Voyage to the East Indies

Division of Time—Festivals—Calendar of the Indians.

IN the reckoning of time the Indians employ partly solar years, and partly lunar. A solar year is called Sura, or Surya Valsara; a lunar year, Somanda, or Ciandra Valsara. A Suraya Valsara contains twelve months, during which the Sura or Surya (the sun) passes through the Rashiciacra (zodiac). The Rashi, or signs of the zodiac, are:

1. Mèsza, a horned animal, that is, Aries. It corresponds with April, called Mèsza-mòsa.

2. Idava, Vrsha, or Mahisha, that is, Taurus. It corresponds with Idavamasa, or Vrshamasa, May.

3. Mithuna, Gemini, couple, or man and wife, as seen represented on an Indo-Thibetian painting preserved in the Borgian Museum. It corresponds with Mithunamòsa, or June.

4. Carkidaga, and not Carcata, as it is called very improperly by Sir William Jones, Cancer. It corresponds with July.

5. Sinha, Leo, an animal which not only existed in India in the remotest ages, but is still found there; as Zimmerman has observed, with great propriety, in his Zoology. Sinhamasa, the sun in the sign Leo; August.

6. Cani, or Canya, Virgo; Canimasa, the sun in the sign Virgo, September.

7. Tula, Libra; Tulimasa, the sun in the sign Libra, October.

8. Vrshvica, Scorpio; Vrshvicamasa, November.

9. Dhanu, or Dhanussa, the Bow (not the bowman); Dhanumasa, December.

10. Magara, or Macara, the Whale (Souffleur); Magaramàsa, January.

11. Cumbha, a Water-pitcher, a vessel with a narrow neck, the sign Aquarius; Cumbhamasa, February.

12. Mina, or Malsya, Two Fish; Minamasa, March.

Anquetil du Perron believes that the Indians adopted this zodiac from the Arabs; but Bayer and Montucla are of opinion that they borrowed it from the Greeks. Sir William Jones, however, maintains that all nations of the earth were acquainted with the zodiac before their dispersion; and this conjecture appears to me to be the most probable[192].

The days of the week have also significative appellations, as follows:

1. Aadityanàl, Suryanàl or Suryavàra, the day of the sun, Sunday.

2. Sòmanàl, Sòmavàra, Tinguelashicia, Tinguelkelami, the day of the moon, Monday. The three first names are Malabar; the last Tamulic.

3. Mangalanàl, Ciovanàl, Ciovavàra, Ciovashicia, is, in Malabar, the day of Mars, Tuesday. This Mars, however, was not a warrior, but a priest and counsellor of the sun.

4. Budhanàl, Budhavàra, Budhanashicia, Budhakelami, the day of Mercury, Wednesday. By Mercury the Indians understand also a priest and counsellor of the Sun.

5. Brhaspadinal, Brhaspadivàra, Vyashicianàl, Vyashakelami, the day of Jupiter, Thursday. The Indian Jupiter was also a priest and a poet.

6. Shukranàl, Shukravàra, Vishnavàra, Velliashicia, Villikelami, the day of Venus, Friday. The genius of this planet is of the male sex; and is a priest, poet, and contemplative philosopher.

7. Shaninàl, Shanivàra, Pangunal, Shaniashicia, Shanikelami, is the day of Saturn, Saturday. The genius of this star is supposed, by the Indians to be an old man invested with the priesthood, who presides over the course of time, and devours children. According to every conjecture, this is merely an allegorical allusion, by which they mean to shew that a great many men always die before it has completed its revolution, which, as is said, continues thirty-nine years six months[193].

The Indians believe that the world was created under the sign of Aries; and therefore they begin, every year, on the commencement of April, when the sun enters into that sign, a new period, according to which they determine the course of the sun and the other planets. On this occasion they always hold their great and celebrated festival of offering known under the name of Yaga. A great many Brahmans assemble in a tent in the open fields, and, amidst a variety of ceremonies and religious practices, strangle a ram which is consecrated to the sun and the planets. The object of this sacrifice is, that the genii of these stars may confer good fortune and happiness on their worshippers during the course of the new year. In my Systema Brahmanicum I have given a particular description of this festival.

According to the assertion of Le Gentil, Bailly, De la Lande, and Sonnerat, the Brahmans use a cycle of sixty years, reckoned according to the method of the Chaldæans. A period of 24,000 years, they say, is necessary before the whole host of the heavens, together will all the fixed stars belonging to them, can perform their revolution from east to west. Now, as the motion of the celestial sphere, in the course of sixty years, advances fifty-four minutes in longitude, it thus produces the above-mentioned cycle of sixty years, which forms a part of the 24,000 years which must elapse before the whole rotation of the heaven is completed.

Mr. S. Davis, however, is of opinion, that this cycle of the Brahmans relates merely to the revolution of Rasha (Jupiter.) This much at any rate is certain, that this cycle actually occurs in the astronomy of the Brahmans. Walther, Sonnerat, and Father Beschi have mentioned the different appellations of the sixty years, of which this cycle consists, in the order as they follow each other; and it appears, that such years are expressly quoted in the horoscopes and descriptions of the nativities of the Indian princes. It is equally certain, that this cycle existed in the Pancianga of the Brahmans at Carnate, Malayala, Madura, and Tanjaur. This Pancianga is the calendar used by all the Brahmans who live towards the East. It consists of five divisions, as appears by its name, which is compounded of pancia five, and angia a part. The first contains the days of the moon’s increase and decrease; the second, the usual days of the week; the third, the constellations, with an account of the moon’s daily position; the fourth, those days which announce good or bad fortune; and the fifth, auguries and horoscopes, together with the current year of the above-mentioned cycle of sixty years.

The Brahmans employ also another period called Mahayuga, which they determine by an anomalistic movement of the whole stars, which ends when the moon together with her apogeum and ascending nodes are in conjunction with the sun on the first day of April. Repeated observation of the starry heavens gave the Brahmans an opportunity of remarking that the course of the stars was in a certain measure retarded by their ascension and distance from the earth. They calculated, therefore, this retardation, and found, that, since the time when the above position of all the stars took place, 1,955,884,890 years must have elapsed; and that 2,364,115,110 years were necessary to produce it again. This great anomalistic period of the revolution of the stars, which they call Calpa, is divided into four epochs. The first is called Satayayuga, the age of truth and justice, or the golden age; Tredayuga, the second, we should call the silver age; the third, Duabarayuga, is the brazen age; and the fourth, Caliyuga, the iron age.

The whole Calpa, comprehending the Sandhi[194], lasts 4,320,000,000 years.

Of all the Europeans, no one, as far as I know, has placed in a clearer light this subject, as well as the whole Brahmanic astronomy, so difficult to be explained, than Mr. Samuel Davis[195]. From his explanation, founded upon Indian manuscripts, it evidently appears that the above periods, as well as the division of the different ages into a certain number of years, is not a poetical fiction, but a real astronomical period, founded upon the hypothesis, that so many thousands of years, which form the Calpa, are requisite before all the celestial bodies can be found together in the above position; which however has never yet existed. M. Bailly was therefore in a great error when he endeavoured to prove, from the astronomical calculations of the Brahmans, that the world is much older than it is according to the chronology of Moses[196].

We are told by Strabo, in the fifteenth book of his Geography, that the Brahmans admitted, as a thing well known, that the earth was of a spherical figure; and indeed they are actually convinced of the truth of this principle. They divide the diameter of it into a hundred and sixty equal parts, which they call Yogiana. When they wish to determine the degree of latitude under which a place lies, they employ the Palabhá, that is, the shadow projected by the gnomon of a dial, placed in a perpendicular direction, exactly at the time when the sun is on the equator. The longitude, called Deshándara, they determine by eclipses of the moon; and it is reckoned from the first meridian, which most of the Brahmans make to pass through the western extremity of the island Lanca or Ceylon. The place where it does so is called Salmala, and is probably a mountain on the coast of Pescaria, which is adjacent to that island; at least we have reason to conclude so from this circumstance, that the coast of Pescaria is called in the Samscred language Salàbhabu. We know from the Indian mythology, that Rama (the Indian Bacchus, or the Sun,) went to the first meridian in Lanca, when he wished to expel Ravana the king of the night; and that, for this purpose, he passed over the bridge Ràma, which is properly nothing else than a sand-bank, that affords a passage from Pescaria to Lanca. Here then in the island of Lanca is the first meridian, where, according to the idea of the Brahmans, immediately after midnight the natural day begins to appear, and then diffuses itself earlier or later over all the other places towards the east or the west, according as they lie under a nearer or more remote degree of longitude. There are, however, various other places which the Brahmans make their first meridian to pass through: such, for example, as Avanti, a town in the country of the Marattas.

The inhabitants of the coast of Malabar reckon the hours of the day and the night from the rising and setting of the sun. Thus they say, in the first Nàliga (hour) of the day; in the second Nàliga of the night, &c. Few of the Indians reckon the hours from noon. The duration of time, called Ràla, or Muhurta, is reckoned by the breathings of a person in health. Six breathings make a Vinàlica, or minute; sixty Vinàlica make a Danda; and sixty Danda, Dina, or Nàliga, form one Nakshatranàl, that is, a natural day; and thirty such Nakshatranàl make a Masà, or astronomical month.

In Malabar the day and night consist of sixty Nàliga, which together, according to the Italian method of reckoning time, amount to twenty-four hours. The night is divided into four Yama, or watches; so that the two first last till midnight, and the other two till morning. There is a similar division of the day. These watches have not been borrowed from military regulations; but were first established by the Brahmans employed in celestial observations.

The hours in the Samscred language are called Shalkshana; in the Tamulic and Malabar, Nàliga; in the Nepalic, Ghahu; and in Hindostan, Palà. They are announced from the summits of the pagodas, or heathen temples, by beating upon copper basons, the sound of which can be heard at a great distance. Is it not possible that these basons or copper vessels, which were employed for this purpose in the earliest ages, may have given rise to the invention of our bells? On some pagodas the hours are announced by means of a large cow’s horn, which emits a strong and penetrating sound. Some reckon the time by water-clocks, and others by lamps; some by the position of the sun, and others by the flux and reflux of the sea, which, when the moon is visible, they can determine with wonderful accuracy. Here and there may be found a few Indians who make use of the Berosian clocks.

The astronomical year of the Indians consists of 365 days, six hours, twelve minutes and thirty seconds. When this division and the astronomical tables of the Brahmans are closely examined, it appears that they agree perfectly with the Egyptian, Chaldean and Babylonian; and that they were long known among them before the origin of the Alexandrian school, from which Anquetil du Perron deduces the astronomical knowledge of the Brahmans.

The Indian books which treat of astronomy are:

1. The Sùrya Sidhànda, that is, observations of the sun.

2. Sòma Sidhànda, observations of the moon.

3. Vashista Sidhànda, observations of Vashista.

4. Graha làghava, observations of the stars.

5. Grahanamala, or a catalogue of eclipses.

The astrological books of the Indians are:

1. Giodisha Shástra, that is, the science of casting horoscopes, and observing the constellations.

2. Giadagàrnava, that is, the light by the help of which one can discover what is good or bad in the hour of a person’s nativity.

3. Kramadìpiga: Instructions for the knowledge of good or bad actions; the production of which depends on the constellations.

4. Suhudidìpiga: Instructions how to perform ablutions and purifications by observing the revolution of the heavens.

In the scientific writings of the Brahmans, astronomy is treated in a manner entirely different from that of the so-called Purana, or ancient histories. The latter contain nothing but a multitude of insipid fables, the foundation of which is astronomy; but which are entirely destitute of probability. Anquetil, Bailly, and other learned men have however suffered themselves to be so far misled by them, as to consider the astronomy of the Brahmans in a very erroneous point of view.

Besides the solar year, the Indians have also a particular lunar year, which, according to the testimony of Curtius[197], was introduced in the earliest periods, and by which most of them at present are accustomed to form their computations. Some of the inhabitants of the coast of Malabar reckon, as we do in Europe, by solar years; and adopt our Annum expunctionis, or leap-year, which they call Kuttucàla. Others reckon as we do, but differ from us in regard to the days of the month; as they increase or lessen them without making any variation in the number of the months. Their month begins after the seventh and before the twelfth day of ours, and consequently ends some days later. This difference, however, is not confirmed by the authority of the king or government, but depends merely on the astronomical observations of this or that astronomical sect and school, one of which reckons one way, and another in a different.

That the reader may form some idea of the lunar months of the Indians, I shall here give the names of the twenty-seven constellations which the moon passes through every month, and to which particular regard has been paid in this division of time. Sir William Jones has transcribed them in the Bengal language; but I shall employ the Malabar and Tamulic.

• 1. Ashvadi,
• 2. Bharanì,
• 3. Kártiga,
• 4. Rohanì,
• 5. Magaira,
• 6. Tiruvádira,
• 7. Punarda,
• 8. Aylya,
• 9. Magha,
• 10. Pura,
• 11. Puya,
• 12. Uttara,
• 13. Atta,
• 14. Cittra,
• 15. Ciodi,
• 16. Vishággha,
• 17. Anila,
• 18. Trketta,
• 19. Mula,
• 20. Puráda,
• 21. Uttaráda,
• 22. Tiruvonna,
• 23. Avitta,
• 24. Ciadèya,
• 25. Puraviruttàdi,
• 26. Uttaraviruttàdi,
• 27. Irabadi.

Some add also the twenty-eighth, Abhijit. Mr. Sonnerat has totally mutilated these names, which may be found in the second volume of his Voyages. I have written them exactly as they are pronounced in Italian. Whoever will take the trouble to compare them with the Bengalo-Samscredamic appellations, which Sir William Jones has published, will find that they entirely correspond with them, and that the Brahmans on the coast of Malabar understand the Samscred as well as the Brahmans of Bengal and at Benares[198].

According to the principles of the Indians, the moon continues in each of these constellations during the period of sixty Malabar Naligas, or twenty-four hours. In their calculations the Indians do not take into account the days of new and full moon, but reckon only those of her increase and decrease. Full moon is called in the Samscred language Pùrmimà, or Velutavà, the white moon. New moon is called Amàva or Carttavàva, that is, the new, the black moon; because at that time she is not quite visible. As soon as full or new moon is past, they begin to reckon in the following manner: Prathema, the first day after new or full moon; Duidia, the second; Tridia, the third; Ciadrtti, the fourth; Penciami, the fifth; Shasdi, the sixth; Saptami, the seventh; Ashdami, the eighth; Navamì, the ninth; Dashamì, the tenth; Egadashi, the eleventh; Dvàdashi, the twelfth; Trayodashi, the thirteenth; Ciadurdashi, the fourteenth. Her increase is called Purvapaksha, and her decrease Abaraksha, that is, the fore-part and hind-part of the moon. According to the above method of reckoning, a lunar month seems to consist of fourteen days: two such lunar months and two days make a solar[199].

The festivals of the Indians, according to the lunar calendar, are established in the following order:

I. In Purnima, the month of March, the festival of the goddess Bhagavadi is celebrated, which, next to that of the sun, when a ram is sacrificed, is the most celebrated of all. The principal part of the solemnity is, that the Brahmans, in honour of the moon, present a large offering, which, they call Sòmayàga (the moon-offering). On this occasion they bruise certain aromatic herbs, and prepare from their juice a particular kind of beverage, which they partake of, repeating at the same time a great number of private forms of prayer, called Mandra. These Mandras always end with the words Om or Sváha, which signify, Be it so, or Amen! Happiness, health, and prosperity, be thine! For example: Pranane Svàha; Abàne Svàha; Samane Svàha; Vyana Svàha:—that is: Prosit, May it do thee good, Spirit of Life (Pràna)! Prosit, &c. Spirit of those below (Abàna)! Prosit, &c. Spirit of Breathing! Prosit, &c. Spirit of Sight! Prosit, &c. Spirit of Hearing!—These, in all probability, are the five spirits which the Egyptians worshipped, as we are informed by Origen in his fifth book against Celsus; and to which they added, besides others, Crepitus Ventris. This festival is always celebrated in the month of March, on the first Monday after the equinox. I had an opportunity of seeing it at Muttam, Tiruvandaram, and Craganor. The concourse of people on these occasions is immense. Through religious zeal, the Indians bring with them a great many cocks, and give them to the Brahmans, who slaughter these animals before the door of the temple of Bhagavadì, and besprinkle the earth with their blood. The attributes of this deity have been fully explained already.

II. The second lunar feast is called Egadashi, or Egashì, because it always falls on the eleventh day on which the moon either increases or decreases. On this day, all women who have been delivered in the course of the week, or who approach the time of their delivery; all barren females, or those who suffer from a suppression of the menses; likewise all patients who have been cured of the small-pox, and all fishermen and farmers, must observe a strict fast in honour of the goddess Bhagavadi. All these people are fully convinced that the moon assists women in labour, expels the fever of the small-pox, promotes the growth of the fruits of the earth, is propitious to fishing, and has an effect on menstrual purification. They repair, therefore, very early, as I had an opportunity of seeing several times at Feira d’Alva and Barcale, either to the sea, or, as circumstances may serve, to some river or pond, where they perform their usual ablutions, and then cause a half-moon, or some other sacred mark which has a symbolical relation to the moon, to be painted on their foreheads. When this is done, they hasten to the temple of Bhagavadi; bring her an offering of coco-nuts, rice, butter, pepper, flowers, and other vegetables; deposit all these before the door of the temple, and pray to the goddess with uplifted hands. On this day they are not allowed to take the least nourishment before sun-set; and even then they must use nothing but boiled rice, fruit, pulse, and water. Milk, fish, and betel, are strictly forbidden during these fasts.

These devotees, and particularly the philosophers among them, have an uncommon dexterity in observing the phases and aspects of the moon, and of foretelling from them the changes of the weather. When the moon is obscured by a cloud, and it begins to lighten, they regulate their predictions by the following rule:

That is: “When the lightning appears of a dark blue colour, it prognosticates wind: if it be very red, drought will follow: if it has a yellow appearance, it denotes rain.” All the physical and astronomical observations commonly ascribed to Zoroaster, or Zera-Thust, have originated properly from the Indian Shamanæi, and agree perfectly with the observations of the modern Brahmans.

III. The third festival is celebrated merely by females, at the time when the moon is in the constellation Tiruvàdira, which always happens in the sixth lunar month. The origin of this festival is thus related in the Indian mythology:—Shiva, that is, the good, (a sacred name given to the solar deity,) once burnt the god Ramadèva, (the Cupid of the Indians,) and deprived him of life. The death of this beautiful boy made a deep impression of grief on the heart of the goddess Parvadi, the lunar deity, or wife of Shiva. She requested, therefore, in the most earnest manner, that her husband would restore him to life; which he at length did. In remembrance of this remarkable event, the principal Indian women subject themselves to strict fasting; and at the same time offer to Parvadi milk, fruit, rice, flowers, and bananas, to give her to understand that they entertain a grateful remembrance of her intercession, by which Ramadèva was again restored to life. On this day the Indian women perform a peculiar kind of dance called Tiruvàdiraattam. Many of them also are accustomed to amuse themselves in a swing; and this practice seems to have a particular relation to the divine worship of the sun and the moon. The elements which were animated by these two planets are: Aghni[200], fire; Bhu, or Bhumi, the earth; Gela, water; Vayu, air; and Agàsha, the æther.—Some of the Pagans form such grovelling ideas of the Deity, that they consider the earth as his body, the air as his skin, water as his tongue, fire as his eyes, and the æther as his ears[201].

IV. The fourth grand festival, celebrated in Maleyàla, is called Onam, and happens always in the month of September, on the day of new moon.—About the 10th of September the rain ceases in Malabar. All nature seems then as if renovated: the flowers again shoot up, and the trees bloom: in a word, this season is the same as that which the Europeans call spring. This festival seems, therefore, to have been instituted for the purpose of soliciting from the gods a happy and fruitful year. It continues eight days, and during that time the Indians are accustomed to adorn their houses with flowers, and to daub them over with cow’s dung; because the cow, as already observed, is a sacred animal dedicated to the goddess Lakshmi, the Ceres of the Indians. On this occasion they also put on new clothes, throw aside all their old earthen ware, and supply its place by new. The men, particularly those who are young, form themselves into two parties, and shoot at each other with arrows. These arrows are blunted, but exceedingly strong; and are discharged with such force, that a considerable number are generally wounded on both sides. These games have a great likeness to the Cerealia and Juvenalia of the ancient Greeks and Romans.

About this time the god Vishnu is accustomed, as the Pagans pretend, to pay a visit to the earth, and to wander about under a thousand forms, in order to observe in what state terrestrial affairs are: whether, for example, there has been a good harvest; whether princes rule their dominions properly; and other things of the like kind. They prepare, therefore, in honour of Vishnu, a large wheel, which is the symbol of this god, made of flowers, and place it in the fore-court of their houses. During my residence at Ràmapurata I had several times an opportunity of seeing such wheels, which are called Ciacra, in the habitations of the Brahmans. They thereby shew, in a very ingenious manner, that, the rainy season being over, the sun is again on the point of approaching, and about to resume his dominion as it were anew.

Besides these grand festivals, there are several others; such as the Shivaratri, or the night of Shiva; in which the Phallophoria ceremonies, that relate to the worship of the Lingam, are celebrated. This festival, on the coast of Malabar, is held always in March, when the sun enters the last sign of the zodiac, or Pisces. On this occasion all the inhabitants of both sexes hasten in great numbers to the temple of Shiva, or Mahadèva; remain there the whole night; sing all sorts of indecent songs in honour of the Lingam; go a hundred times in solemn procession either around the temple or around a tree, under which the Lingam is placed; and carry about with them, at the same time, a wooden representation of the Lingam; amidst dancing and singing. These circular perambulations have an allusion to the circle which the sun describes in his course through the zodiac, and the Lingam represents the creative power of that luminary.

In the month of December is celebrated the festival of the five brothers, Pando, whom the god Krishna delivered from the oppression of their uncle Kaurava, or Kuru, as he is called by Mr. Wilkins.

Màsu Ubavàsa is a festival observed by the devout every month, and in which they use nothing but a little fruit, herbs, and roots. By means of this festival they hope to obtain forgiveness of their sins, and to pave the way for a tranquil and happy passage into the other world.

The festival of Sarasvadi, who, as the goddess of music and the sciences, is highly honoured by the Indians, I shall pass over in silence, to avoid being too prolix; as well as several other small festivals, which have been introduced only among a few casts or classes[202].

It appears from these laws, which are in general use; from the religious practices of the Brahmans, the origin and attributes of their duties; from their division of time, their festivals, and their calendar; from the many conical and pyramidal buildings found in India; from the etymology of various Samscred words, and from many other circumstances, that the Indians are a very old people, whose character has a striking resemblance to that of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Persian Magi. Sir William Jones was induced, therefore, to conjecture that a great emigration must have taken place in the twelfth century, before the birth of Christ, by which the religion and religious practices, as well as the arts and sciences, of foreign nations, were conveyed from Egypt to India. According to my researches, and the testimony of the most respectable authors, the origin of all these inventions is to be deduced from the successors of the Noachites, who first settled in the province of Kurdistan, and thence spread themselves to India and other places.