Women artists in all ages and countries

While the academicians and naturalists of the Italian schools contended through the seventeenth century, and while in France and Spain the works of art exhibited as great contrasts, modified in each country by national peculiarities, two different systems in the North came into notice. These, as in the time of Von Eyck, had great influence upon the development of art in other lands besides that where they originated. One was the Flemish school, represented by Rubens; the other the Dutch, in which Rembrandt was regarded as the mighty master.

The style of Rubens, brilliant, luxuriant, and full of vigorous life, it may be thought would commend itself peculiarly to the attention of women. This school, however, in which the healthy and florid naturalism of Flemish art reached its highest development, seems to have been without any female disciples of note. The passionate and often intensely dramatic character of the works of Rubens and his scholars, and the physical development of his nude figures, were, indeed, scarcely suited to feminine study, though their fullness of life and warmth of coloring afterward won to imitation an artist like Madame O’Connell. We may also mention Micheline Wontiers, a portrait painter in the first half of the seventeenth century. An engraving was made from one of her productions by Pontius, who busied himself with the works of Rubens. The name of Catherine Pepyn, too, is found inscribed as a portrait painter in the St. Luke’s Society of Artists at Antwerp, about 1655.

In Holland, on the other hand, the new school of painting owed its marked features to the political and religious revolution that had been the fruit of the reformed doctrines. This change offered a wide field for the exercise of female energy and genius. With the progress of the new faith kept pace the rapid advance of literature; the great questions at issue and the more earnest domestic life of the Hollanders furnishing ample materials for thought and description. Painting came under the same influence, and this was evident when the depth and power of feeling in his works marked Rembrandt as one of the greatest masters of all time.

A novel species of the art was called painting de genre. Herein life was represented in all its rich and varied forms, and the world and real humanity became objects of attention where hitherto only idealized representations had been tolerated. A new arena was thus opened, in which there was promise of noble achievement, and the rudest and meanest aspects of common life soon appeared capable of being invested with an ideal fascination. The painter de genre, armed with the wand of humor, often succeeded in such attempts, and success led to the adoption of that wonderfully poetical chiar’ oscuro in coloring, which, till this period, had never attained the same degree of favor either in the North or the South.

This state of things was eminently favorable to female enterprise, and we find, accordingly, in a number of fair artists, evidences of the energetic industry and careful minuteness for which the women of Holland have been particularly noted. However, in the earliest efforts at painting de genre, wherein the Flemish artists stood opposed to the schools of Italy, women took no share. These trial specimens usually consisted of some rough piece after nature, such as the drunken boors and rustic women of the elder Breughel, and for a long time the prevailing taste ran on the low, coarse, and fantastic in the models selected. There was more to disgust than to attract cultivated women in such a fashion, and, notwithstanding their alleged fancy to run into extremes, this will account for the fact that they did not choose to be numbered among those who delighted in such a copying of nature. One we hear of, Anna Breughel, seems to have been a kinswoman of a younger painter of that name.

The earnestness, depth, and intensity given to this species of art by Rembrandt seemed to lie as little within the compass of female fancy, which rather delighted in pleasing delineations of more superficial emotion, than in the concentration of the deepest feelings of nature. Thus few women were found among the immediate disciples of Rembrandt.

But as painting de genre accommodated itself more pleasingly to representations of ordinary life and circumstances, and the delicacy of detail that formed the peculiar charm of this species of art was lavished on attractive phases of character, the school became more and more the nursery of female talent.

Literature, at this period, experienced a similar change; and it is interesting to see the same persons pursuing both branches of study. This was the case with the two painters, Tesselschade-Visscher—called the “Dutch Muses,” on account of their poetry—with Elizabeth Hoffmann, and the dramatic poet, Catharina Lescaille; also with one of whom we shall presently speak, whose fame traveled far beyond the boundaries of her native land.

Among the older artists of the Dutch school we may mention, in passing, the fruit and flower painter, Angelica Agnes Pakman; Madame Steenwyk, a designer in architecture; and the portrait-painter, Anna de Bruyn. Anna Tessala was eminent as a skillful carver in wood. Concerning Maria Grebber, a pupil of Savary, Van Mander remarks that she was well skilled both in perspective and in building plans. Maria and Gezina Terburg were sisters of Gerard, and, like him, skillful in genre-painting.

Gottfried Schalken, who introduced a simpler method, and surprising effects of light, was not more celebrated than his sister and pupil, Maria, for productions remarkable for delicacy of execution and tender expression. Eglon van der Neer shared his fame with his wife, Adriana Spilberg. She was born in Amsterdam, in 1646, and was taught by her father, an eminent painter. She excelled in crayons or pastels, though she often painted in oil. Her portraits were said to be accurate likenesses. They were delicately colored, and executed with neatness and care. She was much patronized at the court of Düsseldorf.

Caspar Netscher, one of the best and most pleasing masters in this peculiar style, had a disciple in Margaretta Wulfraat, whose historical paintings—a Cleopatra and a Semiramis—are to be seen in Amsterdam, and who died at a great age early in the eighteenth century.

A still greater interest attaches to artists who also took an active part in the elevation of Dutch literature. Anna and Maria Tesselschade—the daughters of Visscher, already mentioned—belonged to this class; they were also celebrated for their fine etchings on glass. Their literary culture brought them into association with the most eminent scholars of that day.

With them may be ranked Margaretta Godewyck—born at Dort, in 1627, and a pupil of Maas—who attained celebrity both in painting and in her knowledge of the ancient and modern languages. She was called “the second Schurmann,” and many praised her as “the lovely flower of art and literature of the Merwestrom;” that is, of Dortrecht. She painted landscapes and flowers, and embroidered them with great skill. She died at fifty.

Catharina Questier, who resided at Amsterdam, was distinguished for painting, copper-engraving, and modeling in wax, besides having no small consideration accorded to her poetry. Two of her comedies, that appeared in 1655, evince her skill in at least three branches; for the drawings and engravings that illustrated the dramas were entirely her own design and execution.

ANNA MARIA SCHURMANN.

A higher and more enduring fame than all these could command must be accorded to Anna Maria Schurmann, called by the Dutch poets their Sappho and their Corneille. She was born in November, 1607, in Cologne (Descampes says, at Utrecht), of Flemish parents. Her family, like that of Rubens, was Protestant, and her parents fled to Cologne from the persecutions of Alba, remaining till 1615, when they removed to Utrecht.

Even in early childhood the genius of the young girl displayed its bent. At three years of age she began to read, and at seven could speak Latin. Her mother tried to keep her at the needle, but she loved to amuse herself by cutting out paper pictures; she also painted flowers and birds—untaught. A few years later, her taste for poetry and learning languages developed itself. Learning was her passion; the arts her recreation. Being allowed to be present at her brothers’ Latin lessons, she soon gained surprising proficiency in that tongue. When she was ten years old, she translated passages from Seneca into French and Flemish. Her love of study soon led to the acquisition of the Greek. To the classics she added, before long, a knowledge of the Oriental languages. She spoke and wrote the Hebrew, Samaritan, Arabic, Chaldaic, Syriac, Ethiopian, Turkish, and Persian; besides being perfectly well acquainted with the Italian, Spanish, French, English, and German, and speaking every European tongue with elegance.

At the age of eleven this Flemish lassie had read the Bible, Seneca, Virgil, Homer, and Æschylus in the original tongues; at fourteen she composed a Latin ode to the famous Dutch poet Jacob Cats, who became afterward an unsuccessful suitor for her hand. She wrote verses, indeed, in many languages. The knowledge of different tongues greatly aided her theological studies, in which she took the deepest interest from early life. It is said that it was by reading the History of the Martyrs she became imbued with the tendency to religious enthusiasm that so strongly influenced her through life, and led to so strange a career in her latter years.

The astonishing learning of this remarkable woman and her mastery in the languages, caused her opinions to be often consulted by the most erudite scholars of her time. Her judgment was always received with respect; an honorable place was reserved for her in the lecture-rooms of the University at Utrecht; and not unfrequently she took part openly in the learned discussions there carried on. The professors of the University of Leyden had a tribune made, where she could hear without mixing with the audience. With this wonderful erudition Anna Maria combined a rare degree of cultivation in art. The genius that had shown itself in paper-cutting still gave evidence of strong and resolute activity. She was skilled both in drawing and painting, had a “happy taste in sculpture,” and exercised her talents in carving in wood and ivory, as well as in modeling in wax. She carved the busts of her mother and brothers in wood. The painter Honthorst valued a single portrait executed by her, at a thousand Dutch florins. In addition, she has left evidence of her no slight accomplishments in copper-engraving; and she engraved with the diamond on crystal. Taste in music, and skill in playing on several instruments, fill up the list of the amazing variety of endowments bestowed on one of the most gifted of her sex.

We can not marvel that she was called by her contemporaries “the wonder of creation.” Not only was she, on account of such varied gifts, regarded with admiration, but she was idolized by her acquaintance for personal qualities. She was in the most intimate literary association with men of distinguished learning like Salmatius, Heinsius, Vossius—who is said to have taught her Hebrew—and others. Princes and princesses came to visit and converse with her, and entered into correspondence with her.

Gonzagues, Queen of Poland, taking a journey to Utrecht in 1645, went to visit Anna Maria, having heard such wonderful things of her. After a long conversation she gave her flattering tokens of her esteem.

The Queen of Bohemia, and the Princess Louise, her daughter, often wrote to her. With a modesty that was as rare as her singular endowments, Anna Maria declined all proffered honors, and it was long before she could be persuaded to publish her literary productions. When the distinguished physician, Johann van Beverwyk wished to dedicate to her his treatise on the “Advantages of the Female Sex,” she sought to withdraw from the intended compliment. In 1636 she was induced to publish a Latin poem, celebrating the foundation of the University of Utrecht. Her “Apology for the Female Sex,” and other works followed this.

Anna Maria Schurmann resided many years in her native city of Cologne. According to one authority, part of her time was passed in a country house, where she lived in the utmost simplicity, shunning the attentions of the persons of celebrity who wished to visit her, and dividing her time between her art and her pen. In 1664 she made a journey to Germany in company with her brother; and there first became acquainted with Labadie, the celebrated French enthusiast and preacher of new doctrines. He believed that the Supreme Being would deceive man for the purpose of doing good. He taught that new revelations were continually made by the Holy Spirit to the human soul; that the Bible was not a necessary guide; that observance of the Sabbath was not imperative; that a contemplative life tended to perfection in the character; and that such a state could be attained by self-denial, self-mortification, and prayer. This man was possessed of singular intellectual powers, and fascinating eloquence. He succeeded in gaining many followers, and the mind of Anna Maria, deep and serious to melancholy, and now clouded by grief for the loss of her father and brothers, too readily gave credence to his pretensions.

Abandoning both pen and pencil, she joined the disciples of Labadie, devoting herself to the studies that favored his theological doctrines. To promote his success, she published her last work, entitled “Eucleria,” in 1673, the year before the death of the fanatic. She attended him, and it is said he died in her arms.

In this book she deplores her early devotion to literature and art. Other accounts add that she collected the followers of Labadie—called Labadists—and, continuing to disseminate his tenets, assumed the leadership of the band, and conducted them to Vivert in Friesland. She brought over Elizabeth—Princess Palatine—to these doctrines, and together they opened an asylum for the wandering disciples. True to the doctrines she professed, Anna Maria bestowed all her goods to feed the poor, and sank to the grave in poverty, dying in May, 1678, at the age of seventy-one.

William Penn mentions, in his “Journey in Germany,” a conversation he had at Vivert with this wonderful woman in 1677, noticing especially the gravity and solemnity of her tones in discourse.

Anna Maria Schurmann has left behind her not only the renown of her great learning and artistic culture, truly remarkable in one of either sex, but also a reputation for purity of heart and fervor of religious feeling, which can not be disturbed by her mistaken though sincere belief, and the fanatical enthusiasm with which she clung to absurd dogmas. In her portrait her hair is combed back from her forehead, with flowing side locks. The back knot is wreathed with ornaments. A large pointed collar closely encircles her throat. Her features are marked; her eyes keen and expressive; her Roman nose is large.

Among the contemporaries of Anna Maria Schurmann were the painters Clara Peters, Alida Withoos, Susanna von Steen, and Catharine Oostfries; with the copper-engravers Susanna Verbruggen, Anna de Koher, and Maria de Wilde, who etched a series of fifty pieces—gems in her father’s collection—and published them in 1700 at Amsterdam.

It was in the seventeenth century that flower-painting was carried to such perfection among the women of the Netherlands. Constantia of Utrecht and Angelica Pakman may be classed with the pioneers of this beautiful art—this truly feminine accomplishment.

MARIA VAN OOSTERWYCK

was the first eminent artist in this branch, and the precursor of one superior to her—Rachel Ruysch—who, esteemed in her day as the pride and honor of the Dutch school, was, indeed, worthy of being reckoned among those of whom the whole world is proud. Though not so great, Maria is justly numbered among the illustrious women of Holland. She was born at Nootdorp, near Delft, about 1630. She received her early instruction from the distinguished flower-painter, David Heem. Her father was a preacher of the Reformed religion, and took pains in cultivating his daughter’s intellectual powers. He did not fail to notice her remarkable inclination to painting, and her dissatisfaction, and even disgust, at the trifles that served to amuse other girls of her age. She always had the crayon in her hand.

Her early productions gained much praise, and it was not long before she obtained such exceeding skill as to become the rival of her teacher. Admiring connoisseurs carried her fame abroad, and she became celebrated at foreign courts. Her works were eagerly sought by the first princes of the time, after Louis XIV. of France had placed one of them in his magnificent collection. The Emperor Leopold and the empress sent for specimens of her powers, for which she received the portraits of their imperial majesties, set in diamonds, in token of their esteem. Her pieces commanded enormous prices. William III. of England paid her nine hundred florins for a picture, and the sovereigns of Europe seemed to vie with one another in heaping honors and fame on this gifted woman. The King of Poland purchased three of her pictures for two thousand four hundred florins. These sums were paid her with every mark of respect, as presents from her friends rather than professional remuneration.

In the midst of all these honors Maria led a quiet and peaceful life, undisturbed by excitement or change. She was surrounded by a pleasant circle of friends; she worked indefatigably, and was always found in her cabinet. To obtain more time to herself, she went to pay a visit to her grandfather at Delft. One day she received a visit from a young man, who announced himself as William van Aelst, and appeared anxious to see some of her works. His admiration of them, was blended with an ardent love for the artist. He at last summoned courage to declare his passion, but Maria replied that she was firmly resolved against matrimony. Her lively suitor, she thought, too, was unsuited to her grave and quiet nature.

Unwilling, however, to crush his hopes too suddenly and treat him with unkindness, she annexed a condition to her acceptance of her wooer, which she imagined would effectually deter him from prosecuting his suit, or at least wear out his constancy. She required that he should work ten hours of every day for a year. The young man promised readily; but, as she supposed, he had not perseverance enough to keep his word. His studio was opposite Maria’s; she watched him from her window, and failed not to mark on the sash the days he was absent from his labors.

At the end of the year William came to claim her promise. “You have yourself absolved me from it,” was her reply; and, going to the window, she pointed out to him the record of his idle days. The lover was confounded, and retired disappointed.

Maria painted flowers with an admirable finish and accuracy, and displayed exquisite taste and art in their selection and grouping; she had also wonderful skill in copying their fresh tints, and in the harmonious adjustment of different colors. She took a long while and bestowed much labor in finishing her works, and they are consequently rare.

She died at the age of sixty-three, at the house of her nephew, Jacques von Assendelft, a preacher at Eutdam in Holland.

RACHEL RUYSCH.

Rachel Ruysch (spelled also Ruisch or Reutch) trod in the footsteps of Maria van Oosterwyck, and carried flower-painting to a perfection never before attained. Descampes says her flowers and fruit “surpassed nature herself.” It is certain that she succeeded in producing the most perfect illusion; and the tasteful selection of her subject and manner of grouping, disposition, and contrast, rendered the effect more exquisite.

This illustrious artist was the daughter of a famous anatomist, and was born in Amsterdam, 1664. She received lessons in painting from Wilhelm van Aelst, an artist who ranked with De Heem and Huysum among Dutch flower-painters. He and his rivals were soon equaled by the fair scholar, and thenceforward she took nature for her teacher.

While her fame went abroad with her pictures, Rachel sat and worked in her secluded room; but she could not hide herself from the arrows of the boy-god. She married—Descampes and others say, at the age of thirty—a portrait-painter named Julian van Pool, who fell in love, and introduced himself to her.

She became the mother of ten children. In the midst of domestic cares, and the duties of attending to her offspring, she managed not to neglect the art she loved so much; yet we are informed that her children were admirably brought up. The toil and study must have been immense which, in spite of the interruptions of household employments and the depression of a narrow income, enabled her to attain such excellence that her praises were sung by poets and poetesses, and her fame traveled to every court in Europe. In 1701 the Academical Society of Haye admitted her into membership; her reception picture was a beautiful piece of roses and other flowers. Her celebrity became so great that, in 1708, the Elector John of the Pfalz sent her a diploma, naming her painter in ordinary to his court, and inviting her to take up her residence in his capital. This prince wrote her another letter, accompanying the gift of a complete toilet set in silver, twenty-eight pieces, to which he added six flambeaux of the same metal. He promised to stand godfather to one of her children. When she took her son to Düsseldorf, the elector decorated the babe’s neck with a red ribbon, to which was attached a magnificent gold medal.

In the elector’s service she produced a number of pictures, most of them for her Mæcenas, who after paying for them always added honorable presents. In 1713, on a second visit to Düsseldorf, she was received with the distinction her great talents merited. The elector sent some of her pictures to the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, who admired and placed them among his rich collection of master-pieces. Several of her works were presented to royal personages; some were treasured in the gallery of Düsseldorf, and some excellent pictures were preserved in Munich.

After the death of her friend and patron, the elector, she returned to Holland, and prosecuted her art with unwearied industry. She mourned his loss as her friend and the generous protector of art; but her works met with as great success, and Flanders and Holland even murmured at their being taken to Germany.

The advance of old age could not obscure her rare gifts; the pictures she executed at eighty were as highly finished as at thirty. To genius of the highest order she united all the virtues that dignify and adorn the female character. Respected by the great—beloved even by her rivals—praised by all who knew her—her path in life was strewn with flowers, till at its peaceful close she laid her honors down. She died in 1750, at the age of eighty-six, having been married fifty years and five years a widow.

Her works are rarely seen, from the difficulty of inducing possessors in Holland to part with them. At Amsterdam there are four beautiful pieces. Their chief merits are surprising vigor and a delicate finish, with coloring true to nature. Flowers, fruits, and insects seem full of fresh life.

Rachel’s style combined a softness, lightness, and delicacy of touch with a certain grandeur of disposition and powerful effect, which caused the universal recognition of a manly spirit and nobility of feeling in her works. In her portrait her hair is short, with low-necked dress and beads round the throat. The features of the artist, large and strongly marked, bear the same brave, open character that spoke in the grouping and arrangement of her flowers—in the freedom that marked her compositions and was blended with their surprising lightness and grace. In the depth of coloring a delicate poetic fragrance seemed to be infused.