Voyage to the East Indies

Seas, Rivers, Vessels used for Navigation, Fish, Shellfish, and Serpents in India.

THE whole sea-coast from Surat to Cape Comari is inhabited by fishermen, who, because they belong to the despised or rather lowest casts, dare not settle in the interior part of the country, and are consequently obliged to construct habitations for themselves on the sea-coast, or in the neighbourhood of harbours, rivers, and other streams of water. These people are almost all Christians; a small number of them only are Pagans and Mahometans. The latter were induced to embrace Mahometanism by the Arabs, who established themselves there in the eighth and ninth centuries; the former were converted to the Christian faith by the Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, and bare-footed Carmelites. As most foreigners who visit India travel along the sea-coast, and have no opportunity of going far into the interior parts, they form an opinion of the country and its inhabitants from the manners, customs, laws, peculiarities, and fabulous relations of these fishermen. Hence the unfounded, ridiculous, partial and insipid tales respecting the Indians, which have been spread throughout all Europe. The Mucarèr (fishermen, or, according to the literal meaning of the word, people who dive under water), Paravas, Ciànas, Tupasis, Mestizes, Creoles, and other inhabitants of the sea-coast, are certainly incapable of giving any authentic information respecting India; as they never saw the interior part of the country, and dare enter into conversation neither with the nobility nor the Brahmans. This regulation is founded on the religious system and political constitution of the Indians.

The sea, in the Samscred language, is called Samudra, Abdhi, Sàgara, Arnavà, Ambudhi, and Udadhi; but, in the Malabar, Cadel. According to the poetical fables of the Indians, there are in this world Sapta Sagara, that is, seven seas. The first, named in the Samscred Kshìròda, consists merely of milk; the Second, Lavonoda, of salt; the third, Suroda, or Sura, of coco-nut juice; the fourth, Dadhimaṅòda, of water which separates itself from the sour milk; the fifth, Ikshùda, of water from the sugar-cane; the sixth, Svavduda, of fresh water; and the seventh, Navanidàmbudhi, of fresh butter. In the centre of these seas lies the island Gembhu, that is, the globe which we inhabit. The English have promised to explain this allegorical system in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches; and I shall not, therefore, dispute with them that honour.

The Brahmans are not ignorant that the sea, under the equator, is much salter than towards the poles; but they explain this physical phenomenon by a very ridiculous fable, for they say that Cashyaba, one of their Munis (who is nothing else than the star which we call Canopus), lets his urine fall into the sea under the equator, which is never the case in the neighbourhood of the north pole. The real cause why it was established by the all-wise Creator of the world, that the sea at the equator should contain a greater quantity of salt than elsewhere, and that it should be exposed to greater agitation from its flux and reflux, and also from strong currents, winds and storms, was undoubtedly to prevent the atmosphere from being corrupted and impregnated with infectious vapours in so hot a climate, and to render that part of the world as agreeable a residence for man as either of the poles, where, on account of the severity of the cold, no corruption can take place.

The principal and most remarkable rivers in India are the Ganga or Ganges; the Sindhu, which the Europeans very improperly call the Indus; the Jamunà, called improperly also by the Greeks and the Romans the Jomanes, or Djemma; the Rèvà; the Sharavadi; the Vaitravadi; the Ciandrabbàga; the Sarayuvà; the Sarasuadi; the Devi or Deva; the Caveri, and the Collàru. All these Samscredo-Indian appellations have been corrupted by foreigners. Those not acquainted with the original languages of India must be much bewildered when they cast their eye on the maps of India. To be convinced that the above names have been totally disfigured, one needs only look at D’Anville’s Antiquités Géographiques de l’Inde, or Tiefenthaler’s and Rennel’s maps.

The importance of this point, which tends so much to throw light on the history of India, makes it necessary for me to correct the errors of these writers. The Brahman book, Amarasinha, which the Indians hold in high esteem, according to the testimony of Sir William Jones, Wilkins, Anquetil du Perron, and Davis, contains, besides other things, in the division entitled Samudravargga, a description of the principal rivers in India. The author begins with the Ganges, which in the Samscred language is distinguished by the following names: Ganga, Vishnuvadi, Gehnutanayà, Suranimnaga, Bhaguirathi, Tisròda, Bhishmasù. After these come the names of the river Jamunà; which are, Jamunà, Càlini, Suryatanayà, Shamanasuasà. Then those of the Rèvà; viz. Rèvà, Nammadà, Somolbbavà, Mèghala, Canyagà, Karatoyà, Sadanirà-bahudà, Saidavahini. These Samscred names are accompanied with the following Brahman observation, written in the common dialect of Malabar: Vindyattinguelnina purapetta Revajede per; that is, names of the river Rèvà, which has its source in, and springs from the mountain Vindhia. We next find the names of the river Sarajuvà; viz. Shududri, Shadrada, and Sarajevà, with the following gloss: Himavànguelnina purapetta Sarayùvinde per; that is, names of the river Sarayùvà, which has its source in, and flows from the Hima. And after these the names of the river Dèva; viz. Vipàshà, Vipal, and Dèva. On this occasion the Brahman glossographer says: Sanhjattinguelnina purapetta Dèvadajede per; that is, names of the river Dèva, which has its source in, and flows from the mountain Sanhya. The names of the next five most remarkable rivers are then mentioned; viz. Sharavadi, Vetravadi, Ciandrabhagà, Sarasvadi, and Caveri; but not a word is said in the gloss respecting their origin. All these different appellations are contained in three Indian manuscripts, which I have now before me. I must, however, observe, that there is no gloss in the Samscred text of the Amarasinha, which is written in Shlogas, or distinct paragraphs; but it is found in all the other Samscred manuscripts of this work, which the Brahman literati have explained word by word. I have in my possession a copy of this kind, written on palm-leaves; and that it is genuine, no one who understands the Brahman characters will entertain the least doubt. It is evident that the above passage, which I have quoted from the Amarasinha, is of the utmost importance; for it makes us acquainted with the sources of the three largest rivers in India, which have hitherto been confounded by geographers. This will appear from what follows:

I. Some consider the Ganges as the Sarayuvà, which Anquetil du Perron calls Sarjou. Instead, therefore, of distinguishing two large rivers, they mention only one, and give it the name of the Ganges. This great error is observed in all the maps of India. Father Tiefenthaler is the only author who has avoided it. De l’Isle, for example, in his Carte des Indes à Paris 1781, makes the Ganges and another river take their source from one lake, and says: Rivière qui fort du même lac que le Gange; elle arrose le Royaume de Thibet. He then shews how the Ganges directs its course through India; but does not speak a word of the Sarayuvà, which, however, is one of the large rivers of that country.

II. Father Tiefenthaler and Anquetil du Perron were the first who made a distinction between the Ganges and the Sarayuvà; who assigned to each of these rivers a different source, and traced out their proper courses. It is, however, here worthy of remark, that the Brahmaputra ridge of mountains, in which these two geographers make the Sarayuvà or Sardjou take its rise, is called, in the before-mentioned Amaràsinha, the mountain Himala. We thence find that the Ganges is quite a different river from the Sarayuvà; and we at the same time learn the real situation of the mountain Himala, the Imaus of the Greeks; for, according to Tiefenthaler’s map, the Sarayuvà has its source in the latitude of 35° north, and the longitude of 78°; but according to M. De l’Isle’s map, in the latitude of 34°, and the longitude of nearly 100°. We observe farther, that the two appellations of the same river, which the old Brahman catalogue in the Amarasinha calls in the Samscred language sometimes Sarajuvà, and sometimes Shadrada, have been changed into Sardjou and Gagra.

III. Tiefenthaler and Anquetil make, of the two streams Sarayuvà and Dèva, only one, as may be seen in the before-mentioned map. This is a very gross error; for, according to the book Amarasinha, the Dèva not only has a different name, but a totally different origin. This river takes its source in the mountain Sanhya, and in the Samscred language is called also Vipasha and Vipal; both which appellations belong to the Dèva alone, and consequently cannot be given to the Sarayuvà.

IV. We find likewise that the Rèva, which others very improperly call the Ravì or Revi, flows down from the ridge of mountains called Vindhya. These are the Vinidi Montes of Strabo and Ptolemy, which were seen at a distance by the troops of Alexander the Great. Hence there is reason to conjecture, with some degree of probability, that Alexander, though he crossed the Rèva, did not penetrate so far as the Jamunà. Had the case been otherwise, this river would have been mentioned, by historians, among those which Alexander’s army passed; for it was exceedingly well known to the ancients under the name of Jomanes. But, as they observe perfect silence in this respect, it may with certainty be admitted, that the Macedonian hero, whose deeds have been so highly extolled, saw and reduced to obedience only a very small part of India.

V. The word Sindhu, in the Samscred language, signifies the sea; from which it appears, that this appellation does not properly belong to the whole of the river called the Sindhu, Sandus, Indus, and Hendo; and that it can be applied to it only where it discharges itself into the sea. In the old Brahmanic writings this river is called the Rèva; for towards the north east, in the latitude of 30° north, and the longitude of 34°, the Rèva forms the principal stream of the Sindhu. It does not flow from Thibet, nor from the mountains Imau, Parvada, or Parapomiso, as some pretend, but from the Vindhya mountains, lying in the latitude of 34°, and the longitude of 94°. These mountains, however, are to be found neither on De l’Isle’s map, nor in that of D’Anville.

VI. In the last place, we here see that in the Samscred language the Rèva is distinguished by several names, which geographers have considered as belonging to so many different rivers, and therefore they have mentioned a considerable number which never existed. Thus M. De l’Isle speaks of a river in the latitude of 25°, to which he gives the name of Dimadee. He has been led into this mistake by the corrupted orthography of the word Namadà, an appellation given to the Rèva, and which means that river alone. Such is the case when writers do not understand the languages of India, and are not able to procure accurate information by reading Indian works! The Samscred names of the principal Indian rivers may be found, however, in Biscoping’s dictionary. The Rèva, Jamunà, Ganges, Sarayuvà, and Caveri, are considered by the Indians as sacred; and, according to their belief, purify from their sins all those who bathe in them.

The different kinds of vessels employed for navigation on the coast, and in the rivers of Malabar, are the following:

1st, Candimaram. It consists of two pieces of wood closely joined, and strongly fastened together. With this frail and simple vessel the Indians venture even out to sea. It is indeed often overset; but, as the person who directs it rows quite naked, and on his knees, he soon clambers back into his Candimaram, and escapes the fury of the waves[146].

2d, Toni, Mangi, or Vallam. These are canoes, which consist of the trunk of a tree made hollow.

3d, Ciangada. This is the name given to a certain number of planks joined together so as to form a kind of raft.

4th, Cemboca. Is a broad boat or wherry, perfectly flat at the bottom.

5th, Pàrram. This is also a kind of wherry, nearly of a square form, and so narrow at the top that the aperture through which people enter it is scarcely a foot in diameter. These vessels are built on this construction, because they are employed for transporting the nella and other articles, which would be infallibly spoiled if the sea-water should find admittance into them.

6th, Koppel or Padava. This is the name given in the Malabar language to large ships which have from two to three masts, and are furnished with anchors, ropes, and sails. In the Samscred language they are called Nau, Pòda, and Janapàtra.

The observation often repeated, that the Indians make little use of nails or iron-work in building their ships, is perfectly just. They can, indeed, dispense with both; for they join the planks together with the greatest ingenuity; pay the seams with different kinds of dissolved gum; and fill them up with the fine fibres of the coco-nut tree, so as to be impenetrable to the water. On the outside they daub them over with oil procured from pilchards and other fat substances, which render the wood smooth, and at the same time defend it from the saline particles of the sea-water, and from being destroyed by worms[147]. The properties of the magnet are at present as well known to the Indians as to other nations; but that they employed the compass in very early periods, is much to be doubted. It is probable that they then directed their course at sea by the monsoons, and the motion of the heavenly bodies. Many of the Arabs, however, still venture to cross the open sea to India without the help of the compass. And, indeed, when it is considered that the Indian sea during one half of the year is perfectly calm and still—that the sun remains only a short time below the horizon—that the nights are exceedingly serene, because the brightness of the stars is never obscured by thick vapours or clouds—that the wind blows invariably from one quarter, and that the currents never change their course, it will readily appear that such a passage may be attempted and happily effected without the help of that useful instrument.

The Indians are abundantly supplied with fish of all kinds. The whale, which they call Cadelàna, that is the sea elephant, is not uncommon in these seas. It may be frequently seen at Cape Comari, and on the neighbouring coast. Some years ago a whale was driven by the tide into the river at Cochin; and as it remained there till the ebb tide, it was not able to return. It, therefore, proceeded up the stream; but it soon got into shallow water, and was killed by the Indians.

The Souffleur, a large fish of the like kind, is called in the Malabar language Turàva. It received this name because it always spouts up water through its nostrils, so that it rises as if from two springs. It is said to be a great enemy of the whale. For farther particulars respecting it I shall refer the reader to a work of the celebrated Professor Schneider, published at Leipsic in the year 1795, under the title of Collections towards a Natural History of the different kinds of Whales. The author describes there all the species of this fish, together with their distinguishing characters and properties[148].

The Wallrus, the isinglass-fish, and the sturgeon, are not found in the Indian Seas.

The Cadapami, or sea-swine, is called so with great propriety, as it has really a snout like that of a swine. Its flesh is tough, oily, and difficult of digestion; and for that reason is not much used by the natives of Malabar.

The sea-horse, called in the Malabar language Cadelcudira, the hippopotamus of the ancients, is also seen sometimes in the Indian Seas.

The Tirada, is the well-known salmon, a delicate fish, which frequents the sea, as well as the streams and rivers. It is caught in such abundance in Malabar, that I have often purchased from four to six pound of it for two Cochinese Panam, which are equal in value to about four Roman Bajocchi. At this rate three men for a Paolo may procure a day’s maintenance, even including rice.

Pilchards are caught in such immense quantities on the coast of Malabar, that the Indians often do not know how to employ them. They feed their ducks, dogs, and swine with them; and even mix them among the dung used as manure for their coconut trees. Were not the Indians too lazy to salt these fish, they might carry on a very considerable trade with them[149].

Muri, or oysters, are exceedingly plenty in the rivers near Cochin and Collam. I have often purchased 300 of them for a Panam (about six-pence sterling). They are fished up in the same manner as the pearl muscles. The fishermen repair to a place where the sea is not too deep, and make fast their canoes to two posts. One of them then ties a rope round his body, and dives under the water with a basket. When he has filled his basket with oysters, he makes a signal to his companion, who remained in the canoe, to draw him up; and while he is doing so, the one who is bringing up the oysters assists him by clambering up one of the posts.

The Palagamim, or sea-bream, is of a shining colour like gold, but has a bad taste.

The Neymin, or oil-fish, is from three to four palms in length, and has an excellent taste, but is somewhat difficult of digestion. The Karimim, or stone-fish, appears to me to be the European sea-bream.

The Ayla, called in Portuguese Cavala, has a good taste when fresh; but, when salted, becomes like the herring.

The Indian eel is very delicious; but too fat, and consequently difficult of digestion.

The Tirandi, or roach, has an exceedingly good taste, though not nearly so large as the roaches sold at Rome.

The Anicannen and Kòlen are both small fish of a bad quality.

The tench, pike, and mackarel are also caught on the Malabar coast; but I do not find their names in Father Hanxleden’s dictionary.

The Ettamin is in all probability the red sea-bream.—Soles and flat fish are no where so good as at Collam and Angenga.

The tortoises, which inhabit the sea, as well as the rivers, are here of considerable size. I have seen some of them which weighed forty pounds. The people of Malabar, however, do not eat the tortoise; and if one of them enters a house, they consider it as a bad omen.

The Xiphias, or sword-fish, is caught in great abundance in the Indian seas.—The barbel is found only in rivers which the water of the sea never enters.

Crabs, called in the Malabar language Gnanda, and in the Samscred Carchidaga, are poisonous in October and November; for about that period the poisonous aquatic plants, such as the blue tithymal, or wolf’s milk, grow up; and as these animals feed upon them, they are rendered so poisonous as to occasion death to those who eat them. It would be therefore proper, that in Malabar, as is the case in the Isle of France, a law were made to prohibit crabs being caught during these two months. M. Passavant the Danish factor at Calicut, Father Louis Maria à Jesu, now a bishop, and myself, once happened to be in company, and to eat of these animals. The other two gentlemen each ate two of them; but I contented myself with one. Three hours after, M. Passavant became pale as death, and was seized with so violent a vomiting, that we absolutely thought he would have expired. Father Louis Maria was attacked with vertigo; all the veins in his body were swelled; his face, lips, and hands became blue, and he experienced an oppression at the heart which threatened to prove fatal. I immediately gave him some theriac, which the missionaries generally carry about with them, and sent for a barber to bleed him. In regard to myself I was seized with a giddiness and vomiting, the latter of which I endeavoured to provoke. This accident, and others of the like kind, which frequently happen in this country, ought to serve as a caution to those who travel through Malabar, not to eat crabs there during the summer months. The case is the same with some kinds of fish. At Cochin and the neighbouring districts the water also is exceedingly unwholesome. The natives of Malabar are not so fond of springs as they are of their Colam or ponds, from which they draw the water they use as drink. As it, however, contains too much marine salt and calcareous particles, if it be not properly filtred, it gradually produces such bad effects on the body, as to make the feet of those who drink it swell up in an extraordinary manner. I have seen some of these people whose legs were as thick as the body of a full-grown man. The most beautiful women at Cochin have sometimes feet like an elephant[150]. Rich people cause their water for drinking to be brought, for the most part, from the Feira d’Alva, which is very pure, and has an excellent taste.

When a Malabar king, prince, or great man dies, the Mucaver must for some time give over fishing; and, as a signal that it is then prohibited, branches of trees are always stuck up here and there on the banks of the rivers. They are generally suffered to remain eight or ten days, in order that the soul of the deceased during that time may choose for itself a new habitation in the body of some fish.

Shell-fish.—The sea hedge-hog is found at Collam, and other places on the coast; but it is much larger than at the Cape of Good Hope and the Isle of France. These animals adhere so fast to the rocks and stones, that it is almost impossible to detach them. On one side they are covered with black, sharp prickles, which serve them as a defence against their enemies; on the other is observed a round smooth aperture, which supplies the place of a mouth, and through which, by means of a few tender hollow fibres, they receive their nourishment. When they are sated with food, they attach themselves to the rocks with these fibres so fast that a knife is necessary to disengage them. When they are desirous of removing from one place to another, they use their prickles instead of oars, and swim along the surface of the sea with great ease, so that they almost have the appearance of black balls.

The sea-star is found in great abundance in the ocean to the east of Cochin. These animals, like other kinds of fish, form themselves into a sort of society; for it is very rare to see one of them alone. They swim in shoals at the surface of the water, and always direct their course according to the wind: their movement, however, is scarcely perceptible. They have a few small suckers, through which they receive their nourishment, and which they contract as soon as they are touched. Their stomach, from which the nourishing juices are conveyed to the smallest vessels, is probably in the centre of their body, where all their points are united. They have neither eyes nor mouth; but a most delicate sense of feeling, which supplies the place of sight.

On the rocks near the sea there are found also a kind of testaceous animals called in Italian Ballani, which are of a flesh colour, and have an excellent taste. Their shell has the form of a half-blown tulip.

The pipe coralline, Tubipora, has almost the appearance of a leaf covered with prickles.—At Collam there are found also various kinds of Turbinites.

Snakes.—The commonest, though not the most poisonous kind of these animals, found in Malabar, is the Nallapamba, that is, the beautiful snake. It is so called, because it has hanging round its neck two pieces of skin, which shine like a pair of spectacles, and which it can extend over its head like a hood or cap. Of this snake there are several varieties. One has a complete cap at both sides of the head, and is called Padamuliaven: another is furnished with this cap only on one side, and is called Ottapadaven. A third kind has a complete cap, but is much smaller than the other two, and is the most poisonous of all. When these snakes attack a man, or fight with the Kirri, they raise themselves up in a perpendicular direction; turn round on their tail, whistle, move the upper part of their body from side to side, and in that manner endeavour to wound their antagonist. Some of these snakes are from three to four, others from six to eight palms in length; but the smallest, which the Indians call Caytolacurungni, is, as already said, the most poisonous. A person bit by it dies generally in three or four hours; but this depends on the place where the wound has been inflicted, whether in any of the nobler parts of the body from which the poison is conveyed sooner to the heart. With theriac of Poictiers, and the antidote of Madura, I have cured more than fifty persons who had been bitten by serpents of this kind. When I took charge of such patients, I caused them, above all things, to be kept under a very warm covering, and both the doors and windows to be carefully shut, that no cool air might touch them. As I knew from experience that the poison communicates to the blood a deadly coldness, by which it is curdled, I made my patients frequently drink warm water, and gave them two or three doses of theriac or the Madura antidote. If a perspiration followed, and if their breathing became freer, I continued the same treatment, making them take theriac and warm water. If the whole mass of the blood, however, was already infected, my method of cure failed, and the patients infallibly died. The previous symptoms were blueness of the lips and around the eyes; the face became of a dark brown and white colour, and all the limbs turned rigid. The most effectual remedies which can be used in such cases are, eau de luce, and caustic alkali. These spirituous things, however, are difficult to be procured in India; because they soon evaporate, and cannot be preserved. The natives of Malabar generally employ the Alpam root, and pulverised Amelpori: they also bind up the wounded part, and cauterise the wound with a red-hot iron. The latter process is of little or no use; and for that reason this poison proves mortal to so many people, who might perhaps be saved by a different treatment.

The description given by the ancients, of the aspis, agrees exceedingly well with this serpent, and there is reason to conclude that it is the same animal[151]. The wild swine, and different kinds of fowls, however, eat them; but they always leave the head. It is not improbable, that the Kirri destroys this snake, because it sucks eggs in the same manner as it does, lies in wait for mice and bats, and consequently deprives it of its food; but, when killed, the Kirri is satisfied, and leaves it untouched. It may be rendered as tame as any domestic animal, if a little milk and sugar be daily placed before it, as is done in Malabar. It comes then every day at certain hours to eat its food; never offers the least injury to any one; and suffers itself to be taught various tricks. I saw this pastime several times, in the house of the Pennicare at Verapole, and was no longer astonished at the art of the ancient priests, who are said to have been acquainted with the method of taming snakes also. When these snakes arrive at any place where there are a great many poultry, they unite together, and range themselves in order of battle against the enemy. In this respect they seem to be guided by the same instinct which induces the buffaloes, as soon as they discover a tyger, to form themselves into a circle, with their hind parts squeezed close together, and thus to present their horns to the ravenous animal. This snake is fond of frequenting gardens where there are pineapples, by the smell of which it seems to be attracted. On the other hand, all snakes, without exception, fly from burning sulphur, and from all plants, roots, and vegetables which emit a strong smell.

Another poisonous snake is, by the natives of Malabar, called Velliketten, or Vallumi, and by some of the Europeans the ringed snake, because it has several white rings around its body. It is, however, only two palms in length, and as thick as the finger, but exceedingly poisonous. People, therefore, cannot be too much on their guard against this animal, for it enters sitting apartments, and creeps not only under tables and chairs, but even under the beds.

The spotted snake, called Maudali, is totally different from the Anelli, with which it is confounded by Father Vincentius à Sancta Catherina, who has given a description of it in the eighth chapter of the fourth book of his Voyage to the East Indies.

The snake Ettadimuken is called by the Portuguese Cobra de oitto passos, because it always contracts itself together, and then springs forwards eight paces.

The Cerattapàmba, that is, the springing snake, is of a small size, perfectly white; always holds its head erect, and, when it moves, forms its body into a bow. I found snakes of this kind on the mountains of Maleatur, where they conceal themselves under the fallen leaves.

Tevi is the name of a beautiful, small, striped snake, which hurts nobody. When one of this kind is killed, a great many of the same species resort to the place, and remain in the neighbourhood till their dead companion is removed. However incredible this circumstance may appear, it is certain that an instance of it occurred at the seminary of Ambalacatti, in the presence of at least thirty persons. I have several times been on the point of killing one of these snakes; but the Christians, as well as Pagans, always requested me for Heaven’s sake not to do it, else it would be impossible for them to remain in their houses, on account of the great number of snakes which would assemble from all quarters, and which they would not get rid of for several days. I shall leave it to naturalists to explain this singular phenomenon.

Malapàmba, or Perimpàmba, the mountain-snake, found in the Gauts, is altogether of a dark-brown colour; from thirty to forty feet in length, and as thick as a fed ox. It has no teeth; but it devours dogs, deer, cows and other animals, which it seizes by twisting itself round their bodies. The existence of this monstrous animal is beyond all doubt; for some of them have been seen at Vaypur, Cagnarapalli, and other places. Sometimes they are swept down from the mountains by the violence of the streams. I myself caused a snake of this kind to be caught, and sent it as a present to M. de l’Ormier. It was fifteen feet in length. If a person takes a spoonful of the fat of this snake, and drinks warm water afterwards, it expels the leprosy. I have in my possession a bottle filled with it.

The Irutalakuszali is a snake with two heads, whatever Charleton and others may say to the contrary. In Portuguese it is called Cobra de duas cabeças, and in Latin the Amphisbæna. M. Rosier, the commandant at Collam, shewed me two snakes of this kind, which he preserved in a glass jar. I saw one of them also in the mountains of Maleatur. It is a palm or a palm and a half in length; has the colour of withered leaves; and does not, like other snakes, creep straight forwards, but always rears one of its heads, and makes an arch with its body when it moves. Its bite always occasions a tumour filled with venom; but the poison acts very slowly, so that it is seldom or never too late to apply a remedy[152].

The most poisonous and most dangerous of all the Malabar serpents is called the Rudhiramandali. This Samscred word implies that it is spotted, and that its poison forces the blood from the bodies of those whom it wounds; for Rudhira signifies blood, and Mandali ornamented with spots. The dreadful effect of its poison is described by Lucan in the following lines:

In this horrid situation I once saw a young woman of about twenty years of age at Verapole. A great number of people earnestly requested that I would endeavour to mitigate the sufferings of this unfortunate girl; but neither theriac, volatile alkali, nor the antidote of Madura, could be of any service, and she died in the course of about three hours. The bite of this snake, therefore, produces an effect directly contrary to that produced by the bite of the asp. The latter causes the blood to coagulate, and to freeze as it were in the veins; but the former decomposes it entirely, and sets it in such a fermentation that it runs from the body, as one may say, in the same manner as boiling water from a kettle that stands over the fire. No remedy has ever yet been discovered for the bite of this animal.

No less dangerous is another snake called Polaven (not Polaga), the body of which is covered with tumours and pustules. Those unfortunate persons who are bit by it, sweat blood; but with this difference, that it oozes from the body in drops.

The Karuwaèla has on its head three knobs or excrescences, which form a comb; and three red rings round its neck. It is an ell in length, and of a shining black colour, as far as the eyes, which are of a fiery red, and sparkle with savage wildness. It is said that it can kill people merely by its look; and, if this be true, it may with propriety be called the Malabar basilisk. It is found no where but in the Gauts, from which it never descends unless when swept down by the rains.

The Cancutti is a small snake, which generally makes a spring at the eyes. I never had an opportunity of seeing this snake, or the preceding; but I was assured by the natives of Malabar, that both kinds are found in the country.

During my residence at Verapole I found snakes every where, not only in the gardens, but also in the houses, and even in the Patayas, or rice magazines. People, therefore, must be always on their guard, and keep every thing neat and clean. They must also burn frequently strong smelling substances, and such in particular as occasion a great deal of smoke and vapour; for these are the best means to drive away snakes, which generally take up their abode in places where little attention is paid to cleanliness.

It is well known, that the Indians are acquainted with a method of charming serpents, or of enticing them towards them by a certain kind of art. This operation I have several times seen, and I always observed that the whole process was perfectly natural. The people who charm the snakes rub their hands with various kinds of sweet smelling herbs, and employ at the same time the assistance of singing and music. As soon as the snake, which is acute of hearing as well as sharp-sighted, perceives what is doing, it creeps from its hole, becomes as it were inchanted, and twists itself round a slender stick which is presented to it. The charmer then takes out its poison, puts it into a basket, and carries it about through the streets, where it is made to amuse the populace with all kinds of tricks[154].

According to the Brahmanic mythology, there is a snake which surrounds the whole world. They give it the name of Sarparagia, the king of the snakes, or Vàsughi. Properly speaking it is nothing else than the Annulus Platonis, a symbol of life and death; the eternal revolution of every thing in the universe. It is well known that Plato was indebted for this idea to his preceptor Pythagoras[155], to whom it was first communicated by the Magi in India.

Among the zoophytes, or animal plants of Malabar, is the sea-nettle; called by some urtica marina, and by others flamma maris. It is a spongy body, with a hole in the middle, which is surrounded by a purple-coloured band, that forms as it were a sort of cap. In the sea, near Cochin, there are two kinds of this animal, which swim about in the same manner as the sea-star. When held in the hand it occasions a painful sensation, like that produced by the common nettles. In the Malabar language it is called Cioriunu.

Mother of pearl is employed by the Indians to make panes for their windows. They are prepared at Cape Comari, where there is a pearl fishery. The pearls themselves are not sold there by weight as in Europe, but merely by an estimation of their value. Twenty pearl-oysters may be bought for a rupee, and the purchaser is not allowed to open them till he has paid the money. If only one pearl is found in these twenty oysters, he has sufficient reason to be satisfied with his bargain; but if they contain none, he must put up with the loss.