour down from the Gauts, broke through the banks of the river Cocci, and overwhelmed the village of the same name with such violence that it swept it away, and formed in that district a very large river, a lake, and a harbour so spacious that the largest ships can now lie at anchor in safety on the north-east side of Cochin, where the river runs into the sea. In the months of August and September this river commonly washes away the sand hills, which the sea in the months of June and July, when it is most boisterous, throws up at its mouth. At that period nature always exhibits here a most magnificent spectacle, as a violent contest then arises between the sea and the rain water which falls down in torrents from the mountains. If the latter is sufficiently powerful, it forces its way through every thing that opposes it; cleanses its bed, and drives the sand before it into the sea; but if the sea proves victorious, the mouths of the river, the canal, and even the harbour, are choaked up with sand. The sea then overflows its banks, inundates the adjacent country, and, forming in one place an island, and in another a lake obliges the inhabitants to abandon their dwellings, and gives to many districts a totally different appearance. In this manner new towns and harbours gradually arise; and the old ones are so destroyed, that, at the end of four or five centuries, their former site can scarcely be discovered[69].

The before-mentioned island of Vaypi is thirteen miles long and one in breadth. The inhabitants, who have immured themselves there, begin their æra at the period of its origin, as the other natives of Malabar begin theirs at the building of the city of Collam. This æra is called Puduvepa; from Pudu, new; and Vepa, the foundation or introduction of any thing. I was assured by Mr. John Truyns, the sworn interpreter of the Dutch East India Company at Cochin, that the origin of this new period, and the epoch when it began, are registered in the chancery of the company. I saw also several Malabar letters, written by members of the Christian congregation at Nharakel, which were dated according to this new æra. The soil both in the island of Vaypi, and in most of the flat districts of Malayala, consists of sea sand and calcareous matter combined with various kinds of earth and clay, which, during the rainy season, are washed down from the Gauts. The Indians assert, that the sea formerly extended even to the bottom of these mountains. This tradition, as evidently appears, has, however, no foundation; but it is certain that some of the plains found in this country have been produced by conflicts between the waves of the sea and torrents of rain. The devastation occasioned by such inundations can hardly be described. Grandchildren sometimes can scarcely point out, with any certainty, the spot where their grandfather resided, because it has assumed a form totally different[70]. When I arrived in Malabar, a stream flowed so near our convent at Verapole, that the water touched the steps of the door of our garden; and in the course of eight years it washed up so much earth that we acquired an entirely new garden. As I saw that this spot always increased, and was already 300 paces in length, I waited on the king of Travancor, who at that time resided at Perur, and requested he would make a present of it to our church of St. Joseph at Verapole. The worthy prince complied with my request, and the letter of donation is still preserved among the archives of the place. Our sub-prior made it his business afterwards to get this spot planted with young coco-nut and banana trees. In like manner I saw an island, a mile long, produced, in the course of ten years, before our church at Cettiyatti, by the opposite effects of the rain and sea-water. Those changes, which are observed in all parts of the world on the sea-coasts and in the low lands, have been produced by the force of water; whereas those in the mountains have resulted from subterranean fires. The former is the case in India, in particular, where the ebbing and flowing of the sea succeed each other every six hours, and where the latter is so strong that in many of the streams and rivers it extends to the distance of six leagues up the country. The terrible and awfully grand scenes of nature which take place on such occasions are beyond description: those who have not seen them can hardly form any idea of them.

Navigation on these coasts is attended with great danger, on account of the currents. The ancients, therefore, were accustomed always to drop their anchors towards evening, and to remain in that state during the night, that they might not have the misfortune of being driven out by the violence of these currents into the open sea. This practice is still observed by the Portuguese seamen, when they sail along the coast of Malabar. It, however, sometimes happens, that an unexperienced captain, after doubling Cape Comari with great toil and labour, and just at the moment when he flatters himself with the hopes of reaching the Malabar coast, is driven to the Maldivia islands, which lie at the distance of nearly 300 sea miles. Such was the case with Father Louis Maria à Jesu, of the order of the barefooted Carmelites, apostolical vicar and bishop of Usula. He had taken his passage from Puduceri to Malabar in a small vessel commanded by an unexperienced navigator; and the vessel having got into one of these currents, was carried by it to the Maldivia islands, and thence to Mosambique on the eastern coast of Africa[71].

Cochin is a beautiful city, built by the Portuguese, in the tenth year after the arrival of Vasco de Gama at Calicut. In 1663 it was besieged by a Dutch fleet under the command of Peter Van Bitter and C. Valkenberg, who made themselves masters of it, and who carried off from it a great deal of riches. After that period the beautiful cathedral was converted into a warehouse for the Dutch East India Company. This edifice is now employed for preserving the sugar which the Company obtains from Batavia, and the cinnamon they receive from Ceylon, together with nutmegs, cloves, iron, copper, cordage, rice, pepper, and various other articles of merchandise, which they bring hither from foreign countries, and sell partly to the Indian princes, and partly to the Arabian as well as other native and foreign merchants. Cochin is intersected by beautiful streets: the arsenal is well provided with all kinds of military stores, and the citadel is strongly fortified. The latter, in the year 1778, was supplied with new ditches, bridges, batteries and bastions, under the direction of the governor Adrian Moens. It lies on the southern bank of the Coci, and commands the harbour, which is open to merchant vessels, but into which no ship of war is suffered to enter[72]. Mattanceri, a very populous town, lying a quarter of a league higher up on the same river, or rather lake, is a kind of magazine where merchandise of all kinds, both the production of India and of other countries, is deposited for sale.

The Jews, the Banians or Cettis, and the Mahometans, have here very considerable warehouses filled with goods. More than an hundred Arabian ships from Mascate and Mocha, which, besides Egyptian and Arabian merchandise, bring with them very large sums of money, come to anchor here every year. Venetian sequins brought from Grand Cairo are much more current at this place than in Europe. Many of the Arabian ships make two voyages hither in the course of the year. The first time, they arrive in September, and depart in October and November; the second time, they arrive in February, and return in April or May. The Arabs, who conduct these vessels, have a most horrid appearance. They are strongly built; wear their beards long; have nothing on their bodies but a shirt and a pair of wide trowsers made of white cotton cloth; are of a dark-brown complexion, and pay very little attention to cleanliness. They are active; never go but in companies, and well armed; sleep under tents, or a piece of cloth extended on poles; cook their victuals in the open streets; work at night by the light of the moon; have a great fondness for areca, or palm wine; are extremely faithful to each other while they are getting their goods on board, and unite to avenge themselves in common when any of them is injured. What a difference there is among nations! The Indians, for example, are agile, nimble and weak, but civil and polite; they act only after mature deliberation; are fond of temperance, and lead an honest and harmless life. The Arabs, on the other hand, are forward, rustic, robust and faithful; but pay very little attention to decency, or the dictates of reason. The latter devour without any scruple their Pillow, a dish which consists of boiled rice, with a fowl or piece of kid’s flesh; but the former eat only rice, herbs or roots; and consider it as a great crime to kill an animal. If an Indian is attacked by the small-pox, a disease which in that country occasions great devastation, all the neighbours employ every possible precaution to prevent themselves from being infected. In like cases, however, the Arabs spread out mats in the open streets; place on them the infected persons; give them palm-wine, which, as they pretend, will expel the poison; and before the pustules are ripe, or begin to dry, strew them over with ashes, under a firm conviction that the poison will by these means be dried up and dispersed. The Indians are always accustomed to perform their ablutions before and after meals, and to repair to their temples when they pray to their gods, or present offerings to them. The Arabs always kneel down in the evening in the open street; keep their eyes fixed on the moon; incline their bodies before it times without number; and repeat their prayers publicly and aloud. A like contrast is observed in the manners and customs of the other tribes who inhabit the coast of Malabar; and for that reason they are all tolerated by the government, which punishes only those who attempt to interrupt their neighbours in their public worship or private devotions.

Besides the Creoles, Mestise, and real Indian females, there are at Cochin a great many European women. These, as soon as they set a foot in India, are converted into ladies of the first rank, though at Paris, London or Amsterdam they had been only fruit-sellers or washer-women. The English, in consequence of an express law, dare not marry Indian women, in order that the race in their colonies may remain pure and unmixed. They indemnify themselves, however, by keeping several mistresses, without caring whether they are Mahometans or Christians. The Dutch are acquainted with no such law, and therefore can choose wives just as they please; but the state of celibacy is so much the mode in this country, that marriages are seldom heard of. Could any one believe that people who act according to such principles, should take the liberty to reprobate the celibacy of the Roman Catholic clergy[73]? Instances of this kind have occurred to myself; for I remember an unmarried tobacconist at Cochin, who kept a whole dozen of females, and yet asserted that it was improper in the Roman Catholic clergy not to marry. In Cochin there are every where houses inhabited by great numbers of male and female slaves, who are guilty of the most scandalous transactions. This kind of dissipation was tolerated as soon as the city fell into the hands of the Portuguese; and a very intelligent author thinks he can here discover the real cause why the Portuguese were driven from the city of Cochin, as well as their other possessions in India[74]. Avarice, insolence, dishonesty, infidelity and injustice will always bring kingdoms and states to destruction; and if there be any truth in this observation, some other colonies, perhaps, will not remain long in the hands of the Europeans. Monopolies, discord, and peculation have already greatly increased; and the Indians cannot be too much astonished at the villanies which they daily see committed by the Europeans.

The Dutch East India Company has often been in a state of variance with the king of Cochin, who, according to his surname, is called Perumpadapil, and resides at Terpunatre[75], a place lying east of Cochin, on the other side of the lake which separates the possessions of this prince from those of the Dutch. On the 18th of April, 1792, I received a letter from Father Francis a Sancto Elisæo, in which he gave me a circumstantial account of the last disputes between the Dutch and Viròlam Tamburàn, the present king of Cochin. King Mutta Tamburàn, of the family of Perumpadapil, a quiet peaceable man, with whom I had an interview at Ciovare, in the year 1787, died of the small-pox. He was succeeded by his younger brother Viròlam Tamburàn, of whom I had several times an audience at Mattincera, where he frequently sent for me to the palace, as he wished to be made acquainted with different particulars respecting the affairs of Europe. He spoke Dutch exceedingly well, and was desirous of learning English also. As he was a brave, enterprising man, possessed of considerable talents, and no little share of pride, he could not bear the idea of being satisfied with the income enjoyed by his predecessors. He, therefore, exercised every kind of oppression against the merchants; caused three of the overseers of the temple Tirumala Devossam to be put to death, because they would not resign to him any part of the treasure belonging to it; plundered the shops; carried away the merchants’ property, and asserted that he alone had a right to rule the Pagan Indians, as since the earliest periods they had always been under the dominion of his forefathers. This last claim was, without all doubt, agreeable to the principles of justice. The sovereigns of the country had by no means sold the district around Cochin to the Portuguese; they merely gave permission to Vasco de Gama and his followers to establish themselves there as merchants: and the Dutch, by whom the Portuguese were expelled, had made themselves masters by force of that city and neighbourhood. But what avails such rights against the power of cannon? In a word, the Dutch broke into the palace of Viròlam Tamburàn at Mattincera; took from him all the merchandise he had seized; and compelled him to retire to Terpunatre, where he is now so hemmed in that it is impossible for him to stir. The following places, and some other towns, belong to this prince: Nhàrica, Candenàda, Perimanùr, Angicaimal, Udiamper, Mullaventurutti, Pallicarè, Cenòtta, Ciovàre, Pucòtta, Arshtamiciare, and Puttencera.

King Perumpadapil, whom the Europeans call king of Cochin, is descended from the celebrated Malabar monarchs, Ceramperumal, who were formerly distinguished by the title of Maharàgia, that is, emperor, or great emperor; for all the petty Malabar kings were obliged to be obedient to his orders, when he had to defend the country against king Samuri, or any other enemy. But when these petty kings were gradually subdued, and deprived of their territories by the commander in chief of the king of Travancor, the celebrated Màrtandapulla, and his successor general Eustachius de Lanoy, by birth a Fleming, a treaty was concluded with king Perumpadapil, in consequence of which he was left in possession of the few places above mentioned, as the last remains of royal dignity. This happened in the year 1761.

Since the king of Travancor laid open the trade at Alapushe and Puntora to foreigners, the revenues of the Dutch East India Company have been considerably lessened[76]. The duties at Cochin brought them formerly every year 30,000 rupees; and they received a like sum from the rents of their palm-groves, gardens, and other lands which they let on lease. In the time of peace they generally maintain a body of 4000 men; but when a war breaks out, they must increase these troops to 10,000. It is, therefore, evident, that the expences of the Company far exceed their income. Formerly they had possession of the excellent fortress of Cudungalur, or Cranganor, five leagues towards the north of Cochin; but as they clearly foresaw that it would be difficult for them to defend it against the repeated attacks of Tippoo Sultan Bahader, they sold it to the king of Travancor. The latter would gladly have retained it as a valuable acquisition; but in the year 1790 it was taken from him, and dismantled by M. Lally, Tippoo Sultan’s general. The troops of Tippoo were, however, again driven from the country in 1791 and 1792; but I do not with certainty know whether the works were ever rebuilt[77].

On the sea-coast, beyond Cochin, farther to the north are: Badagare, or Vaypin, a populous town belonging to the district of Cochin; Nharica, a town together with a church belonging to the Christians of St. Thomas[78]; Palipuram, where there is a Christian congregation; and Aycotta, a fortified town, with a very ancient harbour, where, according to tradition, St. Thomas once landed. Higher up the country, towards the east, lie Paravur, formerly a very large and considerable town, which was, however, reduced to ashes by the troops of Tippoo Sultan[79]; Curiapalli, the military magazine and arsenal of the king of Travancor; and Verapole, the residence of the apostolic vicar, where there is a seminary, a catechumen house, and a convent of barefooted Carmelites, who have the care of the missionary establishments on the coast of Malabar. This monastery was founded in the year 860 after the building of Collam, or, according to the usual mode of reckoning, in 1673. The palm-grove in which it is situated, is called Tattàracèrri Paramba, and was given to the Carmelites by the king of Cochin.

A league farther towards the east lies Edapalli, called by the Europeans Rapolim. In this town there is a church, a mosque, and the palace of the king of the Brahmans, who is likewise their high-priest or pope. The district belonging to this sovereign may be about three leagues in circumference. This town, together with a few others, were given to him by the king of Travancor, out of respect for his high descent and sacerdotal dignity.

Towards the north-west lies the old city of Alangatta, called by the Portuguese, very improperly, Mangate. It is subject to a king of its own, and contains the largest church belonging to the Christians on the coast of Malabar.

On the north-east stands Angamàli, a very ancient city also, where there are three Christian congregations. It was formerly the residence of the bishop of the Christians of St. Thomas; but great part of it has been burnt or destroyed by the troops of Tippoo Sultan.

Ambalacòtta, was formerly a populous town, where the Jesuits had a convent and seminary; but at present it is falling to ruin.

Maleatur, is a celebrated church of the St. Thomas Christians, to which an immense multitude of people resort on Whitsunday.

The following places also lie on the sea-coast: Palur, Cettuva, Paniani or Ponàni, Ciavacàda, and Tannur.

Higher up, towards the east, lie Puttencera, and Vettiacòtta, a fortress belonging to the king of Travancor, and erected to prevent an enemy from entering the country over the Gauts, on the side of Maïssur, a kingdom which at present is under the dominion of Tippoo Sultan.

Farther towards the north, and at the distance of about ten leagues from Cranganor, lies Triciur, a town and district belonging to the Brahmans. They have here a celebrated academy, public and private schools; also an university, where young persons are instructed in their sciences, and the principles of their religion. This place was also destroyed by Tippoo Sultan; but rebuilt by the Brahmans, after Tippoo’s defeat. All these cities, towns and churches, are situated under the latitude of 10° north.

On the sea-coast, in the latitude of 11° north, lies Tannur, formerly a city of considerable note, but at present a miserable village; and Vaypur, Baypur, or Sultanpatnam, a noble harbour, which Tippoo Sultan Bahader spared as much as possible, because he intended to establish here a considerable foreign trade. Large quantities of pepper, cardamoms, and sandal wood, began indeed to be carried hither from the eastern parts of the country; but, in the year 1773, when war broke out, and the roads by these means were rendered unsafe, the above plan was abandoned.

On the east, towards the Gauts, lies the celebrated city and fortress of Pàlacaticeri. It is entirely built of hewn stone; has strong works, and in general is capable of making an obstinate defence. The garrison always consists of the flower of Tippoo Sultan’s troops. This fortress is situated on the borders of Conoam, and covers the passage to the coast of Malabar towards the mountains which separate Malayala and Maissur.

The well-known city of Calicut, which has experienced such a variegated fate, lies also on the sea-coast, and in the latitude of 11° 15′ north. It consists partly of houses constructed of teka wood, and partly of huts composed of palm branches interwoven through each other, and covered with palm leaves. Of stone buildings there are very few. The fortress of Calicut is of much greater antiquity than the city to which it has given its name. The natives of Malabar believe that it was built by king Ceramperumàl, from whom all the petty Malabar princes are descended. This city was rased almost to the ground by Tippoo Sultan, who destroyed its flourishing trade; expelled from the country the merchants and factors of the foreign commercial houses; caused all the coco-nut and sandal trees to be cut down; and ordered the pepper plants in the whole surrounding district to be torn up by the roots, and even to be hacked to pieces, because these plants, as he said, brought riches to the Europeans, and enabled them to carry on war against the Indians.

King Samuri, a very powerful prince, who is distinguished also by the name of Nediriparàgia or Tamulpada, took from king Ceramperumal, not only this city and district, but the whole kingdom of which it forms a part. In remembrance of this heroic exploit, he made the sword and the lamp of his conquered enemy to be always carried before him when he appeared in public. He was able to bring into the field 100,000 men, and was a sworn foe to the Portuguese, and Perumpadapil, or king of Cochin, who was descended from Ceramperumal, and who could also bring into the field an army equally numerous. These kings, Samuri and Perumpadapil, were the only two of all the Indian princes who had a right, as a token of their unlimited power, to have carried before them the branch of a coco-nut tree, bound round with a bandage at the lower end, and quite free at the top. The petty Malabar kings used indeed a branch of the same kind; but it was necessary that it should be bound round at the upper as well as the lower end, in order to shew that they were subject to both these emperors.

Samuri, whom the Mahometan merchants at Calicut support as the most powerful among all the petty princes, had given battle several times to Perumpadapil, and always came off victorious; but in the year 1760, his troops, being divided at Cranganor, Paravur, and Verapole, were attacked unexpectedly by Martandapulla, the commander in chief of the king of Travancor, and totally routed. In 1773, thirteen years after, Hayder Aly Khan, who had already made himself master of the kingdom of Maïssur, marched down from Palacataceri, fell upon the city of Calicut, and reduced to subjection the whole of Malayala, including the fortress of Cranganor or Cudungalur. King Samuri, who called himself Krishna Tamburàn, with five thousand of his Nayris, or armed nobles, fled to the mountain Koledimala, in the neighbourhood of the Gauts, from which they often descended to attack Hayder Aly’s out-posts, and harass his army. Hayder Aly’s son, Tippoo Sultan Bahader, was at length so incensed against the inhabitants of Calicut and the neighbouring district, because they assisted, by every possible means, their former sovereign, that he resolved to punish them; and for that purpose took the field in person. He was preceded by 30,000 barbarians, who butchered every person who came in their way; and by his heavy cannon under the command of general Lally, at the head of a regiment of artillery. Then followed Tippoo Sultan himself, riding on an elephant; and behind him marched another corps, consisting of 30,000 men also. The manner in which he behaved to the inhabitants of Calicut was horrid. A great part of them, both male and female, were hung. He first tied up the mothers, and then suspended the children from their necks. The cruel tyrant caused several Christians and Heathens to be brought out naked, and made fast to the feet of his elephants, which were then obliged to drag them about till their limbs fell in pieces from their bodies. At the same time he ordered all the churches and temples to be burned and pulled down or destroyed in some other manner. Christian and Pagan women were compelled to marry Mahometans; and Mahometan women were compelled to marry Heathens and Christians. The Pagans were deprived of the token of their nobility, which is a lock of hair called Cudumi; and every Christian who appeared in the streets, must either submit to be circumcised, or be hanged on the spot. This happened in the year 1789, at which time I resided at Verapole. I had then an opportunity of conversing with several Christians and Pagans, who had escaped from the fury of this merciless tyrant; and I assisted these fugitives to procure a boat to enable them to cross the river which runs past that city.

This persecution continued till the 15th of April 1790. I had then quitted the coast of Malabar; but I was informed by the bishop and apostolic vicar there, that, on the above day, Tippoo Sultan, having forced the king of Travancor’s lines, penetrated as far as Verapole, and had renewed the bloody scenes begun the year before. “The troops,” said the bishop in a letter dated May 23, 1791, “advanced to Verapole, and set some houses on fire, but did not enter the island. We were visited only by a few marauders, who converted our church, our seminary, and our convent into real dens of thieves. They plundered and destroyed whatever they could lay their hands on; for it had been almost impossible for us to remove any thing out of the way. By the peculiar providence of God, however, and of St. Joseph (the patron of the congregation), neither our church nor our convent fell a prey to the rapacity of the soldiery, or to the flames.” Soon after, the army of Tippoo Sultan was defeated by the English under the command of Lord Cornwallis, and totally routed. He himself was driven into the fortress of Ciringapatnam, in the kingdom of Maïssur, where he was obliged to enter into an engagement, to pay the expences of the war, to give back his conquests to their former possessors, and to deliver both his sons into the hands of the English as hostages[80].

The harbour of Calicut is at present far from being so capacious as formerly: a great part of it has been filled up with sand by the sea, and for that reason the trade at Calicut is now in a very languishing condition. As the Mahometan Arabs, however, have the superiority here, and are connected in business with other merchants at Mascate and Mocha, it is to be hoped that measures will be taken to remedy this evil.

Still farther, on the sea coast, lies Mahè or Mahi, a town and colony belonging to the French. When the European inhabitants of this place heard of the French revolution, they ran into the streets, bawling out in full jubilee, “Liberty and Equality!” The Pagans and the Mahometans did the same, calling out “Liberty and Equality for us also! As we are now all free and equal,” added they, “it is very evident that we can no longer acknowledge you for our masters.” This idea they indeed actually carried into execution, and expelled all the French from the town. The Carmelites had here a church, a catechumen house, and a missionary establishment.

A mile farther, towards the north, lies Talicèri, a city belonging to the English, where they have a considerable settlement, a council, and an arsenal. They employ this city as a military post, where they collect troops brought from Bombay, in order to keep in subjection the inhabitants of Malayala. King Samuri and the king of Travancor are at present in alliance with the English. A brisk trade is carried on at Taliceri, and foreign ships take on board here pepper, various cotton articles, biti and teka wood, cardamoms, rice, sandal wood, and other Malabar productions, which they transport to Bombay and thence to England. The palace in which the council sits, is one of the most beautiful buildings in India.

The next place, worthy of notice, is Baliapatnam, or Valiapatnam, formerly a large and considerable mart of trade, but at present a very obscure town. The harbour here is more than half filled up with sand.

Proceeding along the sea-coast you then arrive at Cannanur, a town with a castle, and subject to the government of queen Còllatiri, by the Europeans called Collastri. This city is of great antiquity, and the kings of Còllatiri belong to the first class of the Indian princes. The mother of the present king of Travancor, Rama Varmer, was descended from this family. She died in the year 1780, exactly at the time when I was at Angenga. I was shewn a letter written by the king to the commander of the English troops there, in which he requested that he would cause every mark of respect to be paid at Angenga to the memory of his deceased mother. In consequence of this request, all the shops were kept shut for three days; and no one during that time durst fish in the sea, because the Indians believe in the transmigration of souls, and are therefore afraid that the soul of a deceased person may be prevented from going into some fish or other. Niebuhr and Anquetil du Perron are, therefore, in an error when they assert that the king of Travancor is of mean extraction.

The capital of the kingdom of Cannanur, called also Còlanàda, lies in the latitude of 11° 50′, and is distinguished by the same name. The whole surrounding district, which towards the north extends as far as the mountain Illi, is inhabited by the Molandis, who live merely by piracy. These sea-robbers are mentioned by Pliny, Arrian, Ptolemy, and other ancient authors. They unite themselves to other pirates, who reside on the Angedib islands, near Goa, and capture all the small vessels which sail from Goa to Cochin. The huts in which their wives and children live stand on the eastern side of Mount Illi[81]. This mountain, which forms a cape or head-land, lies in the latitude of 12° 5′; and here Malabar, or Malayala properly so called, ends.

We now come to the kingdom of Canara, which is partly under the dominion of Tippoo Sultan, and partly divided under that of the Marattas and different petty princes, the latter of whom have maintained themselves here and there in the mountains. On the other side of mount Illi, the language, manner of life, and in a certain measure the legislation of the inhabitants of Malabar, begin gradually to cease, and to be succeeded by those of the natives of Canarà. Both nations, however, acknowledge one system of religion; worship the same deities; and in their liturgy employ the Samscred language. Anquetil du Perron is under a mistake, when he says, that the Tamulic language is generally used on the coast of Malabar. It may be easily perceived, that he never visited but a few maritime towns, where the merchants indeed speak both the Malabar language and the Tamulic. In the interior parts of the country, the inhabitants use only the former, which is totally different from the Tamulic, though both these dialects have been originally derived from the Samscred. In the second book I shall explain this subject farther[82].

HAVING now finished the topographical description of the most remarkable cities, towns and places in Malayala, I shall add the distances of some of them from Cochin; which, as I have already said, lies in the latitude of 10° north, and in the longitude of 75° 52′.

PLACES.