Voyage to the East Indies

CHAPTER  I.

Birth and Education of Children.

THE Indians of Malabar say that women conceive in silence, but bring forth amidst noise. When a woman is pregnant, the greatest respect is paid to her; not only by her husband, but by her parents, her relations, and her neighbours; and all the inhabitants of the place belonging to her cast interest themselves for her health and safety. They consider pregnancy as a very distinguished proof of the blessing of the goddess Lakshmi[156], who is a symbol of the fertility of the earth; and in the same degree that they detest widowhood and barrenness, they treat with care and tenderness married and pregnant women. The attention shown to the latter is founded in principles of wise legislation and sound philosophy, which employ these means to increase population and promote parental affection. When a woman has attained to the seventh month of her pregnancy, a particular festival is celebrated on her account. A bower, consisting of the branches, leaves, and bloom of the coco-nut tree, is constructed in the court-yard of her habitation; and her husband sends betel leaves to all her friends and relations, and invites them to the solemnity. As soon as the company have assembled in the arbour, boiled rice is brought as an offering to the gods on a banana leaf. This offering is called Ponghel, that is, the rice offering. The rice is accompanied with some figs, a little sugar, and butter; so that the whole has the appearance of a libation. It may be readily perceived, that the object of this ceremony is to induce the gods to provide for the support of the child, and to protect the mother, during the last months of her pregnancy, from every thing that might prove hurtful or prejudicial to her. After the libation, a coco-nut is broken and presented as an offering to Gannesha. A garland of flowers is then hung round the neck of the pregnant woman, who sits in the middle of the arbour; and a dish filled with saffron and chalk, which have been previously dissolved in water, is placed before her. The saffron, or cuncuma, is consecrated to the planets, which are worshipped by the Indians as deities, and which are said to possess the power of driving away the mischievous demons. For this reason all the women present at this solemnity take the above vessel in their hands, one after the other, and move it three times backwards and forwards before the face of the Garbhani, that is, the pregnant woman, to fright away the evil demons, and to guard against all witchcraft and sorcery which might do hurt to the child or the mother. These women then take another wooden vessel, with a little milk, into which are put several gold and silver medals. This vessel is given to the pregnant woman, who holds it in her hand, and at the same time bends her body forwards; upon which all the women present take in succession a piece of gold or silver from the vessel, and place it between her shoulders. This is done with a view to implore for her the blessing of Lakshmi, whom the Indians worship as the goddess of riches, milk, fruit, corn, and every thing produced by the fertility of the earth. Many ceremonies and customs, which have a striking similitude to the above, may be seen represented on some of the Grecian vases; and I am fully convinced, that a satisfactory explanation of them cannot be given till they are compared with the manners of the orientals.

A woman for a certain time after her delivery is considered as unclean; but the period prescribed in this respect is different according to the cast to which she belongs. For the cast of the Brahmans ten days are fixed; for that of the Kschetria, or Ràgiaputra, eleven; and for the lowest cast, or that of the Vayshya, fifteen. The wives of the Shudras, or artisans, and other people of inferior rank, do not adhere very strictly to this law; but in general they must remain a few days by themselves in a separate apartment, which is sometimes fitted up for the purpose, in order that the other inhabitants of the house may not render themselves impure, contrary to the strict prohibition of their religion. It, indeed, cannot be denied, that this practice is connected with a great deal of superstition; but in so hot a country as India it is useful and proper. The ablutions and bathing, which these women must employ, are attended with equal advantages. They not only promote cleanliness, but they strengthen the body and preserve it from nervous weakness, as well as universal debility, which would undoubtedly be the consequence of too violent perspiration[157].

As soon as a child comes into the world, it is not bound up, as among us, in clothes and bandages, but is suffered to have the free use of its limbs and is laid, quite naked, on a mat. After it has been repeatedly washed with cold water, the mother gives it the breast. Every female Indian, whatever be her condition, would consider it as a great cruelty to neglect this duty of nature, and to commit her child to the care of a nurse, from whom, as unfortunately is too often the case in other countries, it might imbibe, at the same time with her milk, her shameful passions, or her diseases[158]. In India, therefore, there is no reason to apprehend that a nobleman will be depraved by his nurse, and converted into a clown; for every child receives the same education that was given to his father, and to every member of the same cast.

When a woman is delivered, her husband, or lover, must acquaint the magistrate or overseer of his cast, that the new-born child may be added to the list of those persons who compose that cast. This overseer, called Giàdi Egiamàn, is bound by the nature of his office to transmit to the king an accurate account of the number and qualities of the persons under his inspection. By this list the king is enabled to discover, on the first view, the extent of his power; how many vassals he has, and the amount of the tribute which he can demand from them. This political establishment of the Indian princes was usual in the oldest periods, and occurs in Strabo. It was equally beneficial as that law of Servius Tullius at Rome, which obliged every father of a family, as often as he had a child born, to bring a piece of money to the temple of Lucina. The Brahmans are accustomed also to mark, with equal care, in their pagodas or temples, the birth-day of every child. In each of these there is always a Brahman, if not two, paid by the overseer of the temple, whose business expressly is to keep a register of the births, marriages and deaths, and also of every interesting event that concerns the class to which they belong. These Vàriar, or calculators, are therefore enabled to give such an accurate and minute account of the family, connexions, life and condition of every person in the neighbouring district, as is truly astonishing. This knowledge is acquired, indeed, in the most natural manner; but it has so much the appearance of something supernatural, that persons of weak minds are at a loss how to account for it. When a father has a child born, he sends for one of these astrologers, who pretend to understand the twenty-eight houses of the planets, through which the moon passes every month. The astrologer, having learned the moment of the child’s birth, makes it the ground of his calculations to discover the planet and constellation under which it was born, and, according to the result, he foretels the circumstances of its future life, of rather its destiny. This destiny, which they call Giàdaga, is written by the god Brahma on the forehead of all mankind at their birth; and from him proceed all the unavoidable events to which they are exposed during their whole lives. A belief in this destiny is the true cause why most of the Indians are real stoics: and their stoicism is evidently seen by their conduct when sick; by the women burning themselves with the bodies of their husbands; by the singular apathy, and in part horrid penances of their philosophers; and, in general, by the wonderful patience with which the Indians endure pain, labour, slavery, and other sufferings.

When the days of purification are over, it is then time to give the child a name; and on that occasion the company before mentioned assemble once more at the house of the mother. The latter having washed herself several times with pure water, and put on a complete new dress, appears with the child in her arms; presents it to her female friends; and sits down in the middle of the company, close to her husband. A Brahman then repeats publicly a number of prayers, and kindles the Hòma, or burnt-offering, in virtue of which the child is consecrated to Shiva, as the symbol of the Sun and of Fire; which, according to the Brahmanic doctrine, is supposed to be an image of the only true God. The substances used for this burnt offering are wood, rice, and butter. The name given to the child is taken immediately either from the elements, planets, and other stars; or from the symbols and figures by which the elements, stars and planets are represented. As soon as it is determined what the name is to be, some boiled rice is poured upon a banana-leaf; a vessel filled with water is placed upon the leaf; some Vepa or Amargoseira leaves are put into the vessel, and a coco-nut is laid over its mouth. The Brahman consecrates the water by a great many prayers; dips the leaves into the consecrated water, and besprinkles with it both the child and every person present. He then splits the coco-nut into two parts, and laying both halves upon a banana leaf, together with some figs, and a little betel and areca, presents the whole as an offering to an image of Ganesha. In honour of this deity he also throws incense into the fire, which is carefully kept up during the whole ceremony. The Brahman, at length, tells the father the name of the child; the latter repeats it three times; and the company retire, after some compliments of congratulation.

These ceremonies, however, are not all generally practised, as they occasion considerable expence, which poor people are not able to bear; and the Brahmans never do any thing without being paid. When a child, therefore, is born to parents in indigent circumstances, it receives a name from the chief of the cast; and the father or grandfather makes it known to the other relations. In whatever light these customs may be considered, it appears that they have been invented by the Brahmans, and are founded on the philosophy of the Heathens, by means of which their legislators endeavoured to make the people obedient to the laws. This, however, holds good only so far as these practices have a relation to the religious system of the Indians, and are not merely ceremonial. Thus we know, for instance, that the bananas represent fruitfulness, and are dedicated to Bacchus or the sun; that the Vepa leaves, which are extremely bitter, cleanse wounds, and that they are consequently used in these practices to represent, in a symbolical manner, the purification of the mind and body; that the coco-nut is dedicated to Gannesha, because it makes a whole without any joining; and that the Indian philosophers are accustomed to combine with their ceremonies a mystical sense, as was always the case among all the ancient nations of the east[159].

All the Grecian historians represent the Indians as people of greater size, and much more robust than those of other nations. Though this is not true in general, it is certain that the purity of the air, wholesome nourishment, temperance and education contribute, in an uncommon degree, to the bodily conformation, and to the increase of these people. Their new-born children lie always on the ground, as if they were thrown away or neglected; and they are never wrapped up with bandages, or confined in any other manner, as is done in Europe. Their limbs, therefore, can expand themselves without the least restraint; their nerves and bones become more solid; and when these children attain to the period of youth, they acquire not only a beautiful figure, but a sound, well turned, and robust bodily conformation. The frequent use of the cold bath, repeated rubbing the body with coco-nut oil and the juice of the Ingia plant, as well as their exercises, which have a great resemblance to the Juvenilia, and which I have often seen in Malabar, all contribute to increase their strength and agility. These advantages also are seldom lost, unless some of these young people abandon themselves to debauchery, or weaken their bodies by too great labour or excessive perspiration. However healthful and lively the young Indians may be in general, those who marry before the twentieth year of their age, for the most part, soon become feeble and enervated. In a word, I seldom saw in India a person either lame, crooked, or otherwise deformed. The people of Malabar, who live towards the west, are much handsomer and more robust than the natives of Coromandel, or the Tamulians on the eastern coast of India.

The education of youth in India is much simpler, and not near so expensive as in Europe. The children assemble half naked under the shade of a coconut tree; place themselves in rows on the ground, and trace out on the sand, with the fore finger of the right hand, the elements of their alphabet, and then smooth it with the left when they wish to trace out other characters. The writing master, called Agian, or Eluttacien, who stations himself opposite to his pupils, examines what they have done; points out their faults, and shews them how to correct them. At first, he attends them standing; but when the young people have acquired some readiness in writing, he places himself cross-legged on a tyger’s or deer’s skin, or even on a mat made of the leaves of the coco-nut tree, or wild ananas, which is called Kaida[160], plaited together. This method of teaching writing was introduced into India two hundred years before the birth of Christ, according to the testimony of Megasthenes, and still continues to be practised. No people, perhaps, on earth have adhered so much to their ancient usages and customs as the Indians.

A schoolmaster in Malabar receives every two months, from each of his pupils, for the instruction given them, two Fanon or Panam. Some do not pay in money, but give him a certain quantity of rice, so that this expence becomes very easy to the parents. There are some teachers who instruct children without any fee, and are paid by the overseers of the temple, or by the chief of the cast. When the pupils have made tolerable progress in writing, they are admitted into certain schools, called Eutupalli, where they begin to write on palm leaves (Panà), which, when several of them are stitched together, and fastened between two boards, form a Grantha, that is, an Indian book. If such a book be written upon with an iron style, it is called Granthavari, or Lakya, that is, writing, to distinguish it from Alakya, which is something not written.

When the Guru, or teacher, enters the school, he is always received with the utmost reverence and respect. His pupils must throw themselves down at full length before him; place their right hand on their mouth, and not venture to speak a single word until he gives them express permission. Those who talk and prate contrary to the prohibition of their master are expelled the school, as boys who cannot restrain their tongue, and who are consequently unfit for the study of philosophy. By these means the preceptor always receives that respect which is due to him: the pupils are obedient, and seldom offend against rules which are so carefully inculcated. The chief branches taught by the Guru are: 1st, the principles of writing and accompts: 2d, the Samscred grammar, which contains the declensions and conjugations; in Malabar it is called Sidharùba; but, in Bengal, Sarasvada, or the art of speaking with elegance: 3d, the second part of this grammar, which contains the syntax, or the book Vyagarna: 4th, the Amarasinha, or Brahmanic dictionary. This work, which is highly esteemed by the Brahmans, does not consist, as Anquetil du Perron says, of three, but of four parts; and contains every thing that relates to the gods, the sciences, colours and sounds, the earth, seas and rivers, men and animals, as well as to the arts and all kinds of employment in India. To render the construction of the Samscred language, and its emphatic mode of expression, more familiar to their pupils, the Guru employs various short sentences clothed in Samscred verse, which are called Shloga. These verses serve not only as examples of the manner in which the words must be combined with each other, but contain, at the same time, most excellent moral maxims, which are thus imprinted in the minds of the young people as if in play; so that, while learning the language, they are taught rules proper for forming their character, and directing their future conduct in life. That the reader may be better enabled to conceive some idea of the morality of the Brahmans, I shall here subjoin a specimen of these sentences.

I. What is the use of study, if the object of it be not to learn knowledge and fear, which is true wisdom?

II. Why have we ceased living in the forests, and associated ourselves in cities and towns, if the object of our doing so be not to enjoy friendship; to do good mutually to each other, and to receive in our habitations the stranger and wanderer?

III. The wounds occasioned by a slanderous tongue occasion far more pain, and are much more difficult to be healed, than those which proceed from fire and the sword.

IV. Of what use is it to thee to shut the door of thy house? It is necessary in order that thy wife may learn to be upon her guard.

V. He who revenges an injury enjoys a pleasure which endures only a day; but he who forgives receives a satisfaction which will accompany him through life.

VI. Modesty becomes every one, but is a particular ornament to the learned and rich.

VII. The state of a married pair, who never deviate from the path of honour, virtue, and mutual duty, is as difficult as that of those who impose on themselves the severest penances.

In the gardens, or sacred enclosures, in which children are taught, the Lingam, or Priapus, represented under the form of a cylinder, is generally found. It is, however, not worshipped by all the Indians, but only by the Shivanites. These are a particular sect, who pay divine honour to Fire, under the form of the god Shiva, as the principle or creative power by which every thing was produced. Besides the above idol, there are two other statues, which, for the most part, are placed before the entrance of the school. One of them represents Ganesha, the protector of the sciences, and of learned men; and the other the goddess Sarasvadi, the goddess of eloquence and history. Every student, as he enters the school, always directs his eyes to these two idols; raises his hands to his head, and shews his respect for them by repeating certain forms of prayer. That with which he salutes Ganesha is commonly in the following words: Sal Guruve namà: Adoration to thee, thou true master! Or, Ganabadaye namà: Adoration to thee, O Ganabadi! This is real idolatry; but these practices at any rate prove that the Indians accustom their children early to honour the gods, and to consider them as their protectors and benefactors. “Those who are desirous of knowing the power of religion, and the influence of religious opinions,” said the marquis of Kergariou, who commanded the Calypso frigate, “need only go to India.” This observation is indeed just; for among 2000 Indians you will scarcely find one who is not convinced of the necessity of supplicating the gods. Education, and the nature of the climate, are the strongest incitements to the natives to worship the deity, and to submit themselves to his will.

The other sciences and branches of learning taught to the Indian youth are: Poetry, Cavya; Fencing, Payatta; Botany and medicine, Vaydyashastra, or Bheszagiashastra: Navigation, Naushastra: The use of the spear on foot (Hastiludium), Cundèra: The art of playing at ball, Pandacali: Chess, Ciudarangam: Tennis, Colàdi: Logic, Tarkashastra: Astrology, Giòdisha: Law, Svadhyaya: Silence, Mauna[161]. The reader will have already remarked, that surgery, anatomy, and geography are excluded from this catalogue. The Indians are of opinion, that their country is the most beautiful and happiest in the whole world; and for that reason they have very little desire to be acquainted with foreign kingdoms. Their total abstinence from all flesh, and the express prohibition of their religion which forbids them to kill animals, prevent them from directing them, and examining their internal construction.

Of the Indian poetry I have already spoken in my Samscred grammar; and I shall give some farther account of it hereafter. Their navigation is confined merely to their navigable rivers; for, in general, the Pagan Indians have the greatest aversion to the sea. The management of the lance, fencing, playing at ball and tennis, have been introduced into their education on good grounds, to render their youth active and robust, and that they may not want dexterity to distinguish themselves in battles and engagements where cannon are not used. There are particular masters for all these exercises, arts and sciences; and each of them, as already mentioned, is treated with particular respect by the pupils. Twice a year each master receives a piece of silk, which he employs for clothing; and this present is called Samànam.

All the Indian girls, those alone excepted who belong to the casts of the Shudras and Nayris, are confined at home till their twelfth year; and when they go out, they are always accompanied by their mother or aunt. They inhabit a particular division of the house, called Andarggraha, which none of the male sex dare approach. The boys, in the ninth year of their age, are initiated with great ceremony into the calling or occupation of the cast to which their father belongs, and which they can never abandon. This law, mention of which occurs in Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Arrian, and other Greek writers, is indeed exceedingly hard; but, at the same time, it is of great benefit to civil order, the arts and sciences, and even to religion. According to a like regulation, no one is allowed to marry from one cast into another. Hence it happens that the Indians do not follow that general and superficial method of education by which children are treated as if they were all intended for the same condition, and for discharging the same duties; but those of each cast are from their infancy formed for what they are to be during their whole lives. A future Brahman, for example, is obliged, from his earliest years, to employ himself in reading and writing, and to be present at the presentation of offerings; to calculate eclipses of the sun and moon; to study the laws and religious practices; to cast nativities; in short, to learn every thing, which, according to the injunction of the Vèda, or sacred books of the Indians, it is necessary he should know. The Vayshya, on the other hand, instruct youth in agriculture; the Kshetria, in the science of government and the military arts; the Shudra, in mechanics; the Mucaver, in fishing; the Ciàna, in gardening; and the Bànyen, in commerce.

By this establishment the knowledge of a great many things necessary for the public good is not only widely diffused, but transmitted to posterity; who are thereby enabled still farther to improve them, and bring them nearer to perfection. In the time of Alexander the Great, the Indians had acquired such skill in the mechanical arts, that Nearchus, the commander of his fleet, was much amazed at the dexterity with which they imitated the accoutrements of the Grecian soldiers. I once found myself in a similar situation. Having intrusted to an Indian artist a lamp made in Portugal, the workmanship of which was exceedingly pretty, Some days after he brought me another so like my own that I could Scarcely distinguish any difference. It, however, cannot be denied, that the arts and sciences in India have greatly declined since foreign conquerors expelled the native kings; by which several provinces have been laid entirely waste, and the casts confounded with each other. Before that period, the different kingdoms were in a flourishing condition; the laws were respected, and justice and civil order prevailed: but, unfortunately, at present every thing in many of the provinces must give way to absolute authority and despotic sway.