CHAPTER IX.
Quadrupeds, Birds, and amphibious Animals on the Coast of Malabar.
THAT there is no want of oxen and cows in India appears from the second chapter of this work. Horses were brought hither from Arabia and Persia. They are of small size, but strong, exceedingly swift, and capable of enduring long fatigue[113]. I am of opinion, that all the horses here are of Arabian or Persian extraction; because there are none in the southern parts, and because horses of the like kind are still brought to Malabar in Arabian ships.
Buffaloes are found here in abundance. They are employed chiefly in cultivating the land instead of oxen, as the latter are used for drawing waggons, and, in particular, for transporting goods. Cheese from cow’s milk, as well as all kinds of cheese in general, is not common in Malabar; because the inhabitants employ as food the milk that would be required for making it. Some of the Malabar women have indeed lately begun to make cheese, but they sell it only to the Europeans. The assertion that the people of Malabar are unacquainted with the method of preserving butter, is entirely groundless. The inhabitants of the Gauts certainly understand this part of domestic economy; and, to preserve their butter, add to it a little salt, some aromatic herbs, and magnel, or Malabar saffron. This kind of butter, which contains the noblest parts of those nourishing herbs and plants on which the cattle feed on the mountains, has a singularly exquisite taste[114]. The Vaishaya, that is, those Indians who apply to agriculture and the breeding of cattle, are exceedingly well acquainted with the art of curing the diseases of animals by very simple means. This art they have learned partly from their own experience during the course of a great many years, partly from the Samanæi, and are instructed in it from their infancy[115].
Tame goats, called in the Malabar dialect Aada, in the Samscred Haga, Staba, and, when red, Menda, Mesza or Uranna, are found here in great numbers. These animals are under the care of certain shepherds named Idaya, who form a particular cast called Idayagiadi. The Menda, or red goats, belong to the sacred animals, for which the Indians entertain the utmost reverence. They make use of them chiefly in their great festivals, known under the appellation of Iaga, instituted in honour of the sun and the planets[116].
Sheep on the coast of Malabar are exceedingly rare; for, as they bear a great deal of wool, they cannot thrive in a climate so hot as that of India. Goats, on the other hand, thrive remarkably well, because they climb the steepest mountains, and every where find food. Their hair is uncommonly beautiful. In the northern part of India there is a kind of wild goats, from the hair of which the shawls are made. These excellent pieces of stuff, which are manufactured at Cachemir, excel not only the finest cloths of Persia, but even the silk stuffs of the Chinese[117]. The Europeans in India eat a great deal of goat’s flesh; but the native Indians, who in general have an aversion to flesh, eat only that of kids, and even the latter they never touch except in the time of war.
The flesh of the Malabar swine is very difficult of digestion, and has a disagreeable taste. This is owing to their being too much fed with pilchards, which are found on the Sea coast in the utmost abundance. The native Christians, however, eat sometimes pork; but they are almost always sick afterwards[118].
Of dogs there is only one kind in Malabar. They are of a large size, not unlike our butchers’ dogs; have little hair, and can be trained to hunting.—The ass is never reared in this country.
Elephants, which among the wild animals deserve the first rank, are found in great number in the forests of the Gauts. In the provinces of Aragoshe, Modelacodata, and Maleatur, they may be sometimes seen in herds of 200 or 300; and it happens not unfrequently that they destroy whole fields of rice. The inhabitants endeavour to frighten them away, by kindling large fires and beating drums. They are caught in pits, which are covered over with green boughs. When an elephant falls into one of these, it sends forth such a loud cry as astonishes all the inhabitants of the forest. Ropes and chains are then made fast around its legs, in a very ingenious manner, and, when drawn up, it is conveyed to a place where these animals are generally tamed. I had an opportunity of seeing one of these places at Magnapre. It consisted of three stalls: those on the right and left were destined for two tame elephants, and the wild animal intended to be broke was shut up in the middle one. Its food was let down to it through the roof; for no person durst approach it till it was completely tamed. When that was accomplished, it would drag, over the mountains, large logs of Teka wood, and throw them into the river which conveyed them to the place of their destination. By these means this useful animal saved us great expence, which would have been necessary, had we caused such large trunks to be transported to the sea-coast, through these frightful mountains, by the hands of men. Thus has the wise providence of God taken care, that in all countries, and under every climate, certain kinds of animals shall be subservient to the necessities of man!
Next to the elephant in this respect may be ranked the camel. It is found in the twenty third degree of north latitude; but it does not properly belong to the animals which are natives of India, though it is found there[119]. The case is the same with the lion, which is seldom seen in these countries.
The urus belongs properly to the genus of the wild ox, and never appears beyond the borders of the thick forests of the Gauts. It is about ten feet high, and proportionably thick; has large beautiful horns, and very fine hair of a silvery ash-grey colour. Its tongue is so rough and sharp that it can peel off with it the bark from the trees: a wonderful provision of nature, in order that it may not want a supply of food in the time of summer when a single blade of grass is not to be found. The urus is of such strength that it ventures to contend with the elephant and the tyger. Of its hide the Indians make soles to their shoes, and various other things. Its flesh, however, is coarse, fibrous, and hard; but exceedingly wholesome and nourishing. It has also an excellent taste; because the animal feeds only on aromatic herbs[120].
The case is the same with the wild swine, the flesh of which has a very agreeable aromatic taste. I here speak from experience, having often ate of both. A wild hog killed in hunting costs a rupee; sometimes it may be procured for two or three charges of gun-powder, by which the huntsman thinks himself sufficiently paid, as he can then kill another.
The above-mentioned forests serve also as a retreat for the wolf[121], and likewise for the mountain bear, which is even fiercer than the tyger, and more dreaded by the Malèr, or inhabitants of the Gauts. If the king of Travancor could resolve to hunt these wild animals, he would procure essential advantages both to himself and his subjects. But this is not done, because the Indians believe in the doctrine of transmigration. By these means, indeed, the heart of man is inspired with softer sensations, and a stop is put to the shedding of blood; but, on the other hand, such ideas are attended with this bad consequence, that the number of ravenous animals is prodigiously increased.
The rhinoceros is found here and there in India; but on the coast of Malabar it is never seen. Of the horn, from which it takes its name, the Indians make drinking cups and bracelets.
Of tygers I have seen three kinds in Malabar. The royal tyger, called in the Malabar language Caduva or Parienpuli, and in the Samscred Vyacra, or Duìbina, is of a yellowish colour, with long black horizontal stripes. It is as large as a two-year-old heifer; but long, and rather of low stature. It is much scarcer than the Malabar Puli or Cuguar, which is the real leopard, whatever may have been said to the contrary by Pliny and Linnæus. The Puli, or common Malabar tyger, is of a yellowish colour, inclining to black, and marked with a few perfectly black spots on the back: hence it takes its name Puli, that is, the spotted animal.
The panther, which frequents the Gauts, is a kind of royal tyger, but of a dark chestnut colour. Here and there it is marked with a few horizontal stripes, like the royal tyger; but with this difference, that they are considerably blacker. This animal is much fiercer than the tyger, and pursues its enemies with the most savage ferocity.
The above-mentioned Puli, or Malabar tyger, is often so bold as to enter the towns and villages. One day, in the year 1786, while I was in the church at Vaypur employed in examining the overseer’s accounts, a Puli entered the village at noon, and, in the sight of more than 200 persons, carried off a dog which was running about in the street, not fifteen paces from the church. After that period the people of Vaypur always took care to shut their houses at the time they were repeating the Ave Maria; but with trelliced doors, in order to admit the light. At Badagare, one of these Pulis took from the stall a calf belonging to the Cassanar, while I was sitting with him in his apartment. We, however, pursued the animal with muskets; but were not able to overtake him, for he had seized the calf by the throat, and, having strangled it, dragged it away with him, and soon disappeared. Some of these animals frequently paid me a visit at Magnapre, during the time of Ave Maria. The Christian women were generally the first who perceived them from their houses, and on such occasions they immediately ran into the streets, crying out: Acia, patti vannu, patti vannu! that is, Sir, the dog is there, the dog is there! This dog, however, was always a tyger, to which the common people give that appellation.
The animal called by Pliny a panther, by Zimmermann an ounce, and by Linnæus a leopard, has a white skin covered with black spots; but neither the Malabar leopard nor the panther is ever seen in the Gauts. Those who wish to destroy a tyger conceal themselves by night on the top of some tree, near a pond or ditch where the animal is accustomed to drink, and in that manner shoot him. The skin is given to the king, and the hunter always obtains a reward from the inhabitants of the district[122].
The flying cat I have several times seen in India, particularly at Vaypur, Puttenpalli, and Mohatushe. It is properly a kind of squirrel, but as large as a cat. It has two cartilaginous wings like the bat, and a large thick tail, which, in its flight, it uses by way of a rudder. Its hair is exceedingly fine, and of a silver colour. It is generally seen on the Mava tree, the fruit of which serves it as food[123].
Another animal, of a kind totally different, is the Malabar Marapatti, which the naturalists call Serval. It lives also on trees, but cannot fly like the former, and feeds only on the coco-nut. It is a sort of polecat, which destroys poultry, and sucks their eggs. It is also a mortal enemy to serpents; and its flesh has an offensive smell[124].
Of deer there are various kinds in Malabar. Kàla is the common stag; Man is the hind; Pulimàn, the white spotted axis of the ancients. The roe-buck, with crooked horns, twisted like a vine branch, is catted Krshnamrgam, and is a kind of antelope with black hair. Another kind, called in the Malabar language Kesza, and in the Samscred Rohida, is not larger than a goat, and has red hair. It is in all probability the Antelope cervicapra of Zimmermann[125].
In Malabar there is also a great number of bezoar goats. In the mountainous districts of the province of Maleatur they wander about in herds; and the largest and best bezoar stones are procured from them.
The Kuran is an antelope with hair entirely black, which I never saw but in this country[126].
The civet cat, by the Indians called Meruva, is found here also. I have seen great numbers of this animal in the forests of Cernì and Cidàcolam.
The Kirri appears to be the same animal as that which the ancients called the Ichneumon. It is found on the coast of Malabar, and in considerable numbers. It is a mortal enemy to the snakes, which it torments till they twist themselves together, and lie as if in a state of torpor, when it springs upon them, and, seizing them by the neck, soon dispatches them. During this contest the snake raises up half its body, erects its crest, hisses, and endeavours to wound its antagonist; but this little animal, which is exceedingly active and sharp-sighted, finds means to avoid the threatened blow with the utmost dexterity, till the snake at last loses its strength, and resigns the victory. This contest I have myself seen more than once. The Kirri has fine hair of an ash-grey colour, a thick tail, a sharp-pointed snout, keen eyes, small ears, and is not bigger than a large mouse. This pretty animal is very much attached to man; is fond of playing with him; and is not soon irritated. It creeps into every hole and corner; frequently steals eggs; lies in wait for the bats and other night birds, and never allows any of them to remain in the house where it resides. In Malabar there is also another kind of ichneumon, of a red colour, and much larger than that above described, but which can never be rendered tame[127].
The Annan, or small squirrel, which generally frequents the coco-nut trees, has hair of a whitish-brown colour, with beautiful black stripes, like the zebra, or Indian wild ass. The latter, however, is not found on the coast of Malabar.
The Maleannan is a black squirrel, which is found only on the highest trees[128].
The Perciali, or Periciaszi, is a large mouse, called by the Portuguese Fossador, because it digs every where, and occasions great devastation.
The Cundeli is another kind of mouse, which emits an agreeable smell[129]. The Pucia, or common house cat, never attacks the larger kind of mice[130]. The small hedge-hog I never saw in Malabar; but I have seen the porcupine, in the bowels of which bezoar is said to be found. The truth of this, however, I doubt. The flesh of this animal has a bad taste, and is difficult of digestion[131].
Of apes there are great multitudes in the forests of Maleatur, Codamangalam, Badagare, Codolur, and Vaypur. The small white ape is called Vellacuranga; and the large black ape, natibus calvis, cauda prælonga, Coringuranga. The latter has a large beard; and its head is entirely covered with hair. This ape is, in all probability, the Faunus or Silenus of Zimmermann. Another, with a small tail, I consider as the Silvanus of the same naturalist. The Rajah-keda, or royal ape, is of a black colour, and has a long black beard, with a ruddy countenance like a man. It is highly valued by the Pagans; because, according to their theology, it represents the deity Hanuman, the Pan of the ancients. Such apes run about in thousands, and defend themselves when attacked[132].
The Adibe, called in the Malabar Curuken, and in the Samscred Gembuga, or Kroshtàva, is a kind of fox or wild dog. These animals in Malabar are exceedingly numerous. If a dead body be buried without the walls of a church, it is in great danger of being torn by them and devoured[133].
The Malabar wolf is called Cenna, and has reddish hair. The wild cat is called Kokàn.
Besides the above-mentioned civet cat, or Meruva, there are two other kinds of that animal; viz. the Malaweruva, or mountain civet cat; and the Naypulla, which has a variegated skin covered with black spots[134].
The feathered tribe in Malabar, as in other countries, are partly wild and partly tame. Among the latter are poultry, ducks and turkeys. The house cock, according to the Indian mythology, is dedicated to the goddess Bhagàvadi, and is presented at the door of her temple as an offering. In the time of infectious diseases, which the Indians ascribe to that goddess, their priests and fortune-tellers sometimes slaughter a cock on the patient’s bed, rub his body with its blood, and mutter over certain forms of prayer; such, for example, as Om bhadracàli namà: that is, “Adoration to thee, O goddess! thou who art black and good, so be it!” or, Hum, varàhi namà: “Adoration to thee, thou offended, angry deity!” Om, panciamughi yumè: “Adoration and health to thee, O woman with the five visages!” Hum varàhi namà: “Adoration to thee, O goddess, who art formed like a wild swine, so be it!”
The Tarava, or tame duck, is found in great abundance in the neighbourhood of Cochin; because in that district there are a great many rivers, where they procure nourishment. Their flesh, however, is almost unfit for food, as they devour too many pilchards. On board ship these animals are kept a long time on different food before they are killed[135]. An immense trade is carried on with these fowls in the maritime towns of India. It gives employment, in particular, to the Christians, Mahometans, and black Jews.
The peacock is found also in Malabar. At Vaypur and Kidacolam I saw whole flocks of these fowls. They occasion great destruction in the gardens[136].
The wild cock, called Kattucoli, or Kikidiri, is a very beautiful animal. Its feathers are diversified with all sorts of colours, and have a shining appearance like gold[137].
The sparrow hawk, called in the Malabar language Paranda, and in the Samscred Garhuda, is, according to the Indian mythology, the vehicle on which Vishnu commonly rides. It is held in great veneration, particularly by the Malabar women; and if one of these animals snatches a fish from their hand, they consider it as a most fortunate omen.
The falcon affords the Indian warriors an agreeable diversion, for they train it to pursue game.
The raven, Kaka, is considered by the Indians as a symbol of the human spirit after death. It is not, therefore, surprising, that in Malabar there should be an immense number of these birds of prey, which are exceedingly troublesome to the Europeans.
The Cembòtta is as large as the raven; but has red feathers, and eats snakes.
The Vesbàmbel is a fowl not much inferior in size to the ostrich, which devours snakes also. Father Hanxleden and Viscoping call it, in Portuguese, Passaro de duos bicos; for it has two bills, one of which is always filled with water. This water it procures in the plains, and preserves for a long time; as nature has assigned for its place of residence very high mountains, where scarcely any water is to be found, and from which it seldom descends[138].
The Magnakli is one of the most beautiful birds in Malabar. It is entirely yellow, except the wings, which are black.
The bird of paradise has a very small body, but two exceedingly long feathers in its tail[139].
Pindàramcòli is the name of a water fowl, the feathers of which are blue[140].
The Umen is a kind of geir falcon, or vulture.
The Malabar bats are almost as big as chickens. They have large wings, terrible claws, and their whole bodies are covered with hair. Their head is shaped somewhat like that of a horse. The people of Malabar use them as food, and I myself have ate of them with pleasure. Their flesh is dry, and tastes almost like that of the hare[141].
Parrots, of all colours, forms and sizes, are found in Malabar in immense numbers. They and the apes are real plagues to the districts which they frequent; for they rob and steal wherever they come.
Càda is the name of the Indian quail.—The snipe is found in the marshy districts of Ciranga and Puducurici.
In the Gauts there is a kind of black-bird, the body of which is totally black; but its head is covered with a hood of a bright yellow colour, which represents a small crown. This bird, on account of the excellence of its song, is held in the highest estimation by the inhabitants[142].
Ciula is the wood-pigeon with greenish feathers; Ciangalli, the turtle-dove; Koca, the crane. The flat parts of India swarm, as one may say, with these animals.
The Gnara, or Garça real, is a kind of ibis, but larger than the crane. The Indians, however, entertain no particular respect for these birds; but they do not drive them away from their rice fields, which they frequent in large flocks, and destroy the insects and other vermin.
One of the most remarkable birds in India is that called in the Malabar language Olamàri, in the Hinduvee Bajà, and in the Samscred Berbera. It is of the size of the European sparrow, or at least not much larger. This bird constructs its nest in a very curious manner, with the long fibres of plants, or dry grass; and suspends it by means of a kind of cord, nearly half an ell in length, from the extremity of an exceedingly slender branch of some tree, in order that it may be inaccessible to snakes and other animals which might destroy its eggs or its young. This hanging nest, though agitated by the wind, is so strongly secured that it never sustains the least injury. The interior part of it consists of three neat apartments or divisions. The first, which forms the forepart, is occupied by the male; the second is destined for the female; and the third contains the young. In the first apartment, where the male always keeps watch while the female is hatching the eggs, a little tough clay is found stuck against one side of it, and in the top of this clay a glow-worm, which serves to afford light in the night-time. These birds feed upon insects. Their head and feet are yellowish; the body is of a dark yellow, and the breast is whitish. They chiefly frequent the coconut trees, in which I observed the greater part of their nests[143]. I had five of them in a chest, which I was desirous of carrying with me to Europe; but as they occupied too much room, I was obliged to leave them[144].
Among the amphibious animals of this country, are the Nirna, or Malabar otter; the Nirpucia, a kind of water-cat; and the Nìrudumba, a water salamander, called by the Portuguese Talagoya de agoa. The salamander properly so called, which is a large black lizard, from three to four palms in length, known by the natives of Malabar under the name of Udumba, is found only in the woods. Its flesh has an exquisite taste, forms a wholesome kind of food, and is much relished by the Indians. The water lizard is of a black colour also, but not so large.
The Cicanni, or Scinco, is a small crocodile, or rather large lizard, four or five palms in length. It is of a dark brown colour, and found for the most part in ponds or other stagnant water not far distant from palm-gardens and rice-fields: but it is sometimes seen on land, and consequently belongs to the class of amphibious animals.
The Mudela, or proper crocodile, which is also an amphibious quadruped, is of all colours. It eats not only fish, but also dogs, calves, and other animals; and even men, if they approach too near it. Almost all the rivers in Malabar are full of these monsters. I have seen several of them which were larger than a wild ox or buffalo. Some of them are of a brown and greenish colour; others brown and bright red; and the most of them are larger than the Egyptian crocodile, which appears to me to be longer, but not so thick. The crocodile belongs to the sacred animals of the Indians, and has particular temples erected to it. Formerly, a person accused of any crime was made to walk, in the presence of the Brahmans, through a river frequented by a Mudela. If he got through in safety, he was declared innocent. The Mudelas are caught by means of an iron hook, to which a piece of flesh is fastened. When the animal is hooked, it is dragged to the bank with a strong rope. Neither the crocodile nor the tyger ever attack man till pressed by hunger; but this is not often the case, as they are accustomed to eat a great deal at one time. In the head of the Mudela is found a yellow kind of musk, which emits a strong smell, and which is used by the Pagans for painting the sacred marks on their forehead. The following anecdote may serve as a proof how much these animals are to be dreaded. A woman in the eighth month of her pregnancy, being one day busily employed in washing at the river Edacoci, a crocodile approached her imperceptibly, which it could do with the greater ease, as these animals always swim with their head raised only a very little above the surface of the water. As soon as the monster got within reach, he made a sudden spring at the poor naked woman, and tore the unborn child from her body. She was immediately conveyed to a neighbouring church; but she soon after expired. The large crocodile is called, in the Samscred language, Shishumàra; the small one, Cumbhìra; the otter, Udru; the tortoise, Curma Camada, or Caciàba; and the salamander, Gòdha. Those who wish to study the natural history of India, must make themselves acquainted with these names[145].