Wood-working for Beginners: A Manual for Amateurs

Boat-houses.—By using the same simple system of framework shown in Fig. 389 you can make an inexpensive boat-house (Fig. 405).

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Screws, Hinges, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The inclined slip or platform upon which you haul the boats up from the water requires simply two or three timbers for stringers, running down towards the water, with 2" planks nailed across, as shown. The simplest way to square the ends of these planks is to nail them in place, allowing a little extra length, and then saw the ends all off at once by a line.

A house of this kind can be built to extend over the water (for boats which are to be kept in the water) by arranging a foundation of stone or piles in the water, or by digging a little dock into the shore under the house.

In these cases there must, of course, be an additional door of the ordinary kind for entrance on the shore end of the house, and it will be convenient, if the house is long enough, to floor over this end. A narrow floor or platform can also be extended along one or both sides to facilitate handling the boats and getting in or out of them.

The sill at the water end will have to be omitted, of course, a piece of studding being fitted in at each side of the door-space, but these details you will have no difficulty in arranging if you have studied the preceding examples.

A larger and more elaborate boat-house, or club-house (Fig. 406), having a loft for storage as well as a balcony, can be constructed on the same general principles already explained.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Screws, Hinges, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The end-plate for the end shown in the illustration cannot run across from side to side, because of the doorway opening on the balcony, but can be made in two parts to extend from the sides to upright studs at each side of the doorway. A simple way of arranging the frame at the floor of the second story is shown in Fig. 407.

Unless this building is very small (in which case it can only be used for the storage of oars, rigging, etc.), the sills should be of 4" × 6" (on edge) or 6" × 6" stock, and the floor-beams of 2" × 6" stock. 4" × 4" or 4" × 6" will do for the corner-posts, and 2" × 4" for the studding and rafters for such a small structure as is advisable for the beginner to attempt.

If you should, however, build anything large, the posts, the lower floor-beams, if unsupported in the middle, the plates, and the rafters should be heavier. If your house is to be used by many people and heavy boats are to be hauled in and out, it is much better to err on the side of having these timbers too heavy rather than too light. But these designs are only intended for comparatively small structures.

The outer floor-timbers for the balcony had best be mortised into the posts (see Mortising). The top rail around the balcony can be of 2" × 4" studding, laid flatways, and with the upper angles bevelled (see Bevelling). The balusters can be simply square pieces nailed into place. The rail and balusters can, however, be obtained in a great variety of forms at a wood-working mill, if you prefer to buy them. The braces under the balcony can be of 2" × 4" stock. All these outside parts should be planed by machine.

The remaining details do not differ from those of the houses already described.

PART IV
BOAT-BUILDING FOR BEGINNERS

CHAPTER XV

Boat-building, like many other kinds of work, can be done (even in its simplest stages) more quickly, more easily, and, of course, more cheaply, by two persons than by one, so it will be economy of money, time, and labour to find someone to join forces with you. Do not, however, give up your plans for lack of a fellow-workman, for nothing is given here which cannot be done by one person with, perhaps, a little help once in a while about holding or lifting something.

If these boats seem rather simple compared with many which you have seen, and you fail to find here some form you have in mind to build, it is to be remembered that boat-building is by no means easy, and that many an attractive design would prove too difficult for the average beginner to finish successfully. The experience gained in building such boats as these will help you in more difficult boat-building. These simple models are not offered as being in themselves the best there are, nor are the ways shown for building them in every case such as would always be used by a regular boat-builder; but boat-building involves a variety of difficulties, not merely in the designing, but also in the execution.

It takes a good workman to turn out a really successful round-bottomed boat (except by the use of canvas), therefore a few simple types of flat-bottomed boats are all that are treated here. When you have become skilful enough to attempt the more advanced forms, you can easily find a number of excellent books on boat-building from which to gain the needed information. The intention here is to show wood-working processes which you can use in making these simple craft, but not to go into the details of designing or of rigging, subjects which are far too complex to be satisfactorily treated, even for the beginner, in a hand-book on wood-working.

While it is practicable to make a good punt, or flat-bottomed rowboat, entirely by rule of thumb, or "cutting and trying" as you go along, still you should accustom yourself, even in the simplest forms, to lay the work out on paper correctly first, as this is really essential, in order to work to good advantage when you come to the more advanced forms.

Scows and Punts.—A flat-bottomed boat, if made with care, may be not merely good-looking, but light, strong, and useful, and sometimes superior for some purposes to a round-bottomed boat.

Boats of this class are easily and cheaply built and by no means to be despised. They are safe, capacious, and comfortable, and the flat bottom permits much freedom of movement by the occupants, making them good boats for fishing and general use on ponds and rivers, as well as for transporting loads.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

The process is to first get out the sides, then the ends, next to fasten the sides and ends together as in making a box, then to nail on the bottom, and finally to put in the seats and any other fittings. Almost any kind of soft wood can be used for a boat of this kind. Pine is excellent. Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry.

For the sides, take two boards, for example, 14' long, 14" wide, and ⁷/₈" thick, planed on both sides. Both edges should be "jointed" and the ends squared and sawed accurately. Mark, saw, and plane the slant at each end of these boards as shown in Fig. 408. The ends must next be got out. In this case they can be 4' long and 4¼" wide. Nail together the sides and ends just as in making a flat box. Use three nails (3" or 3½" long) at each corner. It is safest to bore holes for the nails (see Boring). Copper nails are best for boats, but galvanized iron answers very well for common boats of this kind. Next place this frame, bottom up, on horses or boxes or a flat floor and plane down the projecting edges of the end pieces to agree with the slant of the sides.

Pieces for the bottom are now to be sawed from boards about 6" to 8" wide. Mark and saw one piece and use it for a pattern by which to mark the lengths of the remaining pieces. You can take the length directly from either end, allowing a trifle (say ¹/₈") to spare, for planing the ends after they are nailed. Having sawed the required number of pieces, which will depend on the width of the boards, nail them on carefully. Before nailing, thoroughly paint the bottom edge to which they are to be nailed with thick white-lead paint. See that the edges of each board are straight, paint the edges as you lay them, and nail thoroughly with 2½" nails. Do not put the nails so close to the edge as to cause splitting. The edges of the pieces which come together at the angles of the bottom must be fitted carefully with the plane (see Bevelling), to make as tight joints as possible. The boards should be pressed closely together as they are nailed. They will assist in keeping the sides and ends of the boat at right angles, but it would be well to test the angles with the large square, or by measuring the diagonals, when you nail on the first two boards.

A quicker way is to nail on all the boards (not sawing them accurately to a length) and then to saw the ends all off by a line.

A good way is to use, for the bottom, plain sheathing or matched boards, if obtainable without the bead or moulding commonly worked on the surface, which would be apt to cause leakage. The sheathing can be planed down on both sides to a thickness of ⁵/₈", which will remove the moulding, but this is rather thin for the bottom of a boat as large as this, though an excellent way for a narrower boat.

When the bottom is all nailed on, turn the boat on each side and plane off any irregularity in the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will be flush with the sides.

A cleat from 4" to 6" wide should be laid along the middle of the bottom to stiffen it, as shown. The nails should be driven through the boards and clinched. Wrought nails, or some kind that will bend over and not break, must of course be used for this. This cleat is often nailed on the outside instead of the inside.

Nail a seat at each end directly on top of the sides and ends as shown. From 12" to 18" in width will do. The seat for rowing (about 8" or 9" wide) can rest on cleats, as shown.

Next screw a cleat, about 2" deep, ⁷/₈" thick, and 10" long, to the insides of the gunwales at the places for the rowlocks (see Screws). Common iron rowlocks can be bought almost anywhere, and the way to put them on is obvious (see Boring). A substitute for them can be arranged easily by simply boring two holes, 3½" apart, for the insertion of round thole pins of hard wood. Another simple way (Fig. 409) is to make two mortises or slots, 3½" apart and 1½" long × ⁵/₈" wide, to hold thole pins (Fig. 410). The cutting can be done wholly in the cleats by sawing and paring.

Insert a ring-bolt at the end by which to fasten the boat, or a staple can be driven in, or a hole bored at the end of the seat.

If care has been taken to make close joints, the wood will swell on being put in the water and in a short time the boat should be tight. Unless made for some temporary purpose, however, a boat that is worth making at all is worth painting. It should be painted carefully with lead paint, both inside and out, two or three coats, being careful to work the paint well into the wood and the cracks (see Painting).

Instead of laying the bottom boards tightly together, as directed above, they can be laid slightly apart, so that the cracks between them will be about ¹/₈" wide. These can then be caulked with oakum, cotton-batting, or wicking, or something of that nature. Roll or twist the material into a loose cord, unless already in that form, and force it into the cracks with a putty-knife, screw-driver, case-knife, or anything of the sort. A regular caulking-iron is not at all necessary for a small boat. A piece of hard wood will do. Be sure to fill the seams thoroughly and tightly with the oakum or other caulking material. Then apply white lead plentifully to the caulked seams. But the method first given is usually satisfactory if you do your work with care.

Pitch or tar can be used in making the bottom of a boat of this kind tight.

A form which is a decided improvement on the preceding is shown in Fig. 411. The process of making this punt will be first to get out the cross-board which goes in the middle, and next the sides and ends. These pieces having been put together, the bottom is nailed on, and finally the seats and other fittings are added.

The one here described is small, but large enough for two good-sized boys. The dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the process. As much larger boat as may be desired can, of course, be made upon the same principles.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Care should always be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort.

First get out carefully a board, perhaps 3' long, or the width of the boat (at the middle), and of the shape shown in Fig. 412, removing a small piece at each lower corner, to allow for the passage of any water which may leak in. Get out each side of the boat, 10' 4" long, of ¾" stock, carefully squaring the ends. After these are cut, mark a distance of 3' from each end towards the centre on the edge of one of the boards and a distance of 3" on the ends, measuring from the other edge, and mark the curves shown in Fig. 413, which should sweep easily from the edge of the board without any abrupt turn. If you cannot draw a good curve free-hand, take a spline or thin strip of wood, bend it on the side of the board towards one end till you get a good curve, hold it in position, and using it as a ruler mark the line with a pencil. You can cut this curve and use it for a pattern by which to mark the other curves. These curves can be band-sawed or cut with the draw-knife or hatchet and plane (see Paring). Whatever method you adopt, the curves should finally be run over with the plane to remove irregularities, and care must be taken to keep as accurately to the line marked as possible. The top edges must also be jointed, although it is not material that they should be absolutely straight. Mark a line with the square across each board at the centre. Next get out the end pieces, 2' long, 3¾" wide, and of ⁷/₈" stock (Fig. 414). Bevel the ends of these pieces at the same angle as the centre board already sawed, from which you can mark the angle.

An easy way to put this boat together will be to put the sides and ends together, and then, by spreading the sides apart, to put the middle board in its proper place. Bore holes for 2½" screws at each end of the sides (see Boring) and screw the sides and ends together loosely (see Screws), not driving the screws home, but leaving their heads sticking beyond the sides perhaps an eighth of an inch. Now lay the boat (so far as made) bottom side up on the horses or boxes, or even with one end on the floor and the other raised by a box, and, spreading the sides in the middle as much as may be necessary, push the middle board up into place, getting it exactly opposite centre lines previously marked on the sides and so that the bottom edge of the board is just even with the inner edge of the bottom of the sides. This piece can now be nailed in place by three nails at each end.

Now, on looking at the ends where the sides are screwed, you will see that spreading the sides has caused the joints (purposely left loose) to open slightly at the inside, and that the ends require to be slightly bevelled or trimmed to make a close joint. Unscrew one end, do the necessary trimming with the plane, replace the piece, and screw it into position again, driving the screws home and adding one or two nails. Do the same with the other end and the boat will be ready for the bottom.

But before the bottom is nailed on, the lower edges of the sides must be bevelled with the plane, owing to the sides flaring outwards. The degree of bevelling required can be determined by laying a board across (Fig. 415). At first it will only touch the outer angles of the edges, and the planing must be continued until it bears flat on the entire edge.

Now get out of ⁷/₈" stock the bottom boards, the edges of which should be carefully jointed to fit together as tightly as possible. These boards should be thoroughly nailed to the sides of the boat with 2¼" or 2½" nails, care being taken not to nail too near the edges of the boards, lest they split. As the sides are only ¾" thick you will have to be careful in driving the nails or they will split the sides. Before you finish nailing the first bottom boards, test the symmetry of the frame by measuring the diagonals. These should be equal. If not, you can easily make them so with your hands, and tack a couple of strips diagonally across the gunwales to keep the frame in position until the bottom is nailed on. Also sight across the gunwales to see that the frame is true. If it winds, correct the error by blocking it up where needed.

Sheathing can well be used for the bottom of this boat, as for the one just described, if you can get it without the moulding. The bottom can also be caulked (see page 302), but if you cannot get the sheathing the way first described will answer every purpose.

After the bottom is nailed on, turn the boat on each edge and plane off any irregularities at the ends of the bottom boards, so that they will be flush with the sides.

Next nail a strip, about 3" or 4" wide and ¾" thick, lengthways on the middle of the bottom, on the inside. Fasten this to each board with a couple of nails driven through and clinched on the outside. This will serve to stiffen the bottom.

Next deck over each end with a seat 12" wide nailed directly on top of the sides. Put in a seat, or thwart, 9" wide and ⁷/₈" thick, next to the middle brace, as shown. Cleats can be nailed to the sides under this seat. This should be a fixed seat, nailed to the cross brace and to the sides of the boat, which will assist in stiffening the sides.

You can nail a gunwale strip, 2" wide by ⁷/₈" or ¾" thick, on top of the sides and reaching from one end seat to the other, or you can put a somewhat smaller strip around the outer edge of the gunwale, which is quite as good a way. It is not really necessary to put any gunwale strip on so small a boat, but if omitted a cleat must be screwed on for the rowlocks (Fig. 409). If you put the gunwale strip on top, it will make a more workmanlike job to first plane the edges of the gunwale so that they will be horizontal across the boat, in the same way that you planed the bottom edges to receive the bottom boards.

Put the centre of the rowlocks about 12" aft of the centre of the boat, raising them an inch or so above the gunwale by means of a cleat (Fig. 416), as shown.

At a distance of about 28" from the bow, you can, if desired, put in a 6" thwart between the gunwales or a little lower, and in the middle of this thwart bore a hole for a small mast, putting below and slightly forward upon the floor a block with a smaller hole. Sailing does not amount to very much in a boat of this sort, but a small sail is often very useful when going before the wind and adds to the fun.

This makes a very useful and safe boat for a couple of boys for river or pond work.

If you wish to make a larger one you will have no difficulty after studying the process given above. The only difference need be in the dimensions.

For one 12' long you could make the beam at the gunwale (outside) 3' 6" and at the bottom 2' 10", the beam at the bottom of the ends (outside) 2' 10" (same as amidships)—the ends to flare upward at the same angle as at the centre, the boards for the sides being 14" wide.

For one 14' long, you could make the beam 4' at the gunwale, 3' 4" at the bottom, the same at the ends, and the sides could be made of boards 15" wide. Stock ¾" thick is sufficiently heavy for the sides of a boat 14' long.

The seats for a larger boat than that described can be arranged to rest as shown in Fig. 417, and an extra mould or cross-board not far from each end can be used, as shown.

A piece of keel or skag can be added at the stern end, if desired, as shown in Fig. 418. This will assist in rowing straight. Fit a piece of ⁷/₈" board to the curve of the bottom, keeping the straight edge parallel with the top. Square off the end in line with the stern, nail the skag firmly to the bottom, and nail a stern-post, ⁷/₈" × 1¼" or 1½", securely to the stern and the skag. A rudder can be hung to the stern-post if desired. A centre-board is sometimes added to a punt, being arranged in the way shown on page 330. A lee-board is often used on punts and scows. It is merely a centre-board lowered outside of the boat instead of in the centre.

Small Rowboat.—A simple form of skiff, or common flat-bottomed rowboat (Fig. 419), called by various names, is similar to the punt at the stern, and the mode of construction is similar. The boards for the sides are not cut away on the bottom at the bow, as in the punt, but are left full width and drawn together to form a sharp bow. The ends are usually, but not always, cut off with a slight slant at the bow, which gives a rake to the stem (Fig. 420).

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent. Any good wood can, however, be used.

Make a middle mould (Fig. 421), as in the case of the punt just described, and proceed with the construction in a similar manner, until you come to the bow.

Screw the sides to the stern-piece (Fig. 422) without driving the screws completely in, but leaving a little play to the joint (see Screws). Next put the middle mould in place by lines previously squared across each side. Nail the middle mould in position. Then, letting someone draw the bow ends of the sides together (or if you are alone, binding them together temporarily), release the stern-piece and plane its ends to make close joints with the side pieces, as in the case of the punt already described. When these joints are fitted, paint them with white lead and screw or nail the sides securely (and permanently) to the stern board.

Draw the fore-ends together and fit a piece of hard wood in the angle at the bow as shown in Fig. 423. You can cut this piece approximately to shape with a hatchet and then plane the surface down until you get an accurate fit. When you have made it fit, paint it and also the sides where they bear against it. Afterward screw or nail the sides firmly to this stem-piece, letting each end of the stem project a little. Screws are best (brass screws if for salt water), but nails can be used. Do not drive them all in line, but add a second row farther from the edge and alternately arranged. If a piece of hard wood is not available, a block of soft wood can be used, but it should be somewhat larger.

Another pattern of stem-piece can be used (Fig. 424). Much pains should be taken in making this post. The rabbets on each side should be cut with care, trying to get the sides alike and to cut accurately to the lines marked. When the cutting is nearly done, put the piece in place and you can then note any changes which may be required to make tight joints. When you finally have a good fit, paint and fasten in place as described above.

Still another form of stem-piece is shown in Fig. 425. One side of the boat must be got out longer than the other to allow for the lapping over at the bow, the stem-post being first fastened to the shorter side and then trimmed if necessary, until the side which laps over fits accurately.

When the boat is fastened together to this extent, it will frequently be found that the bottom has too much curvature lengthways, according to the degree to which the sides flare outward and bend up at the ends. This you can remedy by trimming off the sides in the middle, first carefully marking the desired line. Measure accurately, in doing this, to be sure that the two sides will be alike. In removing the superfluous wood do not attack it hastily with hatchet or draw-knife, for wood often splits in a way surprisingly different from the direction in which the grain appears to run (see Paring). It is sometimes best to remove the wood with the splitting-saw, but stop all such processes some distance outside of the line, and rely upon the plane for the final shaping.

The lower edges must be bevelled off accurately, ready for the bottom boards, the same as in the case of the punt (Fig. 415). Next nail on the bottom, using common boarding or sheathing as in the case of the punt just described, and put in the stiffening strip of board along the middle of the floor.

If the middle mould comes in such a position that it will be in the way if left in place permanently, you can simply tack it into position with a couple of nails at each end, leaving the heads protruding enough to draw them out easily. When you have put in the seats and any other braces necessary to ensure the sides keeping their position, you can draw the nails and take out the centre mould.

Fit seats at bow and stern, putting them two or three inches below the gunwale and resting them on cleats.

In case you use the stem-piece shown in Fig. 423, saw or plane off the projecting ends of the sides at the bow smoothly and screw (or nail) on a cutwater made of some hard wood and with a sharp edge. Fasten strips along the gunwale,—"wale strips,"—as already shown.

A skag can be put on at the stern, if desired, as described on page 307.

Such a boat can be sailed by adding a centre-board (see page 330) or by bolting on a keel several inches in depth. A small sail-boat can be made in this way by making the stern narrower, proportionately, the sides higher, and decking over the bow and stern. The decking can extend over all the top, if desired, except a well-hole around which can be fitted a coaming or wash board. The keel can be of plank fitted carefully to the shape of the bottom, its lower edge being horizontal towards the after part, which will make it quite deep at the stern. A rudder should be added for sailing.

Skiff or Flat-bottomed Canoe.—A double-ended skiff, batteau, or flat-bottomed canoe (Fig. 426), known by various names, can be easily made by simply carrying the process already described a little further, and drawing the sides together at the stern as well as at the bow, thus forming a boat sharp at both ends. This is an excellent type for the amateur, whether in the form of a small canoe or a quite good-sized boat for rowing, or even light sailing. Such a boat is light, easily propelled, buoyant, does not pound the waves when meeting them so much as the punt, and the sharp stern is good when running before a sea.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Care must be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry. Pine is excellent, but almost any good wood can be used for a boat of this sort.

The sides can be bent into place around a mould in the middle and brought together at both ends and two end-posts fitted. In other respects the process differs so little from the preceding that complete description is needless.

The two stem-pieces, which you can fit in the manner already shown, will, theoretically, be alike. Practically, there should not be more than a very trifling difference required in their shape. Having found the shape for one, get the other out just like it. If it does not fit perfectly, it can be trimmed until it does fit; but if the first one fits right and the second fails to do so by more than a trifling degree, you had best look the boat over and verify your work, and you may find that you have cut something too long or too short or got something in the wrong place. Paint the ends of these sides where they will be in contact with the stem and stern with white lead.

The sides and ends can be put together as follows: Take either side, screw it securely to the stem-pieces at each end. Dip the screw points in white-lead paint. Next screw either end of the other side to the corresponding stem-piece, which will leave the sides separated at an acute angle, with one end of one side not yet fastened to its corresponding bow-or stern-post. The ends being alike it does not matter which is called the bow or stern. To fasten this remaining joint, it will be necessary to spring or bend the sides. If you have someone to help you, you can easily put the midship frame into position and bend the sides around it until the unfastened end comes into the correct position against the stem-piece, to which it can be held and screwed firmly. If you can get no help, you can hold the sides in position by using a rope doubled and inserting sticks at top and bottom by which the rope can be twisted and shortened (see Clamps).

Another way is to put a box or joist, perhaps a couple of feet long, between the sides, to prevent making too much strain on the end fastenings, and, having secured the unfastened end, the frames can then be laid flat, the sides drawn farther apart, and the midship frame forced into position. The latter will be in position when it agrees with the lines previously drawn on the sides and when the bottom is flush with the inner corners of the lower edges of the sides. Nail the sides to it with 1¾" or 2" nails, or it can finally be removed if not needed for stiffness.

The remaining details do not differ from those previously described. The rowlocks can be placed wherever desired in the way already described, but if the boat should be too narrow for this arrangement, they can be fastened to outriggers, which the blacksmith can easily contrive.

A flat-bottomed canoe can be made on this same principle, the only difference being to have less beam and to use a paddle or paddles instead of oars.

A very successful small canoe, suitable for quiet waters, can be made of quite thin wood (perhaps ³/₈" to ½" in thickness), the outside being covered with canvas. In case of building so light a craft as this, however, it is best to insert regular ribs at distances of about a foot to give the necessary stiffness, and to lay the bottom boards lengthways. The ribs can be bought in any large town on the water, or you can fashion them yourself. Natural bends are always preferable, but you can make knees (on the general principle shown in Fig. 433) of straight-grained stock, which, though clumsier and not so strong, will serve the purpose. Care must be taken in fastening on the bottom not to split either the bottom or the sides. But the canvas will be the main reliance in keeping the boat tight. The canvas can be put on in three pieces, first the sides, and then the bottom. Cover the sides down to the bottom and let the bottom piece lap up over the sides two or three inches and the edges be turned under. Stiffen the gunwale by a strip.

A light, removable board, or grating of slats, should be laid inside along the bottom, on the cross-frames.

If well made and kept well painted so as to protect the canvas from wear at the exposed points, a light canoe of this sort will last many years and be a very useful boat. It must be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use.

A simple and cheap flat-bottomed canoe (Figs. 427 and 428), but not canvas-covered, is not difficult to make by the process already described. First make the frames and the stem-and stern-posts, then get out the sides. These parts are put together and then the bottom is put on, the well-hole coaming fitted, the boat decked, and finally the minor fittings added.

First make the centre frame like Fig. 429, the bottom strip being of ⁷/₈" stock, 1¼" deep, and the side pieces of ¾" board. Screw the pieces together with two screws at each angle. Care must be taken to make this frame symmetrical or the boat will be one-sided. You can draw the outline of the frame carefully on a piece of stiff brown paper, drawing a vertical centre line and measuring both ways for accuracy. Lay this pattern on the bench top, or on a smooth floor, and place the pieces for the frame on the drawing so that the outer edges just coincide with the outline of the drawing. Hold them firmly in position and screw the angles securely together. Tack a waste piece across near the top to help keep the frame in shape until in position. Next get out two frames like Fig. 430, taking the dimensions from your plan, two more like Fig. 431, and two like Fig. 432. To make the stem-and stern-posts, take two pieces of joist, about 2" × 4" and of sufficient length, and with the chisel and saw cut a rabbet on each side of each piece, on the principle shown in Fig. 424. Give these rabbets a good coat of white-lead paint.

The sides are got out in the way already shown. On them mark the position for the centre mould. Insert and nail into place the two next largest frames, at the proper places, and so on until all are in position. All, except the centre one, will require to have their edges slightly bevelled with the plane to fit the sides. You can do this best as you put them in place. Paint the edges of the frames with white lead before nailing them in position. Next fit pieces of ½" board to form the coaming around the well-hole, and fasten them to the three middle frames. The details of this you can easily arrange for yourself. The general idea is expressed in Figs. 427 and 434.

Before proceeding further with the deck, thoroughly paint the whole of the inside of the boat with white lead, working it well into all the joints and cracks. After giving it a few days to dry, look the inside over carefully for any holes or defects to be stopped. After filling any there may be, give the entire inside another coat, working it well into all crevices as before. Do not neglect this part of the work, as it will not be easy to get at the inside (except in the middle) after the deck is put on.

On the middle of the deck stretch strips of ½" wood about 4" wide from the coaming of the well to the stem-and stern-posts, tapering the pieces as they approach the ends and resting them on the tops of the frames, to which they should be firmly nailed.

If you wish to sail, a stiff brace or thwart can be put in for the mast, with a block for a step.

One or more strips, 1" × ½", can now be placed longitudinally on each side of the deck and nailed to the frames.

Additional deck-beams, running from gunwale to gunwale, and having the requisite arch or convexity, can be put in if needed. A few brackets can also be put under the deck, reaching from the sides to the coaming, if needed.

A keel about one inch square, or deeper at the centre, if desired, can be fitted along the entire length of the bottom. It had best be fastened on with screws. If your boat is to be used in deep water only, you can make the keel 3" or 4" deep in the middle, rockering it up towards the ends, and the boat can be sailed without a centre-board.

Cover the deck with canvas, fastened with small tacks to the coaming and to the sides. The edges of the canvas can be drawn down over the gunwale for about half an inch, the edge being finally covered by a gunwale strip screwed from stem-to stern-post. A piece of half-round ⁷/₈" moulding is good, although any small strip will do. Dampen the canvas and then give it at least two coats of paint. A wooden deck can be put on if preferred.

Canvas-covered Canoes.—To make a really good canoe wholly of wood requires a degree of skill much greater than can be expected of the beginner, or than is attained by the average amateur. Any boy or amateur can, however, with the help of canvas and with a very few tools and at slight expense, make some simple varieties which will serve the purpose satisfactorily. The canoe is sharp at both ends, requires only a paddle, and is light enough to be easily handled ashore. If carefully made, a canvas canoe will be strong, durable, and not difficult to mend, though repairs are seldom necessary if proper care is taken. If canvas of good quality is used, it will not be easily punctured or torn as one might think, but will stand an amount of banging around, running into snags, dragging over obstacles, and abuse generally, that would badly injure any but the best of wooden canoes.

The variety of designs for canoes which has developed or been evolved from the more primitive forms is in these days almost endless, and the number of types from which to choose is confusing. The purpose for which the canoe is to be used will help you somewhat in selecting the type—whether for paddling only, or sailing, or for cruising and general use, and whether for a river or small pond, or for the deep and rough water of a lake or bay. All these matters must be considered in determining the beam, depth, shape of the midship section, the draught, degree of sheer, whether to have keel, centre-board, or neither, and other points. This is too complex a subject to be treated in a hand-book on wood-working, and you can easily obtain the desired information, as well as detailed instructions for drawing the plans, from some good book on the subject.

A caution against making the framework too light and without sufficient stiffness may not be out of place. One frequently sees canoes, made by young boys, of such flimsy pieces and covered with such weak cloth that one is surprised that they can live in the quietest mill-pond, which is really testimony to the tenacious strength of a canvas-covered boat when properly made. A certain degree of flexibility is one of the desirable features of these boats, but they should always have sufficient stiffness to maintain their general shape in all weathers and in all waters to which a canoe is suited; therefore be sure to make a frame which will keep its shape of itself without relying upon the canvas to hold it together.

It is quite common to see these boats which (otherwise well built) lack stiffness lengthways—that is, in the longitudinal vertical section. Such boats after a little use become bent up in the middle, or "hog-backed." This is entirely unnecessary. Be sure, before putting on the canvas, that your frame is stiff enough lengthways to keep its shape permanently. If by any fault in your planning you find that it is not so, be sure to add extra stiffening braces inside before putting on the canvas, or your boat will probably be a failure.[40]

Canvas-covered boats should always be kept out of the water and under cover when not in use, as long-continued exposure to the water will be injurious.

An easily constructed paddling canoe, 14' or 15' long, and with beam about 30", will first be described.

It should be understood by the novice that this first form of construction here given is not that adopted by the professional boat-builder. It is given simply as a process by which one untrained in the more regular methods of construction can turn out a cheap and serviceable canoe, and at the same time acquire experience which will be of use if he should later attempt the more scientific, but also more difficult, details of construction used by regular boat-builders.

Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Painting, in Part V., and look up any other references.

Care should be taken to select clear, straight-grained stock, free from knots, checks, and other defects, and thoroughly dry.