(2) Thick-walled cells shrink more than thin-walled cells, that is, summer cells more than spring cells. This is due to the fact that they contain more shrinkable substance. The thicker the wall, the more the shrinkage.
Consider the effects of these changes; ordinarily a log when drying begins to "check" at the end. This is to be explained thus: Inasmuch as evaporation takes place faster from a cross than from a longitudinal section, because at the cross-section all the cells are cut open, it is to be expected that the end of a piece of timber, Fig. 36, A, will shrink first. This would tend to make the end fibers bend toward the center of the piece as in B, Fig. 36. But the fibers are stiff and resist this bending with the result that the end splits or "checks" as in C, Fig. 36. But later, as the rest of the timber dries out and shrinks, it becomes of equal thickness again and the "checks" tend to close.
(3) For some reason, which has not been discovered, the cells or fibers of wood do not shrink in length to any appreciable extent. This is as true of the cells of pith rays, which run radially in the log, as of the ordinary cells, which run longitudinally in it.
In addition to "checking" at the end, logs ordinarily show the effect of shrinkage by splitting open radially, as in Fig. 37. This is to be explained by two factors, (1) the disposition of the pith (or medullary) rays, and (2) the arrangement of the wood in annual rings.
(1) The cells of the pith rays, as we have seen in Chapter I, run at right angles to the direction of the mass of wood fibers, and since they shrink according to the same laws that other cells do, viz., by the cell wall becoming thinner but not shorter, the strain of their shrinkage is contrary to that of the main cells. The pith rays, which consist of a number of cells one above the other, tend to shrink parallel to the length of the wood, and whatever little longitudinal shrinkage there is in a board is probably due mostly to the shrinkage of the pith rays. But because the cells of pith rays do not appreciably shrink in their length, this fact tends to prevent the main body of wood from shrinking radially, and the result is that wood shrinks less radially than tangentially. Tangentially is the only way left for it to shrink. The pith rays may be compared to the ribs of a folding fan, which keep the radius of unaltered length while permitting comparative freedom for circumferential contraction.
(2) It is evident that since summer wood shrinks more than spring wood, this fact will interfere with the even shrinkage of the log. Consider first the tangential shrinkage. If a section of a single annual ring of green wood of the shape A B C D, in Fig. 38, is dried and the mass shrinks according to the thickness of the cell walls, it will assume the shape A' B' C' D'. When a number of rings together shrink, the tangential shrinkage of the summer wood tends to contract the adjoining rings of spring wood more than they would naturally shrink of themselves. Since there is more of the summer-wood substance, the spring-wood must yield, and the log shrinks circumferentially. The radial shrinkage of the summer-wood, however, is constantly interrupted by the alternate rows of spring-wood, so that there would not be so much radial as circumferential shrinkage. As a matter of fact, the tangential or circumferential shrinkage is twice as great as the radial shrinkage.
Putting these two factors together, namely, the lengthwise resistance of the pith rays to the radial shrinkage of the mass of other fibers, and second, the continuous bands of summer wood, comparatively free to shrink circumferentially, and the inevitable happens; the log splits. If the bark is left on and evaporation hindered, the splits will not open so wide.
There is still another effect of shrinkage. If, immediately after felling, a log is sawn in two lengthwise, the radial splitting may be largely avoided, but the flat sides will tend to become convex, as in Fig. 39. This is explained by the fact that circumferential shrinkage is greater than radial shrinkage.
If a log is "quartered,"* the quarters split still less, as the inevitable shrinkage takes place more easily. The quarters then tend to assume the shape shown in Fig. 40, C. If a log is sawed into timber, it checks from the center of the faces toward the pith, Fig. 40, D. Sometimes the whole amount of shrinkage may be collected in one large split. When a log is slash-sawed, Fig. 40, I, each board tends to warp so that the concave side is away from the center of the tree. If one plank includes the pith, Fig. 40, E and H, that board will become thinner at its edges than at its center, i.e., convex on both faces. Other forms assumed by wood in shrinking are shown in Fig. 40. In the cases A-F the explanation is the same; the circumferential shrinkage is more than the radial. In J and K the shapes are accounted for by the fact that wood shrinks very little longitudinally.
* See Handwork in Wood, p. 42.
Warping is uneven shrinkage, one side of the board contracting more than the other. Whenever a slash board warps under ordinary conditions, the convex side is the one which was toward the center of the tree. However, a board may be made to warp artificially the other way by applying heat to the side of the board toward the center of the tree, and by keeping the other side moist. The board will warp only sidewise; lengthwise it remains straight unless the treatment is very severe. This shows again that water distends the cells laterally but not longitudinally.
The thinning of the cell walls due to evaporation, is thus seen to have three results, all included in the term "working," viz.: shrinkage, a diminution in size, splitting, due to the inability of parts to cohere under the strains to which they are subjected, and warping, or uneven shrinkage.
In order to neutralize warping as much as possible in broad board structures, it is common to joint the board with the annual rings of each alternate board curving in opposite directions, as shown in Handwork in Wood, Fig. 280, a, p. 188.
Under warping is included bowing. Bowing, that is, bending in the form of a bow, is, so to speak, longitudinal warping. It is largely due to crookedness or irregularity of grain, and is likely to occur in boards with large pith rays, as oak and sycamore. But even a straight-grained piece of wood, left standing on end or subjected to heat on one side and dampness on the other, will bow, as, for instance a board lying on the damp ground and in the sun.
Splitting takes various names, according to its form in the tree. "Check" is a term used for all sorts of cracks, and more particularly for a longitudinal crack in timber. "Shakes" are splits of various forms as: star shakes, Fig. 41, a, splits which radiate from the pith along the pith rays and widen outward; heart shakes, Fig. 41, b, splits crossing the central rings and widening toward the center; and cup or ring shakes, Fig. 41, c, splits between the annual rings. Honeycombing, Fig. 41, d, is splitting along the pith rays and is due largely to case hardening.
These are not all due to shrinkage in drying, but may occur in the growing tree from various harmful causes. See p. 232.
Wood that has once been dried may again be swelled to nearly if not fully its original size, by being soaked in water or subjected to wet steam. This fact is taken advantage of in wetting wooden wedges to split some kinds of soft stone. The processes of shrinking and swelling can be repeated indefinitely, and no temperature short of burning, completely prevents wood from shrinking and swelling.
Rapid drying of wood tends to "case harden" it, i.e., to dry and shrink the outer part before the inside has had a chance to do the same. This results in checking separately both the outside and the inside, hence special precautions need to be taken in the seasoning of wood to prevent this. When wood is once thoroly bent out of shape in shrinking, it is very difficult to straighten it again.
Woods vary considerably in the amounts of their shrinkage. The conifers with their regular structure shrink less and shrink more evenly than the broad-leaved woods.3 Wood, even after it has been well seasoned, is subject to frequent changes in volume due to the varying amount of moisture in the atmosphere. This involves constant care in handling it and wisdom in its use. These matters are considered in Handwork in Wood, Chapter III, on the Seasoning of Wood.
THE WEIGHT OF WOOD.
Wood substance itself is heavier than water, as can readily be proved by immersing a very thin cross-section of pine in water. Since the cells are cut across, the water readily enters the cavities, and the wood being heavier than the water, sinks. In fact, it is the air enclosed in the cell cavities that ordinarily keeps wood afloat, just as it does a corked empty bottle, altho glass is heavier than water. A longitudinal shaving of pine will float longer than a cross shaving for the simple reason that it takes longer for the water to penetrate the cells, and a good sized white pine log would be years in getting water-soaked enough to sink. As long as a majority of the cells are filled with air it would float.
In any given piece of wood, then, the weight is determined by two factors, the amount of wood substance and the amount of water contained therein. The amount of wood substance is constant, but the amount of water contained is variable, and hence the weight varies accordingly. Moreover, considering the wood substance alone, the weight of wood substance of different kinds of wood is about the same; namely, 1.6 times as heavy as water, whether it is oak or pine, ebony or poplar. The reason why a given bulk of some woods is lighter than an equal bulk of others, is because there are more thin-walled and air-filled cells in the light woods. Many hard woods, as lignum vitae, are so heavy that they will not float at all. This is because the wall of the wood cells is very thick, and the lumina are small.
In order, then, to find out the comparative weights of different woods, that is, to see how much wood substance there is in a given volume of any wood, it is necessary to test absolutely dry specimens.
The weight of wood is indicated either as the weight per cubic foot or as specific gravity.
It is an interesting fact that different parts of the same tree have different weights, the wood at the base of the tree weighing more than that higher up, and the wood midway between the pith and bark weighing more than either the center or the outside.4
The weight of wood has a very important bearing upon its use. A mallet-head, for example, needs weight in a small volume, but it must also be tough to resist shocks, and elastic so as to impart its momentum gradually and not all at once, as an iron head does.
Weight is important, too, in objects of wood that are movable. The lighter the wood the better, if it is strong enough. That is why spruce is valuable for ladders; it is both light and strong. Chestnut would be a valuable wood for furniture if it were not weak, especially in the spring wood.
The weight of wood is one measure of its strength. Heavy wood is stronger than light wood of the same kind, for the simple reason that weight and strength are dependent upon the number and compactness of the fibers.5
THE STRENGTH OF WOOD.
Strength is a factor of prime importance in wood. By strength is meant the ability to resist stresses, either of tension (pulling), or of compression (pushing), or both together, cross stresses. When a horizontal timber is subjected to a downward cross stress, the lower half is under tension, the upper half is under compression and the line between is called the neutral axis, Fig. 42.
Fig. 42. A Timber Under Cross Stress, Showing Neutral Axis, and the Lines of Tension and Compression. A knot occurring in such a timber should be in the upper half, as at A.
Wood is much stronger than is commonly supposed. A hickory bar will stand more strain under tension than a wrought iron bar of the same length and weight, and a block of long-leaf pine a greater compression endwise than a block of wrought iron of the same height and weight. It approaches the strength of cast iron under the same conditions.
Strength depends on two factors: the strength of the individual fibers, and the adhesive power of the fibers to each other. So, when a piece of wood is pulled apart, some of the fibers break and some are pulled out from among their neighbors. Under compression, however, the fibers seem to act quite independently of each other, each bending over like the strands of a rope when the ends are pushed together. As a consequence, we find that wood is far stronger under tension than under compression, varying from two to four times.
Woods do not vary nearly so much under compression as under tension, the straight-grained conifers, like larch and longleaf pine, being nearly as strong under compression as the hard woods, like hickory and elm, which have entangled fibers, whereas the hard woods are nearly twice as strong as the conifers under tension.
Moisture has more effect on the strength of wood than any other extrinsic condition. In sound wood under ordinary conditions, it outweighs all other causes which affect strength. When thoroly seasoned, wood is two or three times stronger, both under compression and in bending, than when green or water soaked.6
The tension or pulling strength of wood is much affected by the direction of the grain, a cross-grained piece being only 1⁄10th to 1⁄20th as strong as a straight-grained piece. But under compression there is not much difference; so that if a timber is to be subjected to cross strain, that is the lower half under tension and the upper half under compression, a knot or other cross-grained portion should be in the upper half.
Fig. 43. Shearing Strength is Measured by the Adhesion of the Portion A, B, C, D or to the Wood on both sides of it.
Strength also includes the ability to resist shear. This is called "shearing strength." It is a measure of the adhesion of one part of the wood to an adjoining part. Shearing is what takes place when the portion of wood beyond a mortise near the end of a timber, A B C D, Fig. 43, is forced out by the tenon. In this case it would be shearing along the grain, sometimes called detrusion. The resistance of the portion A B C D, i.e., its power of adhesion to the wood adjacent to it on both sides, is its shearing strength. If the mortised piece were forced downward until it broke off the tenon at the shoulder, that would be shearing across the grain. The shearing resistance either with or across the grain is small compared with tension and compression. Green wood shears much more easily than dry, because moisture softens the wood and this reduces the adhesion of the fibers to each other.7
CLEAVABILITY OF WOOD.
Closely connected with shearing strength is cohesion, a property usually considered under the name of its opposite, cleavability, i.e., the ease of splitting.
When an ax is stuck into the end of a piece of wood, the wood splits in advance of the ax edge. See Handwork in Wood, Fig. 59, p. 52. The wood is not cut but pulled across the grain just as truly as if one edge were held and a weight were attached to the other edge and it were torn apart by tension. The length of the cleft ahead of the blade is determined by the elasticity of the wood. The longer the cleft, the easier to split. Elasticity helps splitting, and shearing strength and hardness hinder it.
A normal piece of wood splits easily along two surfaces, (1) along any radial plane, principally because of the presence of the pith rays, and, in regular grained wood like pine, because the cells are radially regular; and (2) along the annual rings, because the spring-wood separates easily from the next ring of summer-wood. Of the two, radial cleavage is 50 to 100 per cent. easier. Straight-grained wood is much easier to split than cross-grained wood in which the fibers are interlaced, and soft wood, provided it is elastic, splits easier than hard. Woods with sharp contrast between spring and summer wood, like yellow pine and chestnut, split very easily tangentially.
All these facts are important in relation to the use of nails. For instance, the reason why yellow pine is hard to nail and bass easy is because of their difference in cleavability.
ELASTICITY OF WOOD.
Elasticity is the ability of a substance when forced out of shape,—bent, twisted, compressed or stretched, to regain its former shape. When the elasticity of wood is spoken of, its ability to spring back from bending is usually meant. The opposite of elasticity is brittleness. Hickory is elastic, white pine is brittle.
Stiffness is the ability to resist bending, and hence is the opposite of pliability or flexibility. A wood may be both stiff and elastic; it may be even stiff and pliable, as ash, which may be made into splints for baskets and may also be used for oars. Willow sprouts are flexible when green, but quite brittle when dry.
Elasticity is of great importance in some uses of wood, as in long tool handles used in agricultural implements, such as rakes, hoes, scythes, and in axes, in archery bows, in golf sticks, etc., in all of which, hickory, our most elastic wood, is used.8
HARDNESS OF WOOD.
Hardness is the ability of wood to resist indentations, and depends primarily upon the thickness of the cell walls and the smallness of the cell cavities, or, in general, upon the density of the wood structure. Summer wood, as we have seen, is much harder than spring wood, hence it is important in using such wood as yellow pine on floors to use comb-grain boards, so as to present the softer spring wood in as narrow surfaces as possible. See Handwork in Wood, p. 41, and Fig. 55. In slash-grain boards, broad surfaces of both spring and summer wood appear. Maple which is uniformly hard makes the best floors, even better than oak, parts of which are comparatively soft.
The hardness of wood is of much consequence in gluing pieces together. Soft woods, like pine, can be glued easily, because the fibers can be forced close together. As a matter of fact, the joint when dry is stronger than the rest of the board. In gluing hard woods, however, it is necessary to scratch the surfaces to be glued in order to insure a strong joint. It is for the same reason that a joint made with liquid glue is safe on soft wood when it would be weak on hard wood.9
TOUGHNESS OF WOOD.
Toughness may be defined as the ability to resist sudden shocks and blows. This requires a combination of various qualities, strength, hardness, elasticity and pliability. The tough woods, par excellence, are hickory, rock elm and ash. They can be pounded, pulled, compressed and sheared. It is because of this quality that hickory is used for wheel spokes and for handles, elm for hubs, etc.
In the selection of wood for particular purposes, it is sometimes one, sometimes another, and more often still, a combination of qualities that makes it fit for use.10
It will be remembered that it was knowledge of the special values of different woods that made "the one horse shay," "The Deacon's Masterpiece."
"So the Deacon inquired of the village folk
Where he could find the strongest oak,
That couldn't be split nor bent nor broke,—
That was for spokes and floor and sills;
He sent for lancewood to make the thills;
The cross bars were ash, from the straightest trees,
The panels of whitewood, that cuts like cheese,
But lasts like iron for things like these.
The hubs of logs from the "Settler's Ellum,"—
Last of its timber,—they couldn't sell 'em.
Never an ax had seen their chips,
And the wedges flew from between their lips,
Their blunt ends frizzled like celery tips;
Step and prop-iron, bolt and screw,
Spring, tire, axle and linch pin too,
Steel of the finest, bright and blue;
Thorough brace, bison skin, thick and wide;
Boot, top dasher from tough old hide,
Found in the pit when the tanner died.
That was the way to "put her through."
'There!' said the Deacon, 'naow she'll dew!'"
Footnote 1: Hygroscopicity, "the property possessed by vegetable tissues of absorbing or discharging moisture and expanding or shrinking accordingly."—Century Dictionary.
Footnote 2: This is shown by the following table, from Forestry Bulletin No. 10, p. 31, Timber, by Filibert Roth:
POUNDS OF WATER LOST IN DRYING 100 POUNDS OF GREEN WOOD IN THE KILN.
| Sap-wood or outer part. |
Heart-wood or interior. |
|
| 1. Pines, cedars, spruces, and firs | 45-65 | 16-25 |
| 2. Cypress, extremely variable | 50-65 | 18-60 |
| 3. Poplar, cottonwood, basswood | 60-65 | 40-60 |
| 4. Oak, beech, ash, elm, maple, birch, hickory, chestnut, walnut, and sycamore |
40-50 | 30-40 |
Footnote 3: The following table from Roth, p. 37, gives the approximate shrinkage of a board, or set of boards, 100 inches wide, drying in the open air:
| Shrinkage Inches. |
|
| 1. All light conifers (soft pine, spruce, cedar, cypress) | 3 |
| 2. Heavy conifers (hard pine, tamarack, yew, honey locust, box elder, wood of old oaks) | 4 |
| 3. Ash, elm, walnut, poplar, maple, beech, sycamore, cherry, black locust | 5 |
| 4. Basswood, birch, chestnut, horse chestnut, blue beech, young locust | 6 |
| 5. Hickory, young oak, especially red oak | Up to 10 |
The figures are the average of radial and tangential shrinkages.
Footnote 4: How much different woods vary may be seen by the following table, taken from Filibert Roth, Timber, Forest Service Bulletin No. 10, p. 28:
WEIGHT OF KILN-DRIED WOOD OF DIFFERENT SPECIES.
| Approximate. | |||
| Specific weight. | Weight of | ||
| 1 cubic foot. | 1,000 feet of lumber. | ||
| Pounds | Pounds | ||
| (a) Very heavy woods: Hickory, oak, persimmon, osage, orange, black locust, hackberry, blue beech, best of elm, and ash |
0.70-0.80 | 42-48 | 3,700 |
| (b) Heavy woods: Ash, elm, cherry, birch, maple, beech, walnut, sour gum, coffee tree, honey locust, best of southern pine, and tamarack |
.60-.70 | 36-42 | 3,200 |
| (c) Woods of medium weight: Southern pine, pitch pine, tamarack, Douglas spruce, western hemlock, sweet gum, soft maple, sycamore, light sassafras, mulberry, grades of birch and cherry |
.50-.60 | 30-36 | 2,700 |
| (d) Light woods: Norway and bull pine, red cedar, cypress, hemlock, the heavier spruce and fir, redwood, basswood, chestnut, butternut, tulip, catalpa, buckeye, heavier grades of poplar |
.40-.50 | 24-30 | 2,200 |
| (e) Very light woods: White pine, spruce, fir, white cedar, poplar |
.30-.40 | 18-24 | 1,800 |
Footnote 5: For table of weights of different woods see Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 153-157.
Footnote 6: See Forestry Bulletin No. 70, pp. 11, 12, and Forestry Circular No. 108.
Footnote 7: For table of strengths of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 166 ff.
Footnote 8: For table of elasticity of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 163 ff.
Footnote 9: For table of hardnesses of different woods, see Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 173 ff.
Footnote 10: For detailed characteristics of different woods see Chapter III.
THE PROPERTIES OF WOOD.
- References*
- Moisture and Shrinkage.
- Roth, For. Bull., No. 10, pp. 25-37.
- Busbridge, Sci. Am. Sup. No. 1500. Oct. 1, '04.
- Weight, Strength, Cleavability, Elasticity and Toughness.
- Roth, For. Bull., 10, p. 37-50.
- Boulger, pp. 89-108, 129-140.
- Roth, First Book, pp. 229-233.
- Sargent, Jesup Collection, pp. 153-176.
- Forest Circulars Nos. 108 and 139.
- Moisture and Shrinkage.
* For general bibliography, see p. 4.
Chapter III.
THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS.
NOTES.
The photographs of tangential and radial sections are life size. The microphotographs are of cross-sections and are enlarged 37½ diameters.
Following the precedent of U. S. Forest Bulletin No. 17, Sudworth's Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States, the complicated rules for the capitalization of the names of species are abandoned and they are uniformly not capitalized.
On pages 192-195 will be found lists of the woods described, arranged in the order of their comparative weight, strength, elasticity, and hardness. These lists are based upon the figures in Sargent's The Jesup Collection.
In the appendix, p. 289, will be found a key for distinguishing the various kinds of wood.
Information as to current wholesale prices in the principal markets of the country can be had from the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, The Forest Service, Washington, D. C., Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber, List A. These lists are published periodically. No attempt is made in this book to give prices because: (1) only lists of wholesale prices are available; (2) the cuts and grades differ considerably, especially in soft woods (conifers); (3) prices are constantly varying; (4) the prices differ much in different localities.
1White Pine, Weymouth Pine.Named for Lord Weymouth, who cultivated it in England. Pinus strobus Linnaeus.Pinus, the classical Latin name; strobus refers to the cone, or strobile, from a Greek word, strobus, meaning twist. Habitat: (See map); now best in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-120', even 200'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches in whorls, cleans poorly; bark, dark gray, divided by deep longitudinal fissures into broad ridges; leaves in clusters of 5, 3"-5" long; cone drooping, 4"-10" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, heart-wood, very light brown, almost cream color, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine but distinct; grain, straight; pith rays, very faint; resin ducts, small, inconspicuous. Physical Qualities: Weight, very light (59th in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3854; strength, medium (55th in this list); elasticity, medium (47th in this list); soft (57th in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps very little; durability, moderate; works easily in every way; splits easily but nails well. Common Uses: Doors, window sashes and other carpentry, pattern-making, cabinet-work, matches. Remarks: This best of American woods is now rapidly becoming scarce and higher in price. Its uses are due to its uniform grain, on account of which it is easily worked and stands well. Known in the English market as yellow pine. 2Western White Pine.Pinus monticola Douglas.Pinus, the classical Latin name; monticola means mountain-dweller. Habitat: (See map); grows at great elevations, 7,000'-10,000'. Best in northern Idaho. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-160'; diameter, 4' to even 8'; branches, slender, spreading; bark, gray and brown, divided into squarish plates by deep longitudinal and cross fissures; leaves, 5 in sheath; cones, 12"×18" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood nearly white; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin and not conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous and conspicuous tho not large. Physical Qualities: Weight, very light (58th in this list); 24 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3908; strength, medium (56th in this list); elastic (35th in this list); soft (63d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; moderately durable; easy to work; splits readily but nails well. Common Uses: Lumber for construction and interior finish. Remarks: Closely resembles Pinus Strobus in appearance and quality of wood. 3Sugar Pine.Sugar refers to sweetish exudation. Pinus lambertiana Douglas.Pinus, the classical Latin name; lambertiana, from the botanist, A. B. Lambert, whose chief work was on Pines. Habitat: (See map); grows on high elevations (5,000'), best in northern California. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-300'; diameter, 15"-20"; branches, in remote regular whorls; bark, rich purple or brown, thick, deep irregular fissures making long, flaky ridges; leaves, stout, rigid, in bundles of five; cones, 10"-18" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood, cream white; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; resin ducts, numerous, large and conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Weight, very light (61st in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3684; strength, weak (59th in this list); elasticity, medium (56th in this list); soft (53d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits little, nails well. Common Uses: Carpentry, interior finish, doors, blinds, shingles, barrels, etc. Remarks: Exudes a sweet substance from heart-wood. A magnificent and important lumber tree on Pacific coast. 4Norway Pine. Red Pine.Red refers to color of bark. Pinus resinosa Solander.Pinus, the classical Latin name; resinosa refers to very resinous wood. Habitat: (See map); grows best in northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-90'; diameter, 2'-3'; tall, straight; branches in whorls, low; bark, thin, scaly, purplish and reddish-brown; longitudinal furrows, broad flat ridges; leaves, in twos in long sheaths; cones, 2". Appearance of Wood: Color of wood, pale red, sap-wood, wide, whitish; non-porous; rings summer wood broad, dark; grain, straight; rays, numerous, pronounced, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and few. Physical Qualities: Weight, light, (43d in this list); 31 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4854; strong (39th in this list); elastic (16th in this list); soft (48th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps moderately; not durable; easy to work; splits readily, nails well. Common Uses: Piles, electric wire poles, masts, flooring. Remarks: Often sold with and as white pine. Resembles Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). Bark used to some extent for tanning. Grows in open groves. 5Western Yellow Pine. Bull Pine.Bull refers to great size of trunk. Pinus ponderosa Lawson.Pinus, the classical Latin name; ponderosa refers to great size of trunk. Habitat: (See map); best in Rocky Mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100' to 300'; diameter, 6' to even 12'; branches, low, short trunk; bark, thick, dark brown, deep, meandering furrows, large, irregular plates, scaly; leaves, in twos or threes, 5" to 11" long; cones 3" to 6" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, light red, sap-wood, thick, nearly white, and very distinct; non-porous; rings, conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; very resinous but ducts small. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (44th in this list); 25-30 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4715; strength, medium (45th in this list); elasticity, medium (41st in this list); hardness, medium (42nd in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ...........; not durable; hard to work, brittle; splits easily in nailing. Common Uses: Lumber, railway ties, mine timbers. Remarks: Forms extensive open forests. 6Long-Leaf Pine. Georgia Pine.Pinus palustris Miller.Pinus, the classical Latin name; palustris means swampy, inappropriate here. Habitat: (See map); best in Louisiana and East Texas. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3'; trunk, straight, clean, branches high; bark, light brown, large, thin, irregular papery scales; leaves 8"-12" long, 3 in a sheath; cones 6"-10" long. Appearance of Wood: Heart-wood, spring wood light yellow, summer wood, red brown; sap wood, lighter; non-porous; rings, very plain and strongly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, but resin ducts few and not large. Physical Qualities: Heavy (18th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6999; very strong (7th in this list); very elastic (4th in this list); hardness, medium (33d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps very little; quite durable; works hard, tough; splits badly in nailing. Common Uses: Joists, beams, bridge and building trusses, interior finish, ship building, and general construction work. Remarks: Almost exclusively the source of turpentine, tar, pitch and resin in the United States. Known in the English market as pitch pine. 7Short-Leaf Pine. Yellow Pine.Pinus echinata Miller.Pinus, the classical Latin name; echinata refers to spiny cones. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Mississippi basin. Characteristics of the Tree: Straight, tall trunk, sometimes 100' high; branches high; diameter 2'-4'; bark, pale grayish red-brown, fissures, running helter-skelter, making large irregular plates, covered with small scales; leaves in twos, 3" long; cones small. Appearance of Wood: Color, heartwood, summer wood, red, spring-wood, yellow; sap-wood, lighter; non-porous; annual rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, conspicuous; very resinous, ducts large and many. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (32nd in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6104; very strong (18th in this list); very elastic (8th in this list); soft (38th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; durable; troublesome to work; likely to split along annual rings in nailing. Common Uses: Heavy construction, railroad ties, house trim, ship building, cars, docks, bridges. Remarks: Wood hardly distinguishable from long-leaf pine. Often forms pure forests. The most desirable yellow pine, much less resinous and more easily worked than others. 8Loblolly Pine. Old Field Pine.Loblolly may refer to the inferiority of the wood; old field refers to habit of spontaneous growth on old fields. Pinus taeda Linnaeus.Pinus, the classical Latin name; taeda, the classical Latin name for pitch-pine, which was used for torches. Habitat: (See map); grows best in eastern Virginia, and eastern North Carolina. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-150'; diameter, often 4'-5'; branches high; bark, purplish brown, shallow, meandering fissures, broad, flat, scaly ridges; leaves, 3 in sheath, 4"-7" long; cones 3"-5" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, heart-wood orange, sap-wood lighter; non-porous; rings very plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays conspicuous; very resinous, but ducts few and small. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (39th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5441; strong (26th in this list); elastic (17th in this list); medium hard (43d in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; not durable; difficult to work, brittle; splits along rings in nailing. Common Uses: Heavy construction, beams, ship building, docks, bridges, flooring, house trim. Remarks: Resembles Long-leaf Pine, and often sold as such. Rarely makes pure forests. 9Slash Pine. Cuban Pine.Pinus caribaea Morelet. Pinus heterophylla (Ell.) Sudworth.Pinus, the classical Latin name; caribaea refers to the Caribbean Islands; heterophylla refers to two kinds of leaves. Habitat: (See map); grows best in Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, sometimes 110', straight, tall, branching high; diameter 1'-3'; bark, dark red and brown, shallow irregular fissures; leaves, 2 or 3 in a sheath, 8"-12" long; cones, 4"-5" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, dark orange, sapwood lighter; non-porous; annual rings, plain, sharp contrast between spring wood and summer wood; grain, straight; rays numerous, rather prominent; very resinous, but ducts few. Physical Qualities: Heavy (7th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7504; very strong (6th in this list); very elastic (3d in this list); hard (24th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps little; quite durable; troublesome to work; splits along annual rings in nailing. Common Uses: Heavy construction, ship building, railroad ties, docks, bridges, house trim. Remarks: Similar to and often sold as Long-leaf Pine. 10Tamarack. Larch. Hackmatack.Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch. Larix americana Michaux.Larix, the classical Latin name. Habitat: (See map); prefers swamps, "Tamarack swamps." Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-60' and even 90', diameter 1'-3'; intolerant; tall, slender trunk; bark, cinnamon brown, no ridges, breaking into flakes; leaves, deciduous, pea-green, in tufts; cone, ½"-¾", bright brown. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sapwood hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood, thin but distinct, dark colored; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, hardly distinguishable; very resinous, but ducts few and small. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (29th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6236; strong (24th in this list); elastic (11th in this list); medium hard (40th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily. Common Uses: Ship building, electric wire poles, and railroad ties; used for boat ribs because of its naturally crooked knees; slenderness prevents common use as lumber. Remarks: Tree desolate looking in winter. 11Western Larch. Tamarack.Larix occidentalis Nuttall.Larix, the classical Latin name; occidentalis means western. Habitat: (See map); best in northern Montana and Idaho, on high elevations. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 90'-130', even 250'; diameter 6'-8'; tall, slender, naked trunk, with branches high; bark, cinnamon red or purplish, often 12" thick, breaking into irregular plates, often 2' long; leaves, in tufts; deciduous; cones small. Appearance of Wood: Color, light red, thin, whitish, sap-wood; non-porous; grain, straight, fine; rays numerous, thin; very resinous, but ducts small and obscure. Physical Qualities: Weight, heavy (11th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7407; very strong (3d in this list); very elastic (1st in this list); medium hard (35th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps .........; very durable; rather hard to work, takes fine polish; splits with difficulty. Common Uses: Posts, railroad ties, fencing, cabinet material and fuel. Remarks: A valuable tree in the Northwest. 12White Spruce.Picea canadensis (Miller) B. S. P. Picea alba Link.Picea, the classical Latin name; white and alba refers to the pale color of the leaves, especially when young, and to the whitish bark. Habitat: (See map). Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-100' and even 150'; diameter, 1'-2' and even 4'; long, thick branches; bark, light grayish brown, separating into thin plate-like scales, rather smooth appearance, resin from cuts forms white gum; leaves, set thickly on all sides of branch, finer than red spruce, odor disagreeable; cones, 2" long, cylindrical, slender, fall during second summer. Appearance of Wood: Color, light yellow, sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood thin, not conspicuous; grain, straight; rays, numerous, prominent; resin ducts, few and minute. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (51st in this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4051; medium strong (42d in this list); elastic (29th in this list); soft (58th in this list); shrinks 3 per cent.; warps ........; fairly durable; easy to work, satiny surface; splits readily. Common Uses: Lumber and paper pulp; (not distinguished from Red and Black Spruce in market). Remarks: Wood very resonant, hence used for sounding boards. The most important lumber tree of the sub-arctic forest of British Columbia. 13Red Spruce.*Picea rubens Sargent.Picea, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; rubens refers to reddish bark, and perhaps to the reddish streaks in the wood. Habitat: (See map); stunted in north. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-80', even 100'; diameter, 2'-3', grows slowly; trunk, straight, columnar, branches in whorls, cleans well in forest; bark, reddish brown with thin irregular scales; leaves, needle-shaped, four-sided, pointing everywhere; cones, 1¼"-2" long, pendent, fall during the first winter. Appearance of Wood: Color, dull white with occasional reddish streaks; sap-wood not distinct; non-porous; rings, summer rings thin, but clearly defined; grain, straight; rays, faintly discernible; resin ducts, few and small. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (47th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; not durable; easy to plane, tolerably easy to saw, hard to chisel neatly; splits easily in nailing. Common Uses: Sounding boards, construction, paper pulp, ladders. Remarks: The exudations from this species are used as chewing gum. Bark of twigs is used in the domestic manufacture of beer. The use of the wood for sounding boards is due to its resonance, and for ladders to its strength and lightness. * Not distinguished in the Jesup collection from Picea nigra. 14Black Spruce.*Picea mariana (Miller) B. S. P. Picea nigra Link.Picea, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine; mariana named for Queen Mary; black and nigra refer to dark foliage. Habitat: (See map); best in Canada. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-80' and even 100'; diameter, 6"-1' even 2'; branches, whorled, pendulous with upward curve; bark, gray, loosely attached flakes; leaves, pale blue-green, spirally set, pointing in all directions; cones, small, ovate-oblong, persistent for many years. Appearance of Wood: Color, pale, reddish, sap-wood, thin, white, not very distinct; non-porous; rings, summer wood, small thin cells; grain, straight; rays, few, conspicuous; resin ducts, few and minute. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (47th in this list); 33 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4584; medium strong (41st in this list); elastic (21st in this list); soft (54th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; not durable; easy to work; splits easily in nailing. Common Uses: Sounding boards, lumber in Manitoba. Remarks: Not distinguished from Red Spruce commercially. * Not distinguished in Jesup Collection from Picea rubens. 15White Spruce. Engelmann's Spruce.Picea engelmanni (Parry) Engelmann.Named for George Engelmann, an American botanist. Habitat: (See map); grows at very high elevations, forming forest at 8,000'-10,000'; best in British Columbia. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 75'-100', even 150'; diameter, 2'-3', even 5'; branches whorled, spreading; bark, deeply furrowed, red-brown to purplish brown, thin, large, loose scales; leaves, blue-green, point in all directions; cones, 2" long, oblong, cylindrical. Appearance of Wood: Color, pale yellow or reddish, sap-wood hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, very fine, summer wood, narrow, not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, conspicuous; resin ducts, small and few. Physical Qualities: Weight, very light (57th in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3449; weak (61st in this list); elasticity medium (55th in this list); soft (56th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps .........; durable; easy to work; splits easily. Common Uses: Lumber. Remarks: A valuable lumber tree in the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades. Bark used for tanning. 16Tideland Spruce. Sitka Spruce.Picea sitchensis (Bongard) Carrière.Picea, the classical Latin name for the pitch pine. Tideland refers to its habit of growth along the sea coast; sitchensis, named for Sitka. Habitat: (See map); best on Pacific slope of British Columbia and northwestern United States. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-150' and even 200' high; diameter 3'-4' and even 15'; trunk base enlarged; bark, thick, red-brown, scaly; leaves, standing out in all directions; cones, 2½"-4" long, pendent, cylindrical, oval. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, wide, summer wood, thin but very distinct, spring wood, not plain; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, rather prominent; resin ducts, few and small. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (52d in this list); 27 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4287; medium strong (53d in this list); elastic (31st in this list); soft (59th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ...........; durable; easy to work; splits easily. Common Uses: Interior finish, boat building and cooperage. Remarks: Largest of the spruces. Common in the coast belt forest. 17Hemlock.Tsuga canadensis (Linnaeus) Carrière.Tsuga, the Japanese name latinized; canadensis named for Canada. Habitat: (See map); best in North Carolina and Tennessee. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-70', sometimes 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, persistent, making trunk not very clean; bark, red-gray, narrow, rounded ridges, deeply and irregularly fissured; leaves, spirally arranged, but appear two-ranked; cones, ¾" long, graceful. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood just distinguishable; non-porous; rings, rather broad, conspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (53d in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4239; medium strong (44th in this list); elasticity, medium (40th in this list); soft (51st in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; difficult to work, splintery, brittle; splits easily, holds nails well. Common Uses: Coarse, cheap lumber, as joists, rafters, plank walks and laths. Remarks: The poorest lumber. Bark chief source of tanning material. 18Western Hemlock. Black Hemlock.Tsuga heterophylla (Rafinesque) Sargent.Tsuga, the Japanese name latinized; heterophylla refers to two kinds of leaves. Habitat: (See map); best on coast of Washington and Oregon. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 150'-200'; diameter, 6'-10'; branches, pendent, slender; bark, reddish gray, deep, longitudinal fissures between, broad, oblique, flat ridges; leaves, dark green, two-ranked; cones, small, like Eastern Hemlock. Appearance of Wood: Color, pale brown, sap-wood thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, narrow, summer wood thin but distinct; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, prominent; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Light in weight, strong, elastic, hard;* shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps ..........; durable, more so than other American hemlocks; easier to work than eastern variety; splits badly. Common Uses: Lumber for construction. Remarks: Coming to be recognized as a valuable lumber tree. * Not in Jesup Collection. 19Douglas Spruce. Oregon Pine. Red Fir. Douglas Fir.Pseudotsuga mucronata (Rafinesque) Sudworth.Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lambert) Britton.Pseudotsuga means false hemlock; mucronata refers to abrupt short point of leaf; taxifolia means yew leaf. Habitat: (See map); best in Puget Sound region. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 175'-300'; diameter, 3'-5', sometimes 10'; branches high, leaving clean trunk; bark, rough, gray, great broad-rounded ridges, often appears braided; leaves, radiating from stem; cones, 2"-4" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, light red to yellow, sap-wood white; non-porous; rings, dark colored, conspicuous, very pronounced summer wood; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (41st in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft, sp. gr. 0.5157; strong (21st in this list); very elastic (10th in this list); medium hard (45th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent. or 4 per cent.;, warps ...............; durable; difficult to work, flinty, splits readily. Common Uses: Heavy construction, masts, flag poles, piles, railway ties. Remarks: One of the greatest and the most valuable of the western timber trees. Forms extensive forests. 20Grand Fir. White Fir. Lowland Fir. Silver Fir.Abies grandis Lindley.Abies, the classical Latin name. Habitat: (See map); best in Puget Sound region. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, in interior 100'; diameter, 2'; on coast, 250'-300' high; diameter, 2'-5'; long pendulous branches; bark, quite gray or gray brown, shallow fissures, flat ridges; leaves, shiny green above, silvery below, 1½"-2" long, roughly two-ranked; cones, cylindrical, 2"-4" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous; rings, summer cells broader than in other American species, dark colored, conspicuous; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; resinous. Physical Qualities: Very light (62d in this list); 22 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.3545; weak (62d in this list); elastic (34th in this list); soft (65th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; not durable; works easily; splits readily. Common Uses: Lumber and packing cases. Remarks: No resin ducts. Not a very valuable wood. 21Big Tree. Sequoia. Giant Sequoia.Sequoia washingtoniana (Winslow) Sudworth. Sequoia gigantea, Decaisne.Sequoia latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; washingtoniana, in honor of George Washington. Habitat: (See map); in ten groves in southern California, at high elevation. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 275', sometimes 320'; diameter, 20', sometimes 35'; trunk, swollen and often buttressed at base, ridged, often clear for 150'; thick horizontal branches; bark, 1'-2' thick, in great ridges, separates into loose, fibrous, cinnamon red scales, almost non-combustible; leaves, very small, growing close to stem; cones, 2"-3" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, red, turning dark on exposure, sap-wood thin, whitish; non-porous; rings, very plain; grain straight, coarse; rays, numerous, thin; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Light (65th in this list); 18 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.2882; weak (63d in this list); brittle (62d in this list); very soft (61st in this list); shrinks little; warps little; remarkably durable; easy to work, splits readily, takes nails well. Common Uses: Construction, lumber, coffins, shingles. Remarks: Dimensions and age are unequalled; Big Tree and Redwood survivors of a prehistoric genus, once widely distributed. Some specimens 3600 years old. 22Redwood. Coast Redwood. Sequoia.Sequoia sempervirens (Lambert) Endlicher.Sequoia, latinized from Sequoiah, a Cherokee Indian; sempervirens means ever living. Habitat: (See map); best in southern Oregon and northern California, near coast. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 200'-340'; diameter, 10'-15', rarely 25'; clean trunk, much buttressed and swollen at base, somewhat fluted, branches very high; bark, very thick, 6"-12", rounded ridges, dark scales falling reveal inner red bark; leaves, small, two-ranked; cones, small, 1" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, red, turning to brown on seasoning, sap-wood whitish; non-porous; rings, distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (55th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4208; weak (58th in this list); brittle (60th in this list); soft (55th in this list); shrinks little; warps little; very durable; easily worked; splits readily; takes nails well. Common Uses: Shingles, construction, timber, fence posts, coffins, railway ties, water pipes, curly specimens used in cabinet work. Remarks: Low branches rare. Burns with difficulty. Chief construction wood of Pacific Coast. Use determined largely by durability. 23Bald Cypress.Bald refers to leaflessness of tree in winter. Taxodium distichum (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard.Taxodium means yew-like; distichum refers to the two-ranked leaves. Habitat: (See map); best in South Atlantic and Gulf States. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 75', occasionally 150'; diameter, 4'-5'; roots project upward into peculiar knees; trunk strongly buttressed at base, straight, majestic and tapering; bark, light red, shallow fissures, flat plates, peeling into fibrous strips; leaves, long, thin, two-ranked, deciduous; cones, nearly globular, 1" in diameter. Appearance of Wood: Color, heart-wood, reddish brown, sap-wood, nearly white; non-porous; rings, fine and well marked; grain, nearly straight, burl is beautifully figured; rays, very obscure; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (48th in this list); 29 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4543; medium strong (48th in this list); elastic (28th in this list); soft (52d in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps but little, likely to check; very durable; easy to work, in splitting, crumbles or breaks; nails well. Common Uses: Shingles, posts, interior finish, cooperage, railroad ties, boats, and various construction work, especially conservatories. Remarks: Forms forests in swamps; subject to a fungous disease, making wood "peggy" or "pecky"; use largely determined by its durability. In New Orleans 90,000 fresh water cisterns are said to be made of it. 24Western Red Cedar. Canoe Cedar. Giant Arborvitae.Thuja plicata D. Don. Thuya gigantea Nuttall.Thuya or Thuja, the classical Greek name; plicata refers to the folded leaves; gigantea refers to the gigantic size of the tree. Habitat: (See map); best in Puget Sound region. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 2'-10', even 15'; trunk has immense buttresses, often 16' in diameter, then tapers; branches, horizontal, short, making a dense conical tree; bark, bright cinnamon red, shallow fissures, broad ridges, peeling into long, narrow, stringy scales; leaves, very small, overlapping in 4 ranks, on older twigs, sharper and more remote; cones, ½" long, small, erect. Appearance of Wood: Color, dull brown or red, thin sap-wood nearly white; non-porous; rings, summer bands thin, dark colored, distinct; grain, straight, rather coarse; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Very light in weight (60th in this list); medium strong (40th in this list); elastic (26th in this list); soft (60th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps and checks little; very durable; easy to work; splits easily. Common Uses: Interior finish, cabinet making, cooperage, shingles, electric wire poles. Remarks: Wood used by Indians for war canoes, totems and planks for lodges; inner bark used for ropes and textiles. 25White Cedar.Chamaecyparis thyoides (Linnaeus) B. S. P.Chamaecyparis means low cypress; thyoides means like thuya (Aborvitae). Habitat: (See map); best in Virginia and North Carolina. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches, low, often forming impenetrable thickets; bark, light reddish brown, many fine longitudinal fissures, often spirally twisted around stem; leaves, scale-like, four-ranked; cones, globular, ¼" diameter. Appearance of Wood: Color, pink to brown, sap-wood lighter; non-porous; rings, sharp and distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Very light in weight (64th in this list); 23 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.3322); weak (64th in this list); brittle (63d in this list; soft (62d in this list); shrinkage 3 per cent.; warps little; extremely durable; easily worked; splits easily; nails well. Common Uses: Boats, shingles, posts, railway ties, cooperage. Remarks: Grows chiefly in swamps, often in dense pure forests. Uses determined largely by its durability. 26Lawson Cypress. Port Orford Cedar. Oregon Cedar. White Cedar.Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (A. Murray) Parlatore.Chamaecyparis means low cypress. Habitat: (See map); best on coast of Oregon. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-200'; diameter, 4'-8', even 12'; base of trunk abruptly enlarged; bark, very thick, even 10" at base of trunk, inner and outer layers distinct, very deep fissures, rounded ridges; leaves, very small, 1/16" long, four-ranked, overlapped, flat sprays; cones, small, ¼", globular. Appearance of Wood: Color, pinkish brown, sap-wood hardly distinguishable; non-porous; rings, summer wood thin, not conspicuous; grain, straight, close; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (46th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4621; strong (25th in this list); elastic (12th in this list); soft (50th in this list); shrinkage 3 or 4 per cent.; warps little; durable; easily worked; splits easily. Common Uses: Matches (almost exclusively on the Pacific Coast), interior finish, ship and boat building. Remarks: Resin, a powerful diuretic and insecticide. 27Red Cedar.Juniperus virginiana Linnaeus.Juniperus, the classical Latin name; virginiana, in honor of the State of Virginia. Habitat: (See map); best in Gulf States in swamps, especially on the west coast of Florida. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 40'-50', even 80'; diameter, 1'-2'; trunk, ridged, sometimes expanded; branches, low; bark, light brown, loose, ragged, separating into long, narrow, persistent, stringy scales; leaves, opposite, of two kinds, awl-shaped, and scale-shaped; fruit, dark blue berry. Appearance of Wood: Color, dull red, sap-wood white; non-porous; rings, easily distinguished; grain, straight; rays, numerous, very obscure; non-resinous. Physical Qualities: Very light in weight (42d in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4826; medium strong (43d in this list); brittle (61st in this list); medium hard (34th in this list); shrinkage, 3 per cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits readily, takes nails well. Common Uses: Pencils, chests, cigar boxes, pails, interior finish. Remarks: Fragrant. Pencils are made almost exclusively of this wood, because it is light, strong, stiff, straight and fine-grained and easily whittled; supply being rapidly depleted. 28Black Willow.Salix nigra Marshall.Salix, from two Celtic words meaning near-water; nigra refers to the dark bark. Habitat: (See map); grows largest in southern Illinois, Indiana and Texas, on moist banks. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 30'-40', sometimes 120'; diameter, 1'-2', rarely 3'-4'; stout, upright, spreading branches, from common base; bark, rough and dark brown or black, often tinged with yellow or brown; leaves, lanceolate, often scythe-shaped, serrate edges; fruit, a capsule containing small, hairy seeds. Appearance of Wood: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, thin, whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close and weak; rays, obscure. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (51st in this list); 27.77 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4456; weak (65th in this list); very brittle (64th in this list); soft (46th in this list); shrinks considerably; warps and checks badly; soft, weak, indents without breaking; splits easily. Common Uses: Lap-boards, baskets, water wheels, fuel and charcoal for gunpowder. Remarks: Its characteristic of indenting without breaking has given it use as lining for carts and as cricket bats. Of the many willows, the most tree like in proportion in eastern North America. Bark contains salycylic acid. 29Butternut. White Walnut.Butternut, because the nuts are rich in oil. Juglans cinerea Linnaeus.Juglans means Jove's nut; cinerea refers to ash-colored bark. Habitat:: (See map); best in Ohio basin. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches low, broad spreading deep roots; bark, grayish brown, deep fissures broad ridges; leaves 15"-30" long, compound 11 to 17 leaflets, hairy and rough; fruit, oblong, pointed, edible, oily nut. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, darkening with exposure, sap-wood whitish; diffuse, porous; rings, not prominent; grain, fairly straight, coarse, takes high polish; rays, distinct, thin, obscure. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (56th in this list); 25 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4086; weak (57th in this list); elasticity, medium (52d in this list); soft (47th in this list); shrinkage ....... per cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; splits easily. Common Uses: Cabinet work, inside trim. Remarks: Green husks of fruit give yellow dye. Sugar made from sap. 30Black Walnut.Juglans nigra Linnaeus.Juglans means Jove's nut; nigra refers to the dark wood. Habitat: (See map); best in western North Carolina and Tennessee. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 90'-120', even 150'; diameter, 3' to even 8'; clean of branches for 50' to 60'; bark, brownish, almost black, deep fissures, and broad, rounded ridges; leaves, 1'-2' long, compound pinnate, 15 to 23 leaflets, fall early; fruit, nut, with adherent husk, and edible kernel. Appearance of Wood: Color, chocolate brown, sap-wood much lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, marked by slightly larger pores; grain, straight; rays, numerous, thin, not conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (31st in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.6115; strong (32d in this list); elastic (23d in this list); hard (21st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable; easy to work; splits with some difficulty, takes and holds nails well. Common Uses: Gun stocks (since 17th century), veneers, cabinet making. Remarks: Formerly much used for furniture, now scarce. Plentiful in California. Most valuable wood of North American forests. Wood superior to European variety. 31Mockernut. Black Hickory. Bull-nut. Big-bud Hickory. White-heart Hickory. King Nut.Mockernut refers to disappointing character of nuts. Hicoria alba (Linnaeus) Britton. Carya tomentosa Nuttall.Hicoria, shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; alba refers to the white wood, carya, the Greek name for walnut; tomentosa refers to hairy under surface of leaf. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley, Missouri and Arkansas. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 75', rarely 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; rises high in forest; bark, dark gray, shallow, irregular interrupted fissures, rough but not shaggy in old trees; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound, 7-9 leaflets, fragrant when crushed; fruit, spherical nut, thick shell, edible kernel. Appearance of Wood: Color, dark brown, sap-wood nearly white; ring-porous; rings, marked by few large regularly distributed open ducts; grain, usually straight, close; rays, numerous, thin, obscure. Physical Qualities: Very heavy (3d in this list); 53 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8218; very strong (11th in this list); very elastic (14th in this list); very hard (3d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; very hard to work; splits with great difficulty, almost impossible to nail. Common Uses: Wheels, runners, tool and axe handles, agricultural implements. Remarks: Confounded commercially with shellbark hickory. 32Shellbark Hickory. Shagbark Hickory.Hicoria ovata (Millar) Britton. Carya alba Nuttall.Hickory is shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernels; ovata refers to oval nut; carya, the Greek name for walnut. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-90' and even 120'; diameter, 2'-3', even 4'; straight, columnar trunk; bark, dark gray, separates into long, hard, plate-like strips, which cling to tree by middle, on young trees very smooth and close; leaves, 8"-20" long, compound 5 or (7) leaflets; nuts, globular, husk, four-valved, split easily, thin-shelled, edible. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked; grain, straight; rays, numerous, thin. Physical Qualities: Very heavy (1st in this list); 51 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8372; very strong (5th in this list); very elastic (7th in this list); very hard (5th in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; warps badly; not very durable under exposure; hard to work, very tough; hard to split, very difficult to nail. Common Uses: Agricultural implements, handles, wheel spokes. Remarks: American hickory is famous both for buggies and ax handles, because it is flexible and very tough in resistance to blows. 33Pignut.Nuts eaten by swine. Hicoria glabra (Miller) Britton. Carya porcina.Hicoria is shortened and latinized from Pawcohicora, the Indian name for the liquor obtained from the kernel; glabra refers to smooth bark; Carya the Greek name for walnut; porcina means pertaining to hogs. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 2'-4'; trunk often forked; bark, light gray, shallow fissures, rather smooth, rarely exfoliates; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound 7 leaflets, sharply serrate; fruit, a thick-shelled nut, bitter kernel. Appearance of Wood: Color, light or dark brown, the thick sap-wood lighter, often nearly white; ring-porous; rings marked by many large open ducts; grain, straight; rays, small and insignificant. Physical Qualities: Very heavy (4th in this list); 56 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8217; very strong (15th in this list); elastic (27th in this list); very hard (2d in this list); shrinkage, 10 per cent.; warps ..........; hard to work; splits with difficulty, hard to drive nails into. Common Uses: Agricultural implements, wheels, runners, tool handles. Remarks: Wood not distinguished from shellbark hickory in commerce. 34Blue Beech. Hornbeam. Water Beech. Iron-wood.Blue refers to color of bark; the trunk resembles beech; horn refers to horny texture of wood. Carpinus caroliniana Walter.Carpinus, classical Latin name; caroliniana, named from the state. Habitat: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Allegheny Mountains and in southern Arkansas and Texas. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, a small tree, 30'-50' high; diameter, 6"-2'; short, fluted, sinewy trunk; bark, smooth, bluish gray; leaves, falcate, doubly serrate; fruit, small oval nut, enclosed in leaf-like bract. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood thick, whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close; rays, numerous, broad. Physical Qualities: Heavy (13th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.7286; very strong (9th in this list); very stiff (15th in this list); hard (14th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable; hard to work; splits with great difficulty. Common Uses: Levers, tool handles. Remarks: No other wood so good for levers, because of stiffness. 35Canoe Birch. White Birch. Paper Birch.All names refer to bark. Betula papyrifera Marshall.Betula, the classical Latin name; papyrifera refers to paper bearing bark. Habitat: (See map); best west of Rocky Mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-80'; diameter, 2'-3'; stem rarely quite straight; bark, smooth, white, exterior marked with lenticels, peeling freely horizontally into thin papery layers, showing brown or orange beneath, contains oil which burns hotly, formerly used by Indians for canoes, very remarkable (see Keeler, page 304); leaves, heart-shaped, irregularly serrate; fruit, pendulous strobiles. Appearance of Wood: Color, brown or reddish, sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, fairly straight; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (33d in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5955; very strong (14th in this list); very elastic (2d in this list); medium hard (39th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .........; not durable, except bark; easy to work; splits with difficulty, nails well, tough. Common Uses: Spools, shoe lasts and pegs, turnery, bark for canoes. Remarks: Forms forests. Sap yields syrup. Bark yields starch. Valuable to woodsmen in many ways. 36Red Birch. River Birch.Red refers to color of bark; river, prefers river bottoms. Betula nigra Linnaeus.Betula, the classical Latin name. Habitat: (See map); best in Florida, Louisiana and Texas. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 30'-80', and even higher; diameter, 1', even 5'; trunk, often divided low; bark, dark brown, marked by horizontal lenticels, peels into paper plates, curling back; leaves, doubly serrate, often almost lobed; fruit, pubescent, erect, strobiles. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, thick sap-wood, whitish; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain, close, rather crooked; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (36th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.5762; strong (22d in this list); very elastic (19th in this list); medium hard (37th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, .......; not durable when exposed; hard to work, tough; splits with difficulty, nails well. Common Uses: Shoe lasts, yokes, furniture. Remarks: Prefers moist land. 37Cherry Birch. Sweet Birch. Black Birch. Mahogany Birch.Cherry, because bark resembles that of cherry tree; sweet, refers to the taste of the spicy bark. Betula lenta Linnaeus.Betula, the classical Latin name; lenta, meaning tenacious, sticky, may refer to the gum which exudes from the trunk. Habitat: (See map); best in Tennessee Mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 2'-5'; trunk, rarely straight; bark, dark reddish brown, on old trunks deeply furrowed and broken into thick, irregular plates, marked with horizontal lenticels; resembles cherry; spicy, aromatic; leaves, ovate, oblong, 2"-6" long, irregularly serrate; fruit, erect strobiles. Appearance of Wood: Color, dark, reddish brown; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, satiny, polishes well, often stained to imitate mahogany; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Heavy (6th in this list); 47 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7617; very strong (4th in this list); very elastic (6th in this list); hard (11th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps, little; not durable if exposed; rather hard to work; splits hard, tough. Common Uses: Dowel pins, wooden ware, boats and ships. Remarks: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in the market. 38Yellow Birch. Gray Birch.Yellow and gray, both refer to the color of the bark. Betula lutea F. A. Michaux.Betula, the classical Latin name; lutea refers to the yellow color of the bark. Habitat: (See map); best in northern New York and New England. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-100'; diameter, 3'-4'; branches, low; bark, silvery, yellow, gray, peeling horizontally into thin, papery, persistent layers, but on very old trunks, there are rough, irregular, plate-like scales; leaves, ovate, sharply, doubly serrate; fruit, erect, 1" strobiles. Appearance of Wood: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fairly straight; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Heavy (21st in this list); 40 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6553; very strong (2nd in this list); very elastic (2d in this list); medium hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps .........; not durable; rather hard to work, polishes well; splits with difficulty, holds nails well. Common Uses: Furniture, spools, button molds, shoe lasts, shoe pegs, pill boxes, yokes. Remarks: The birches are not usually distinguished from one another in the market. 39Beech.Fagus grandifolia Ehrhart. Fagus americana Sweet. Fagus ferruginea Aiton. Fagus atropunicea (Marshall) Sudworth.Fagus (Greek phago means to eat), refers to edible nut; ferruginea, refers to the iron rust color of the leaves in the fall; atropunicea, meaning dark red or purple, may refer to the color of the leaves of the copper beech. Habitat: (See map); best in southern Alleghany Mountains and lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-80' and even 120'; diameter, 3'-4'; in forest, trunk tall, slender, sinewy; bark, smooth, ashy gray; leaves, feather-veined, wedge-shaped, serrate; leaf buds, long, pointed; fruit, 2 small triangular nuts, enclosed in burr, seeds about once in 3 years. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish, variable, sap-wood white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight; rays, broad, very conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Heavy (20th in this list); 42 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6883; very strong (10th in this list); elastic (13th in this list); hard (22d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps and checks during seasoning; not durable; hard to work, takes fine polish; splits with difficulty, hard to nail. Common Uses: Plane stocks, shoe lasts, tool handles, chairs. Remarks: Often forms pure forests. Uses due to its hardness. 40Chestnut.Castanea dentata (Marshall) Borkhausen.Castanea, the classical Greek and Latin name; dentata, refers to toothed leaf. Habitat: (See map); best in western North Carolina, and eastern Tennessee. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 75'-100'; diameter, 3'-4', and even 12'; branches, low; bark, thick, shallow, irregular, fissures, broad, grayish brown ridges; leaves, lanceolate, coarsely serrate, midribs and veins prominent; fruit, nuts, thin-shelled, sweet, enclosed in prickly burrs. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter; ring-porous; rings, plain, pores large; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Weight, light (50th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4504; medium strong (46th in this list); elasticity, medium (46th in this list); medium hard (44th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps badly; very durable, especially in contact with soil, fairly easy to plane, chisel and saw; splits easily. Common Uses: Railway ties, fence posts, interior finish. Remarks: Grows rapidly, and lives to great age. Wood contains much tannic acid. Uses depend largely upon its durability. Lately whole regions depleted by fungous pest. 41Red Oak.Quercus rubra Linnaeus.Quercus, the classical Latin name; rubra, refers to red color of wood. Habitat: (See map); best in Massachusetts and north of the Ohio river. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-100', even 150'; diameter, 3'-6'; a tall, handsome tree, branches rather low; bark, brownish gray, broad, thin, rounded ridges, rather smooth; leaves, 7 to 9 triangular pointed lobes, with rounded sinuses; acorns, characteristically large, in flat shallow cups. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood darker; ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts; grain, crooked, coarse; rays, few, but broad, conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Heavy (23d in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6540; strong (21st in this list); elastic (18th in this list); hard (26th in this list); shrinkage 6 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks badly; moderately durable; easier to work than white oak; splits readily, nails badly. Common Uses: Cooperage, interior finish, furniture. Remarks: Grows rapidly. An inferior substitute for white oak. Bark used in tanning. 42Black Oak. Yellow Bark Oak.Black refers to color of outer bark; yellow bark, refers to the inner bark, which is orange yellow. Quercus velutina Lamarck. Quercus tinctoria Michaux.Quercus, the classical Latin name; velutina, refers to the velvety surface of the young leaf; tinctoria, refers to dye obtained from inner bark. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-80', even 150'; diameter 3'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray to black, deep fissures, broad, rounded, firm ridges, inner bark, yellow, yielding dye; leaves, large, lustrous, leathery, of varied forms; acorns, small; kernel, yellow, bitter. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter; ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of very large open ducts; grain, crooked; rays, thin. Physical Qualities: Heavy (17th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7045; very strong (17th in this list); elastic (25th in this list); hard (18th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps and checks in drying; durable; rather hard to work; splits readily, nails badly. Common Uses: Furniture, interior trim, cooperage, construction. Remarks: Foliage handsome in fall; persists thru winter. 43Basket Oak. Cow Oak.Cow refers to the fact that its acorns are eaten by cattle. Quercus michauxii Nuttall.Quercus, the classical Latin name; michauxii, named for the botanist Michaux. Habitat: (See map); best in Arkansas and Louisiana, especially in river bottoms. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-100'; diameter 3', even 7'; trunk, often clean and straight for 40' or 50'; bark, conspicuous, light gray, rough with loose ashy gray, scaly ridges; leaves, obovate, regularly scalloped; acorns, edible for cattle. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood light buff; ring-porous; rings, marked by few rather large, open ducts; grain, likely to be crooked; rays, broad, conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Very heavy (5th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8039; very strong (12th in this list); elastic (33d in this list); hard (10th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard and tough to work; splits easily, bad to nail. Common Uses: Construction, agricultural implements, wheel stock, baskets. Remarks: The best white oak of the south. Not distinguished from white oak in the market. 44Bur Oak. Mossy-Cup Oak. Over-Cup Oak.Quercus macrocarpa Michaux.Quercus, the classical Latin name; macrocarpa, refers to the large acorn. Habitat: (See map); best in southern Indiana, Illinois and Kansas. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-130', even 170'; diameter, 5'-7'; branches, high; corky wings on young branches; bark, gray brown, deeply furrowed; deep opposite sinuses on large leaves; acorns, half enclosed in mossy-fringed cup. Appearance of Wood: Color, rich brown, sap-wood, thin, lighter; ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of small open ducts; grain, crooked; rays, broad, and conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Heavy (9th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7453; very strong (16th in this list); elastic (37th in this list); hard (9th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps,..........; hard, and tough to work; splits easily, resists nailing. Common Uses: Ship building, cabinet work, railway ties, cooperage. Remarks: Good for prairie planting. One of the most valuable woods of North America. Not distinguished from White Oak in commerce. 45White Oak (Western).Quercus garryana Douglas.Quercus, the classical Latin name; garryana, named for Garry. Habitat: (See map); best in western Washington and Oregon. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-70', even 100'; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading; bark, light brown, shallow fissures, broad ridges; leaves, coarsely pinnatified, lobed; fruit, large acorns. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous; rings, marked by 1 to 3 rows of open ducts; grain, close, crooked; rays, varying greatly in width, often conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Heavy (10th in this list); 46 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7449; strong (28th in this list); elasticity medium (54th in this list); hard (8th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.; warps, unless carefully seasoned; durable; hard to work, very tough; splits badly in nailing. Common Uses: Ship building, vehicles, furniture, interior finish. Remarks: Best of Pacific oaks. Shrubby at high elevations. 46Post Oak.Quercus stellata Wangenheim. Quercus minor (Marsh) Sargent. Quercus obtusiloba Michaux.Quercus, the classical Latin name; stellata, refers to the stellate hairs on upper side of leaf; minor, refers to size of tree, which is often shrubby; obtusiloba, refers to the blunt lobes of leaves. Habitat: (See map); best in Mississippi basin. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-75', even 100'; but often a shrub; diameter, 2'-3'; branches, spreading into dense round-topped head; bark, red or brown, deep, vertical, almost continuous, fissures and broad ridges, looks corrugated; leaves, in large tufts at ends of branchlets; acorns, small, sessile. Appearance of Wood: Color, brown, thick, sap-wood, lighter; ring-porous; rings, 1 to 3 rows of not large open ducts; grain, crooked; rays, numerous, conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Very heavy (2d in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.8367; strong (29th in this list); medium elastic (50th in this list); very hard (4th in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent. or more; warps and checks badly in seasoning; durable; hard to work; splits readily, bad to nail. Common Uses: Cooperage, railway ties, fencing, construction. Remarks: Wood often undistinguished from white oak. 47White Oak. Stave Oak.Quercus alba Linnaeus.Quercus, the classical Latin name; white and alba, refer to white bark. Habitat: (See map); best on western slopes of Southern Alleghany Mountains, and in lower Ohio river valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, in forest, tall, in open, short; bark, easily distinguished, light gray with shallow fissures, scaly; leaves, rounded lobes, and sinuses; acorns, ¾" to 1" long, ripen first year. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood paler; ring-porous; rings, plainly defined by pores; grain crooked; rays, broad, very conspicuous and irregular. Physical Qualities: Heavy (8th in this list); 50 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7470; strong (23d in this list); elastic (32d in this list); hard (13th in this list); shrinkage, from 4 to 10 per cent.; warps and checks considerably, unless carefully seasoned; very durable, hard to work; splits somewhat hard, very difficult to nail. Common Uses: Interior finish, furniture, construction, ship building, farm implements, cabinet making. Remarks: The most important of American oaks. 48Cork Elm. Rock Elm. Hickory Elm. White Elm. Cliff Elm.Cork refers to corky ridges on branches. Ulmus thomasi Sargent. Ulmus racemosa Thomas.Ulmus, the classical Latin name; racemosa, refers to racemes of flowers. Habitat: (See map); best in Ontario and southern Michigan. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-100'; diameter, 2'-3', trunk often clear for 60'; bark, gray tinged with red, corky, irregular projections, give shaggy appearance; leaves, obovate, doubly serrate, 3"-4" long; fruit, pubescent, samaras. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown or red; sap-wood yellowish; ring-porous; rings, marked with one or two rows of small open ducts; grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Heavy (15th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7263; very strong (13th in this list); elastic (22d in this list); hard (15th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, ........; very durable; hard to work; splits and nails with difficulty. Common Uses: Hubs, agricultural implements, sills, bridge timbers. Remarks: The best of the elm woods. 49White Elm. American Elm. Water Elm.Water, because it flourishes on river banks. Ulmus americana Linnaeus.Ulmus, the classical Latin name. Habitat: (See map); best northward on river bottoms. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-8'; trunk, usually divides at 30'-40' from ground into upright branches, making triangular outline; bark, ashy gray, deep longitudinal fissures, broad ridges; leaves, 4"-6" long, oblique obovate, doubly serrate, smooth one way; fruit, small, roundish, flat, smooth, samaras. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood yellowish; ring-porous; rings, marked by several rows of large open ducts; grain, interlaced; rays, numerous, thin. Physical Qualities: Heavy (24th in this list); 34 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6506; strong (33d in this list); elasticity, medium (59th in this list); medium hard (28th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .........; not durable; hard to work, tough, will not polish; splits with difficulty. Common Uses: Cooperage, wheel stock, flooring. Remarks: Favorite ornamental tree, but shade light, and leaves fall early. 50Cucumber Tree. Mountain Magnolia.Cucumber, refers to the shape of the fruit. Magnolia acuminata Linnaeus.Magnolia, named for Pierre Magnol, a French botanist; acuminata, refers to pointed fruit. Habitat: (See map); best at the base of mountains in North Carolina and South Carolina and Tennessee. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-90'; diameter, 3'-4'; in forest, clear trunk for ⅔ of height (40' or 50'); bark, dark brown, thick, furrowed; leaves, large, smooth; flowers, large greenish yellow; fruit, dark red "cones" formed of two seeded follicles. Appearance of Wood: Color, yellow brown, thick sapwood, lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, very straight, close, satiny; rays, numerous thin. Physical Qualities: Light (45th in this list); .... lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4690; medium strong (49th in this list); elastic (38th in this list); medium hard (41st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .........; very durable; easy to work; splits easily, takes nails well. Common Uses: Pump logs, cheap furniture, shelving. 51Yellow Poplar. Whitewood. Tulip Tree.Poplar, inappropriate, inasmuch as the tree does not belong to poplar family. White, refers inappropriately to the color of the wood, which is greenish yellow. Liriodendron tulipifera Linnaeus.Liriodendron, means lily-tree; tulipifera means tulip-bearing. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley and southern Appalachian mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-90'; even 200'; diameter, 6'-8', even 12'; tall, magnificent trunk, unsurpassed in grandeur by any eastern American tree; bark, brown, aromatic, evenly furrowed so as to make clean, neat-looking trunk; leaves, 4 lobed, apex, peculiarly truncated, clean cut; flowers, tulip-like; fruit, cone, consisting of many scales. Appearance of Wood: Color, light greenish or yellow brown, sap-wood, creamy white; diffuse-porous; rings, close but distinct; grain, straight; rays, numerous and plain. Physical Qualities: Light (54th in this list); 26 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4230; medium strong (51st in this list); elastic (39th in this list); soft (49th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; durable; easy to work; brittle and does not split readily, nails very well. Common Uses: Construction work, furniture, interiors, boats, carriage bodies, wooden pumps. Remarks: Being substituted largely for white pine. 52Sweet Gum.Gum, refers to exudations. Liquidambar styraciflua Linnaeus.Liquidambar, means liquid gum; styraciflua, means fluid resin (storax). Habitat: (See map); best in the lower Mississippi valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-140'; diameter, 3'-5'; trunk, tall, straight; bark, light brown tinged with red, deeply fissured; branchlets often having corky wings; leaves, star-shaped, five pointed; conspicuously purple and crimson in autumn; fruit, multi-capsular, spherical, persistent heads. Appearance of Wood: Color, light red brown, sap-wood almost white; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and difficult to distinguish; grain, straight, close, polishes well; rays, numerous, very obscure. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (34th in this list); 37 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5909; medium strong (52d in this list); elasticity medium (44th in this list); medium hard (36th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps and twists badly in seasoning; not durable when exposed; easy to work; crumbles in splitting; nails badly. Common Uses: Building construction, cabinet-work, veneering, street pavement, barrel staves and heads. Remarks: Largely used in veneers, because when solid it warps and twists badly. Exudations used in medicine to some extent. 53Sycamore. Buttonwood. Button Ball. Water Beech.Sycamore, from two Greek words meaning fig and mulberry; buttonwood and button-ball, refer to fruit balls. Platanus occidentalis Linnaeus.Platanus, refers to the broad leaves; occidentalis, western, to distinguish it from European species. Habitat: (See map); best in valley of lower Ohio and Mississippi. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-100', and even 170'; diameter, 6'-12'; trunk, commonly divides into 2 or 3 large branches, limbs spreading, often dividing angularly; bark, flakes off in great irregular masses, leaving mottled surface, greenish gray and brown, this peculiarity due to its rigid texture; leaves, palmately 3 to 5 lobed, 4"-9" long, petiole enlarged, enclosing buds; fruit, large rough balls, persistent through winter. Appearance of Wood: Color, reddish brown, sap-wood lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, marked by broad bands of small ducts; grain, cross, close; rays, numerous, large, conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (38th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5678; medium strong (54th in this list); elasticity, medium (43d in this list); medium hard (30th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; very durable, once used for mummy coffins; hard to work; splits very hard. Common Uses: Tobacco boxes, yokes, furniture, butcher blocks. Remarks: Trunks often very large and hollow. 54Wild Black Cherry.Padus serotina (Ehrhart) Agardh. Prunus serotina Ehrhart.Padus, the old Greek name; prunus, the classical Latin name; serotina, because it blossoms late (June). Habitat: (See map); best on southern Allegheny mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter, 2'-4'; straight, columnar trunk, often free from branches for 70'; bark, blackish and rough, fissured in all directions, broken into small, irregular, scaly plates, with raised edges; leaves, oblong to lanceolate, deep, shiny green; fruit, black drupe, ½". Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown or red, sap-wood yellow; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, straight, close, fine, takes fine polish; rays, numerous. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (35th in this list); 36 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5822; strong (35th in this list); elasticity medium (45th in this list); hard (16th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, little; durability..........; easily worked; splits easily, must be nailed with care. Common Uses: Cabinet-work, costly interior trim. Remarks: Grows rapidly. 55Black Locust. Locust. Yellow Locust.Yellow, from color of sap-wood. Robinia pseudacacia Linnaeus.Robinia, in honor of Jean Robin, of France; pseudacacia, means false acacia. Habitat: (See map); best on western Allegheny mountains in West Virginia. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 3'-4'; bark, strikingly deeply furrowed, dark brown; prickles on small branches, grows fast, forms thickets, on account of underground shoots; leaves, 8"-14" long, pinnately compound; 7 to 9 leaflets, close at night and in rainy weather; fruit, pod 3"-4" long. Appearance of Wood: Color, brown, sap-wood thin, yellowish; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 2 or 3 rows of large open ducts; grain, crooked, compact. Physical Qualities: Heavy (12th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7333; very strong (1st in this list); elastic (9th in this list); very hard (6th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps badly, very durable; hard to work, tough; splits in nailing. Common Uses: Shipbuilding, construction, "tree-nails" or pins, wagon hubs. Remarks: Widely planted and cultivated east and west. Likely to be infested with borers. 56Mahogany.Swietenia mahagoni Jacquin.Swietenia, in honor of Dr. Gerard Van Swieten of Austria; mahagoni, a South American word. Habitat: (See map); only on Florida Keys in the United States. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 40'-50'; diameter, 2' or more, foreign trees larger; immense buttresses at base of trunk; bark, thick, dark red-brown, having surface of broad, thick scales; leaves, 4"-6" long, compound, 4 pairs of leaflets; fruit, 4"-5" long, containing seeds. Appearance of Wood: Color, red-brown, sap-wood, thin, yellow; diffuse-porous; rings, inconspicuous; grain, crooked; rays, fine and scattered, but plain. Physical Qualities: Heavy (14th in this list); 45 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7282; very strong (20th in this list); elastic (24th in this list); very hard (1st in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps very little; very durable; genuine mahogany, hard to work; especially if grain is cross; somewhat brittle, and comparatively easy to split, nails with difficulty; polishes and takes glue well. Common Uses: Chiefly for cabinet-making, furniture, interior finishes and veneers. Remarks: Mahogany, now in great demand in the American market for fine furniture and interior trim comes from the West Indies, Central America and West Africa. The so-called Spanish mahogany, the most highly prized variety, came originally from the south of Hayti. The Honduras Mahogany was often called baywood. Botanically the varieties are not carefully distinguished; in the lumber yard the lumber is known by its sources. The Cuba wood can be partly distinguished by the white chalk-like specks in the pores and is cold to the touch, while the Honduras wood can be recognized by the black specks or lines in the grain. Both the Honduras and West India woods have a softer feel than the African wood, when rubbed with the thumb. The Cuba and St. Domingo wood are preferred to the Honduras, and still more to the African, but even experts have difficulty in distinguishing the varieties. Spanish cedar, or furniture cedar (Cedrela odorata) belongs to the same family as mahogany and is often sold for it. It is softer, lighter, and easier to work. 57Oregon Maple. White Maple. Large Leaved Maple.Acer macrophyllum Pursh.Acer, the classical Latin name; macrophyllum, refers to the large leaves. Habitat: (See map); best in southern Oregon. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-100'; diameter, 3'-5'; stout, often pendulous branches, making a handsome tree; bark, reddish brown, deeply furrowed, square scales; leaves, very large, 8"-12" and long petioles, deep, narrow sinuses; fruit, hairy samaras. Appearance of Wood: Color, rich brown and red, sap-wood thick, nearly white; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, close, fibres interlaced, sometimes figured, polishes well; rays, numerous and thin. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (26th in this list); 30 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr. 0.4909; medium strong (47th in this list); elasticity medium (57th in this list); medium hard (31st in this list); shrinkage, 4 per cent.; warps ..........; not durable; rather hard to work; splits with difficulty. Common Uses: Tool and ax handles, furniture, interior finish. Remarks: A valuable wood on the Pacific coast. 58Soft Maple. White Maple. Silver Maple.Silver, refers to white color of underside of leaf. Acer saccharinum Linnaeus. Acer dasycarpum Ehrhart.Acer, the classical Latin name; saccharinum, refers to sweetish juice; dasycarpum, refers to the wooliness of the fruit when young. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-90', even 120'; diameter, 3'-5'; form suggests elm; bark, reddish brown, furrowed, surface separating into large, loose scales; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, with narrow, acute sinuses, silvery white beneath, turn only yellow in autumn; fruit, divergent, winged samaras. Appearance of Wood: Color, brown and reddish, sap-wood, cream; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, twisted, wavy, fine, polishes well; rays, thin, numerous. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (40th in this list); 32 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5269; very strong (19th in this list); very elastic (20th in this list); hard (25th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, ............; not durable under exposure; easily worked; splits in nailing. Common Uses: Flooring, furniture, turnery, wooden ware. Remarks: Grows rapidly. Curly varieties found. Sap produces some sugar. 59Red Maple.Acer rubrum Linnaeus.Acer, the classical Latin name; rubrum, refers to red flowers and autumn leaves. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-120'; diameter, 2'-4'; branches, low; bark, dark gray, shaggy, divided by long ridges; leaves, palmately 5 lobed, acute sinuses; fruit, double samaras, forming characteristic maple key. Appearance of Wood: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood, lighter; diffuse-porous; rings, obscure; grain, crooked; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (30th in this list); 38 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6178; strong (36th in this list); elastic (36th in this list); hard (27th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps .......; not durable; fairly hard to work; splits with difficulty, splits badly in nailing. Common Uses: Flooring, turning, wooden ware. Remarks: Grows rapidly. Has red flowers, red keys, red leaf stems, and leaves scarlet or crimson in autumn. 60Hard Maple. Sugar Maple. Rock Maple.Acer saccharum Marshall.Acer, the classical Latin name; saccharum, refers to sweet sap. Habitat: (See map); best in regions of Great Lakes. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 100'-120'; diameter, 1½'-3', even 4'; often trees in forest are without branches for 60'-70' from ground, in the open, large impressive tree; bark, gray brown, thick, deep, longitudinal fissures, hard and rough; leaves, opposite, 3 to 5 lobed, scarlet and yellow in autumn; fruit, double, slightly divergent samaras. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown tinged with red; diffuse-porous rings, close but distinct; grain, crooked, fine, close, polishes well; rays, fine but conspicuous. Physical Qualities: Heavy (19th in this list); 43 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6912; very strong (8th in this list); very elastic (5th in this list); very hard (7th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps badly; not durable when exposed; hard to work; splits badly in nailing. Common Uses: School and other furniture, car construction, carving, wooden type, tool handles, shoe lasts, piano actions, ships' keels. Remarks: Tree very tolerant. The uses of this wood are chiefly due to its hardness. Bird's-Eye Maple and Curly Maple are accidental varieties. Pure maple sugar is made chiefly from this species. Its ashes yield large quantities of potash. 61Basswood. Linden.Bass, refers to bast or inner bark. Tilia americana Linnaeus.Tilia, the classical Latin name. Habitat: (See map); best in bottom lands of lower Ohio River. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-70', even 130'; diameter, 2'-4'; trunk, erect, pillar-like, branches spreading, making round heads; bark, light brown, furrowed, scaly surface, inner bark fibrous and tough, used for matting; leaves, oblique, heart-shaped, side nearest branch larger; fruit clustered on long pendulous stem, attached to vein of narrow bract. Appearance of Wood: Color, very light brown, approaching cream color, sap-wood, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, fine and close but clear; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Light in weight (49th in this list); 28 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.4525; weak (60th in this list); elasticity, medium (49th in this list); soft (64th in this list); shrinkage, 6 per cent.; warps comparatively little; quite durable; very easily worked; somewhat tough to split, nails well. Common Uses: Woodenware, carriage bodies, etc., picture molding, paper pulp, etc. Remarks: May be propagated by grafting as well as by seed. Is subject to attack by many insects. Wood used for carriage bodies because flexible and easily nailed. 62Sour Gum. Tupelo. Pepperidge. Black Gum.Tupelo, the Indian name. Nyssa sylvatica Marshal.Nyssa, from Nysa, the realm of moist vegetation and the home of Dio-nysus (Bacchus) (the tree grows in low wet lands); sylvatica, refers to its habit of forest growth. Habitat: (See map); best in Southern Appalachian mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 40'-50', even 100'; diameter, 1'6"-3'6", even 5'; variable in form; bark, brown, deeply fissured and scaly; leaves, in sprays, short, petioled, brilliant scarlet in autumn; fruit, bluish black, sour, fleshy drupe. Appearance of Wood: Color, pale yellow, sap-wood, white, hardly distinguishable; diffuse-porous; rings, not plain; grain fine, twisted and interwoven; rays, numerous, thin. Physical Qualities: Medium heavy (25th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6356; strong (34th in this list); elasticity, medium (51st in this list); hard (20th in this list); shrinkage, 5 or 6 per cent.; warps and checks badly; not durable if exposed; hard to work; splits hard, tough. Common Uses: Wagon hubs, handles, yokes, wooden shoe soles, docks and wharves, rollers in glass factories. Remarks: The best grades closely resemble yellow poplar. 63Black Ash. Hoop Ash.Hoop, refers to its use for barrel hoops. Fraxinus nigra Marshall. Fraxinus sambucifolia.Fraxinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; sambucifolia, refers to the fact that the leaves are in odor like those of Elder (Sambucus). Habitat: (See map); best in moist places. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 80'-90'; diameter, 1'-1½'; slenderest of the forest trees, upright branches; bark, gray tinged with red, irregular plates, with thin scales; leaves, 10"-16" long, compound, 7 to 11 leaflets, in autumn rusty brown; fruit, single samaras in panicles. Appearance of Wood: Color, dark brown, sap-wood light; ring-porous; rings, well defined; grain, straight, burls often form highly prized veneers; rays, numerous and thin. Physical Qualities: Medium heavy (27th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6318; strong (38th in this list); elasticity, medium (12th in this list); hard (23d in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, but not very much; not durable when exposed; hard to work; separates easily in layers, hence used for splints. Common Uses: Interior finish, cabinet work, fencing, barrel hoops. Remarks: The flexibility of the wood largely determines its uses. 64Oregon Ash.Fraxinus oregona Nuttall.Fraxinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; oregona, named for the State of Oregon. Habitat: (See map); best in southern Oregon. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 50'-80'; diameter, 1'-1½', even 4'; branches, stout, erect; bark, grayish brown, deep interrupted fissures, broad, flat ridges, exfoliates; leaves, 5"-14" long; pinnately compound, 5 to 7 leaflets; fruit, single samaras in clusters. Appearance of Wood: Color, brown, sap-wood thick, lighter; ring-porous; rings, plainly marked by large, open, scattered pores; grain, coarse, straight; rays, numerous, thin. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (37th in this list); 35 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.5731; medium strong (50th in this list); elasticity, medium (48th in this list); medium hard (29th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps,............; not durable; hard to work, tough; splits with difficulty. Common Uses: Furniture, vehicles, cooperage. Remarks: A valuable timber tree of the Pacific coast. 65Blue Ash.Blue, refers to blue dye obtained from inner bark. Fraxinus quadrangulata Michaux.Fraxinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; quadrangulata, refers to four-angled branchlets. Habitat: (See map); best in lower Wabash valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 60'-70', even 120'; diameter, 1'-2'; tall, slender, four-angled, branchlets; bark, light gray, irregularly divided into large plate-like scales, inside bark, bluish, yielding dye; leaves, 8"-12" long, compound pinnate, 5 to 9 leaflets; fruit, winged samaras in panicles. Appearance of Wood: Color, light yellow, streaked with brown, sap-wood lighter; ring-porous; rings, clearly marked by 1 to 3 rows of large, open ducts; grain, straight; rays, numerous, obscure. Physical Qualities: Heavy (16th in this list); 44 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.7184; strong (37th in this list); elasticity, medium (58th in this list); hard (12th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps, ............; most durable of the ashes; hard to work; splits readily, bad for nailing. Common Uses: Carriage building, tool handles. Remarks: Blue ash pitchfork handles are famous. 66Red Ash.Red, from color of inner bark. Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall. Fraxinus pubescens Lambert.Fraxinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood; pennsylvanica, in honor of the State of Pennsylvania; pubescens, refers to down on new leaves and twigs. Habitat: (See map); best east of Alleghany mountains. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 40'-60'; diameter, 12"-18"; small, slim, upright branches; bark, brown or ashy, great, shallow, longitudinal furrows; leaves, 10"-12" long, pinnately compound, 7 to 9 leaflets, covered with down; fruit, single samara. Appearance of Wood: Color, light brown, sap-wood lighter and yellowish; ring porous; rings, marked by pores; grain, straight, coarse; rays, numerous, thin. Physical Qualities: Weight, medium (28th in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6251; strong (30th in this list); elasticity, medium (53d in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not durable; hard to work; splits in nailing. Common Uses: Agricultural implements, oars, handles, boats. Remarks: Often sold with and as the superior white ash. 67White Ash.White, refers to whitish color of wood. Fraxinus americana Linnaeus.Fraxinus, from a Greek word (phraxis) meaning split, refers to the cleavability of the wood. Habitat: (See map); best in the bottom lands of lower Ohio valley. Characteristics of the Tree: Height, 70'-80', even 120'; diameter, 3'-6'; branches rather high, tree singularly graceful; bark, gray, narrow furrows, clean, neat trunk; leaves, 8"-15" long, compound, tufted, smooth, turns in autumn to beautiful purples, browns and yellows; fruit, panicles of samaras, persistent till midwinter. Appearance of Wood: Color, light reddish brown, sap-wood whitish; ring-porous, rings clearly marked by pores; straight-grained; pith rays obscure. Physical Qualities: Heavy (22d in this list); 39 lbs. per cu. ft.; sp. gr., 0.6543; strong (31st in this list); elastic (30th in this list); hard (17th in this list); shrinkage, 5 per cent.; warps little; not durable in contact with soil; hard and tough; splits readily, nails badly. Common Uses: Inside finish, farm implements, barrels, baskets, oars, carriages. Remarks: Forms no forests, occurs scattered. Its uses for handles and oars determined by combination of strength, lightness and elasticity. |