Work and Play in Girls' Schools / By Three Head Mistresses

II. Theoretical Physics.

COURSE OF ELEMENTARY PHYSICS.

Definition of Physics.

THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY.

By Clare de Brereton Evans, D.Sc. (Lond.).

The committee appointed by the British Association in 1889 to inquire into the “Present Methods of Teaching Chemistry,” gave it as their opinion that “the high educational value of instruction in physical science has never been exhibited to its full advantage in most of our educational institutions,” and it will be admitted by the majority of those who interest themselves in the teaching of chemistry in girls’ schools that in spite of the growing tendency towards more rational methods of imparting the subject, the progress made in this direction during the last eight years has not been great enough to warrant any change in the above dictum.

After all that has been said and written about the difference between instruction and education, it should be unnecessary to reiterate that the object of our schools is not so much to develop the memories of the children as their capabilities, their powers of reasoning and doing, and although the attainment of this object is brought about chiefly no doubt by the method of teaching, it is also dependent upon the subject taught.

Elementary physical science as a basis for chemistry teaching.Natural science is specially valuable in calling into action at once the logical and practical faculties, training simultaneously the mind, the eye and the hand; but it is necessary in order to avoid teaching the subject dogmatically to make the course progressive—to preface lessons in chemistry, for example, by a preliminary ground-work of physics sufficient to render the chemistry intelligible. Elementary physics is the logical sequence of arithmetic, and may be taken up with the greatest advantage as soon as the four simple rules of arithmetic have been mastered; moreover the practical application of these rules afforded by simple measurements of length, area and volume is of immense use, not only because each pupil verifies for herself in this way the rules she has learnt to apply on paper, but also because arithmetic is thus shown to be of practical and not merely theoretical value. If children were taught from the beginning to make practical use of their arithmetic one of the greatest difficulties with which the science teacher has to contend later on would be obviated, that namely of explaining the application of mathematics to the solution of simple chemical and physical problems.

Chemistry again is the logical outcome of physics, and should not be attempted, because it cannot possibly be understood, until the fundamental principles of physics have been mastered. It cannot be too strongly insisted upon that chemistry should be preceded by elementary physics; the sequence, practical arithmetic, elementary physics, chemistry, being the only one which affords a satisfactory progressive scientific course suitable for being carried on throughout a school starting where the object-lessons of the kindergarten end; then by the time examination classes are reached there need be left none of those gaps in the understanding of the pupils, gaps with regard to elementary principles, which are so usual as to be looked for as a matter of course by the chemistry teacher, and which she is obliged to span here and there by dogmatic assertions on which rests as a rule all the physico-chemical knowledge required of the examination student. Educational advantages of a progressive chemistry course.A well-arranged course of this kind, moreover, possesses the great advantage over others, botany or geology for example, that it may be made free from technical language, a point of considerable importance, not only because the tax upon the memories of the children is thus lightened, but because they are at liberty to express their observations in their own words. It has been truly said that “strange words are non-conductors,” and it is unreasonable to suppose that clear ideas on any subject may be imparted in a language which is only partially intelligible.

Need for early training in science.It is necessary of course to begin early if a sound basis of physics is to be laid for the teaching of chemistry; the elementary physics lessons should in fact be made to continue the work of the kindergarten without any break, thus carrying out the aim of natural science teaching, which should be to foster the powers of observation and research which almost all young children possess to a very high degree; nor are these the only faculties which benefit, since physical science is specially fitted also to develop independence of thought, agility of mind and hand and soundness of judgment; the simplest experiment may be varied in a hundred ways to produce the same result, and it is this possibility of variation which gives the individual pupil so much opportunity for the exercise of originality, which cultivates quickness of observation and encourages so largely the valuable quality of self-reliance.

“Practical” teaching.It is evident that a course of lectures unaccompanied by laboratory work gives no scope for the educational possibilities of technical subjects such as those with which we are dealing; the teaching must be made “practical”. It is not sufficient that the teacher should perform a number of illustrative experiments at her lectures, for it is rare to find a child capable of grasping the meaning of such illustrations; it is not even sufficient that the experiments shown by the lecturer should be repeated subsequently by the pupils themselves; this is no doubt good as far as it goes, for it breeds familiarity with apparatus and gives practice in manipulation, but that is all; as to educating the particular faculties which science is specially adapted to educate it is useless, for the results of the experiments being already known the reasoning powers are not required; on the contrary the performance of the experiment on the lecture-table has led to the belief that there is one stereotyped method of doing it, and consequently the child’s memory alone is exercised in trying to remember every detail of the apparatus used and the method of carrying it out.

For success in examinations it is now necessary to have a certain amount of practical knowledge of chemistry, and examination classes are therefore given some practical training, but this reform still remains to be extended universally to the junior classes, which need even more than the senior ones that the teaching should be objective: a child may learn and repeat correctly a dozen times that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen, and the thirteenth time she will assure you that its constituents are oxygen and nitrogen; but let her make the gases for herself, test them and get to know them as individuals, and mistakes of this kind will become impossible.

A further reason for giving practical instruction to juniors is that examination students are generally pressed for time, being on this account often obliged to do the necessary laboratory work out of school hours; moreover they find it difficult as it is of a kind to which they are unaccustomed. It would obviously be a great advantage to train the children from the beginning in the use of apparatus during the years when such work is a recreation and a real delight to them.

A central idea in science teaching.There is one other point to be noticed. The science course may be begun early and continued without intermission throughout the school career, the teaching being of a sufficiently “practical” character, but the result will not be a success unless there is a central idea running through it. From the very beginning the experiments must be chosen in illustration and explanation of the fundamental physical laws which may thus be made perfectly familiar to the pupils. It is necessary, however, that these experiments should be of the simplest character; to quote the words of the British Association report above referred to, “the lessons ought to have reference to subjects which can be readily understood by children, and illustrations should be selected from objects and operations that are familiar to them in everyday life”.

Broad principles recommended.Briefly then, I would recommend that the following broad principles should be adopted with pre-examination classes:—

(1) Elementary physical training to be made continuous with kindergarten teaching.(1) The course of elementary physical science which is then necessary foundation for a sound knowledge of chemistry should be made continuous with the object-lessons of the kindergarten, and should form a progressive course extending over three or four years, passing imperceptibly into elementary chemistry.

(2) The elementary course to be entirely “practical”.(2) This course should be of an entirely practical character and should be carried out in a room very simply equipped for the purpose. No text-books should be allowed and no notes dictated by the teacher, but each pupil should subsequently to the lesson write out in her own words an account of her own experiments, of which she is encouraged to take notes at the time of doing them.

Advantage of occasional lectures.Although all formal lessons on the simple subjects of investigation serve only to prejudice the minds of the children, lectures given at rare intervals on kindred subjects and profusely illustrated serve as a healthy stimulus to the youthful appetite for experiment and research.

(3) Choice of experiments.(3) The practical course should be so chosen that each experiment illustrates in the simplest possible manner some fundamental principle or “law” of nature. It is precisely here that a teacher has the opportunity of educating the logical faculties of the pupils, each of whom is required to solve independently the simple problem set before her at the lesson and is thus placed in a position to deduce for herself from her own experiment the principle involved. The children are in fact placed, as Dr. Armstrong recommends, “in the attitude of discoverers,” and it is astonishing how soon they learn to become independent in their methods of attacking new problems if their minds are not prejudiced by preconceived ideas of the results to be expected.

(4) Size of classes.(4) As regards the size of the classes and the time to be allowed for each, the Committee of the British Association recommends that “a teacher should not be required to give practical instruction to more than from fifteen to twenty pupils at one time, although the classes at lectures and demonstrations might be somewhat larger”. For the course indicated below one hour a week may be made sufficient at first, but later on an hour and a half should be allowed for each practical class.

(5) Accommodation.(5) As to accommodation, it is quite possible, at any rate at first, to use an ordinary class-room, but as environment no doubt does exercise a certain influence the use of a special room very simply equipped with long tables supplied with water and gas is strongly advised.[26]

The above recommendations are meant to apply to all classes up to the time when the needs of public examinations demand a special course; this must necessarily be given by means of set lectures, as it could not otherwise be covered in the limited time which is generally allotted to the subject; they are more or less in accordance with those drawn up by Dr. Armstrong for the Committee of the British Association of which mention has been made, and which were embodied in the Syllabus of Physics and Chemistry issued by the Incorporated Association of Head Masters in 1895; since this date they have been successfully carried out in various boys’ schools. Owing to the enterprise of Miss L. E. Walter a similar course was introduced at an even earlier date into the Central Foundation School for Girls, where it is now in operation. Appended is a very brief outline of the course there pursued, together with a typical set of lessons in chemistry.

Outline of a science course now in operation.On leaving the kindergarten the science teaching is confined to what is really practical arithmetic and geometry, elementary measurements being performed by the most ordinary methods. The children are thus accustomed to the use of simple apparatus such as pipettes, burettes, etc., also to the use of the balance, the simple numerical calculations involved in weighing and measuring being performed in both the English and decimal systems, which are thus made quite familiar.

The following example, quoted from Miss Walter’s paper,[27] gives a clear idea of the sort of introductory teaching needed. This lesson, although of the simplest character, had for its object to show the necessity for, and to choose a unit of length. This is how it was done: “I gave each girl but one a piece of string, all the pieces being the same length; the one odd girl I kept by me, and we had a ball of string. I asked the children to tell me how long their pieces were so that I could cut a similar piece. Naturally they began by guessing—a yard, half a yard; but as I had no yardstick, I feigned ignorance of what a yard was. Soon one put the string along her slate and expressed the length as a slate and three-quarters. Every one else followed suit.... After each of the sensible measurements which they made ... I did the same to my small comrade as they had done to themselves and cut off a piece of string. Then they all watched with great interest to see if my piece really did come like theirs.... This lesson may not sound very exciting, but during the whole time each of those children was alive, each was thoroughly interested in what she was doing.”

The preliminary course consists in its earlier stages of exercises in the measurement of length, area and volume with the use of the balance; this is followed by experiments on density, and subsequently some work on heat is done, a simple thermometer and barometer being made and graduated by each girl, who is encouraged to use them to record the weather by means of curves showing variations of temperature and pressure. It may have been completed by girls of about fourteen, who will then be quite prepared to begin chemistry, having by that time gained a very good idea of how to apply their arithmetic as well as their knowledge of the fundamental physical principles to the solution of practical problems.

It is important to point out that the system here advocated inverts the usual order of teaching chemistry. This subject is divided into “pure” and “physical,” and it is usual at the present time to begin by teaching “pure” chemistry, that is to say, the preparations and properties of a number of the commoner elements and compounds, this part being considered easier than “physical” chemistry, which however ought logically to precede it, since it treats of the fundamental laws upon which “pure” chemistry depends.

A knowledge of simple physical chemistry is now required for all chemistry examinations, candidates for which are expected to have a working acquaintance with simple physical apparatus, to be familiar with the barometer and thermometer, the effects of heat on solids, liquids and gases, density and specific heat, etc., etc.; they are liable moreover to be asked to solve any simple problems on measurement. Now by giving precedence to “physical” chemistry, all this is done and done thoroughly before examinations are thought of, so that what is generally regarded by pupils at the present time as the most difficult portion of their subject is made by this means its A B C, and the time spent upon actual examination work can be considerably curtailed.

“Pure” chemistry is introduced by the study of the methods of testing all kinds of substances so as to be able to classify them roughly as mineral or vegetable, organic or inorganic, etc. The chemistry course suggested by Dr. Armstrong and adopted by the Incorporated Association of Head Masters is strongly to be recommended, as it is drawn up particularly with a view to imparting “not only information but chiefly a knowledge of method”. It opens with “studies of the effect of heat on things in general; of their behaviour when burnt,” and goes on to the investigation of such familiar things as air and nitrogen, combustion and oxygen, hydrogen and water. Formulæ and equations are rigidly excluded, the aim being to give a broad introduction to the subject; on the other hand quantitative experiments form a much larger part of the curriculum than is usually the case, the previous training in physical methods having prepared the way for teaching chemistry in a more exact manner than is generally possible with beginners.

A girl who has gone through the scientific training outlined in the preceding pages will possess an elementary knowledge of many subjects; she will find little difficulty in mastering the information required for the London Matriculation or any other preliminary examination in physical science, the greater portion of the ground both in physics and chemistry having already been covered during the preliminary course indicated. It is certain that students who have undergone such a systematic education without hurry and without pressure, and with opportunities for reasoning out each step for themselves, will be in a condition to derive the maximum of benefit from subsequent instruction not only in chemistry but in all other branches of knowledge.

Typical Lessons in Chemistry.

At the beginning of the lesson the problem to be solved is announced by the teacher, who invites suggestions as to how it should be attacked. A scheme of work is thus prepared which is carried into practice by the pupils; every detail of manipulation is performed by the girls themselves, who select their own apparatus, bend their own tubing, etc., referring only occasionally to the teacher for help. The scheme is elaborated as the investigation proceeds so as to form a piece of consecutive reasoning which may extend over a series of lessons.

Problem. To discover the constitution of chalk.

Typical lesson.Being familiar with simple methods of testing unknown substances, heat and the action of acid are at once suggested by the pupils as a means of investigation, and a preliminary examination is made showing that heat does alter chalk in some way, whereas the addition of acid causes the liberation of a gas. The next step is to find out whether the chalk loses or gains anything by being heated; also to determine the nature of the gas given off under the influence of acid.

Suggestions are again received from the girls, who are led to decide that the first part of the question may be answered by submitting a weighed quantity of chalk to a moderately high temperature, weighing at intervals until the weight, if it changes at all, again becomes constant.

They proceed therefore to weigh their empty crucibles with the usual precautions and then to reweigh them after having put in some dry chalk. The numbers obtained are carefully entered in the laboratory note-book with which each girl is provided. The crucibles are then placed in a “muffle” furnace, which the pupils are taught to manage for themselves, and are only withdrawn at the end of the lesson and placed in desiccators to be reweighed at the beginning of the next lesson, when they will be again submitted to the same treatment until the weight is constant.

While the crucibles are being heated preparations are made for finding out the action of acid on chalk; the pupils are led to suggest a simple form of apparatus for measuring the volume and weight of the gas given off, and hence for determining its density. By the time this is done the hour and a half allowed for the lesson will probably have expired. At the next lesson, after a preliminary questioning as to what each pupil has done and is going to do, the apparatus decided upon at the previous lesson is carefully prepared; subsequently the actual experiments to determine the quantity of gas given off are performed and its density determined, and finally it is shown that the gas given off from chalk under the action of heat is identical with that released by acid, chalk being composed of this gas and the residue left after heating it in a muffle furnace until the weight is constant.

It will be seen that this work involves a considerable amount of weighing and calculation, but this is rendered easy by the previous grounding in elementary physics, and a series of experiments such as that described may be carried out intelligently by any properly trained class of girls.

PART IV. ÆSTHETICS.

ART.

By Dorothea Beale.

This part is one of great and perhaps increasing importance owing to the development of musical education and of art and technical schools.

Music.The power of music over the emotional life has ever been felt; in many ways it is opposed to thought, if we regard it from the standpoint of the listener, who yields himself up to its influence; on the other hand, the performer, and still more the composer, can bring to bear on the subject high intellectual gifts, and it may have a great educational value. It is of the utmost importance, that in this as in all æsthetics, a taste be cultivated for all that is true and pure and lovely; not for low and false and sensuous music such as Browning has described in the “Toccata of Galuppi,” but for the thoughtful, the devotional, as given in the two companion poems, “Hughes of Saxe Gotha” and “Abt Vogler”; and the learner should feel that she is studying to express right feelings, as Mme. Schumann and Jenny Lind insisted, not to show off her execution and make a display. It is greatly to be regretted that the general education is often stopped in order to specialise in music and art, before the mental equilibrium is fully established; if, besides this, there is an uprooting from one’s home and country, at the most impressionable and excitable period of life, much danger is incurred.

Music is not only a powerful means of expression and of promoting sympathy, it also draws people together for healthy recreation; especially valuable for this purpose are orchestral and choral classes. The power of the artist in music is far better understood than it was fifty years ago. I remember Dr. Kinkel, the German poet, saying to me about the year 1860, “the English will become a musical people, they are learning”. We owe much to Mr. Hullah for this, and to the Tonic-Sol-fa system. I subjoin a paper by a most able teacher of the piano, one on the violin, two papers on singing and one on voice production and elocution.

Art historical.We are beginning now to study art in connection with the history and literature of different periods and countries. In another section I have touched on art in connection with history. We all know how great has been in all ages the power of art in expressing and forming religious ideas; we cannot but see that Fra Angelico and Dante interpret one another. There is not space here to dwell on the subject; the writings of Ruskin and Browning and the works of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood have helped this generation to feel all that art may be in our life. The educative power of great paintings has been practically recognised by those who have gathered together great pictures in East London—the Art for Schools Association recognises its importance; by visits to galleries, by good reproductions, and occasional lectures, children should if possible have their eyes opened to see what are the higher teachings which painters and sculptors and architects have expressed in their works; those who have heard Miss Harrison’s lectures know how the statues, vases, friezes, etc., of old times help us to make these live again for us; especially valuable is what those of our own time have given us, for these utter what is most intrinsic in our life. England is richer for such pictures as “The Light of the World”.

Mr. Thring used to insist much on schools being as beautiful as possible, and that painted windows and all the surroundings should help in the great work of education, the fulfilling of the human nature with the sense of the spiritual underlying realities; it should be the earnest endeavour of all educators to make, as Herbart has done, æsthetics in its widest sense, a help in ethics, and to consecrate and enrich the experiences and the teachings which come to us through sense.

Drawing.Drawing as a mode of expression is a really necessary subject; it is a form of writing; and modelling is another form of effective expression. In their higher aspects these arts are ennobling, cultivating the taste and leading up to the ideal. “Once,” writes Dr. Harris, “trained to recognise the beautiful and graceful, the pupil has acquired a quality of mind useful in every occupation and every station.”

Painting.There is an admirable paper by Mr. Cooke, “The A B C of Drawing,” in the volume of Reports just issued from the Education Office. All who have heard Mr. Cooke lecture, must recognise that he has a real genius for teaching. In schools we have to do chiefly with cultivating the power of seeing things as they are, and expressing what we see. The copying with the pencil of the Greek sculptures has been of much educational value, but enough importance has not been attached to modelling. I add an excellent paper on the subject.

Other technical arts.Technical schools are so much the fashion of the day, that I may perhaps add something more on the subject of manual training. All students of Pestalozzi and Fröbel knew the great educational value of manual work, but the general public, though they knew that mind acted on muscle, did not realise the fact that muscle reacted on mind; when this was recognised, many educational thinkers saw the importance of giving to hand arts a more prominent place in school work. A great reaction set in against mere book learning, and as I venture to think an exaggerated and indiscriminating value was by some attached to manual work. The enthusiasm of Herr Salomon brought to the front the use of Sloyd. Political circumstances and the need of competing with foreign countries have contributed to give a great impulse to education in art, and to develop and improve the training which had never been altogether neglected in girls’ schools.

I subjoin papers on various hand arts, including one on Sloyd.

At a meeting held at Washington in 1889, the matter was brought before the department of Superintendence, and a volume was issued from the Bureau of Education which contains a very full account of the proceedings; it includes an admirable paper of about twenty pages by Dr. Harris, Chief Commissioner of Education, from which I make some extracts. The matter is considered in reference to “Educational Value”. He begins by defining what is the main purpose of school teaching, criticising the definitions which point to false or ill-comprehended or crude ideals, which turn our thoughts to the means rather than the ends of education, and which lead the educator away from the essential idea of education by fixing attention on the “puny individual” rather than on the “higher self” embodied in institutions; the ideal man, whom we can see only as a member of the great human family.

Education he defines as “the great preparation of the individual to help his fellow-men, and to receive in turn and appropriate their help”. Whilst conceding that manual training is educative, he shows why it is much inferior to the usual subjects of school instruction.

“Man elevates himself above the brute creation by his ability to withdraw his attention from the external world of the senses and give attention to energies, forces, producing causes, principles. He can look from the particular to the general; without losing the particular he grasps together the whole realm of the particular in the general—in mastering the cause of anything he grasps together and comprehends an indefinite series of effects.

“A false psychology tells us that we derive all our knowledge from sense-perception, but we do not by the senses learn the idea of causal process. By this idea all the data of sense are transformed radically. They are given us in sense-perception as independent realities. In thinking them by the aid of causality, we make all these matters of sense-perception into phenomena—or effects and manifestations of underlying causes which are not visible or tangible.”

Dr. Harris shows how school studies are calculated to give general principles, right ideals, and to exercise the powers in elaborating the data of sense. “That the ordinary branches of instruction in school relate to this function of elaboration of data into plans of action far more than they relate to the mere reception of sense-impressions or to the exercise of the motor nerves, is obvious. It is not desirable that children shall be taught that rough hand labour is in itself as honourable as the elaborative toil of thought, which gives rational direction to the hand. The general who plans the battle, and directs the movement of his troops so that they secure victory, is of course the executive man in a far higher sense than the private soldier who mechanically obeys what he is ordered to do. The general may use his motor nerves only in issuing the words of command, while the private soldier may exert to the utmost every muscle in his body—yet the real executive is the general.” And he concludes that only in so far as manual training is calculated to develop the higher faculties, ought it to be regarded as a valuable branch of school education. The pupils’ minds must not however be fixed on the acquisition of manual dexterity, so that they think more of the “execution” than the musical thought—more of mere copying than of interpreting nature or the artist’s ideal.

PIANOFORTE TEACHING.

By Domenico Barnett, of the Leipzig Conservatorium.

Like every branch of school education, the teaching of the pianoforte requires consideration from two simultaneous points of view. Two all-important questions have to be answered with clearness and decision. What is, or what ought to be, the definite aim of the teacher? And what is the most efficacious process for achieving this aim?

As to the aim and purpose, we may happily dismiss, once and for all, the old and imbecile notion of the piano as a conventional “accomplishment”; in more accurate language an instrument of unintelligent and repulsive mechanical drudgery, calculated to eradicate from the pupil whatever modicum of music Nature might have bestowed on her. The cultivation of the piano for the sake of vain display is not yet obsolete. But though this unacknowledged object must inevitably continue to actuate many pupils and many parents, the teacher, so far from indulging it, should set his face sternly against it. It is true that it is his business to develop his pupils’ performing powers to the utmost of their varying capacities. But this practical and visible result is but subordinate and auxiliary to one which is infinitely higher. Not every pupil, however musically gifted, has it in her to become a fine executant, any more than fine execution implies, of itself, much beyond mere manual dexterity. But what the properly qualified teacher can do for all is to educate—that is to say to draw out—all that Nature has put into them: to show them what music means: to quicken and develop their musical feeling, be it much or little, by rendering it intelligent: to give their taste a foundation of right principle: to cultivate the ear and the brain as well as the hand: to put them in the right road for pursuing and perhaps specialising their studies after their school course is over: in short, to make them musicians, so far as musicians can be made.

The study of the pianoforte, then, is an indispensable means to a very large and serious end. There is no occasion to dwell upon the peculiar suitability of the piano as the basis of musical study. As to that, there are not, and cannot be, two opinions, even if universal experience had not settled the matter. Nor is it needful to dwell upon the qualifications to be required in a teacher. Every one knows the requisite qualifications of all teachers of all subjects. But it so happens that the teacher of the pianoforte, in any school where much is—as it ought to be—expected, has to contend with a peculiarly formidable list of preliminary difficulties, and to dispose of these before he can proceed to build upon a properly prepared ground. With these two topics, the preparatory and constructive portions of his duty to his pupils, to himself, and to his art, I will proceed to deal in as few words as the nature of so large a subject allows. And first, as to the commonest of all his obstacles, which is—

Previous Home Teaching (so-called).—Music, even more than with most other branches of education, should begin with careful, intelligent and systematic instruction at home. Yet how seldom does the teacher find this to be the case! A truly appalling ignorance of the merest rudiments is constantly found in girls of all ages on first coming to school, after six or seven years of “lessons from a master” or “from a lady”. In exceedingly few instances has any attempt been made to awaken a love of music, much less to lay a foundation for its serious study. Parents, one must presume, have not yet outgrown the delusion that anybody is good enough to start a child’s musical education; whereas it is precisely during the period preceding school life that instruction generally produces the most lasting results for good or for evil; and it is usually for evil. It may be that a certain—or uncertain—amount of mechanical fluency has been acquired, but to the total exclusion of all else; and this leads to a further grave difficulty for both teacher and pupil—

Insufficient Time.—There would be amply adequate time for musical progress at school if the ordinary pupil had not so much to unlearn. As things are, the inevitable strain upon a girl imposed by other studies renders the comparatively short time allotted to music a period of weariness of mind. The pupil, naturally enough, rebels against the severity of a proper course of study; and it is long before the most patient teacher can get his impatient pupil well in hand. He is thus sorely tempted to make a—

Compromise with Conscience.—This is not stating the matter a whit too strongly. Handicapped by wrong preliminary training and its consequences, the teacher, in order to render some result visible to parents and school authorities, often sacrifices substantial education to superficial display. How absolutely wrong this is, requires—it is to be hoped—no argument. But, inexcusable as it is on every principle of educational ethics, it is bound to be of constant occurrence wherever the school authorities fail to understand a music master’s duty, and to support him in doing it fearlessly and honestly, without respect to the ignorant impatience of parents or pupils who have not laid to heart the maxim of sat cito si sat bene.

In proceeding to the positive work of teaching, as distinguished from the preliminary task of un-teaching, it will be the simplest course to dismiss these only too formidable obstacles as non-existent or overcome, and to consider at what a teacher should aim who enjoys all the advantages that he can reasonably expect. Under the most disadvantageous conditions he can at any rate aim as high as circumstances allow. Let us suppose, then, that he has the inestimable advantage of a pupil who is a complete beginner, with everything to learn and nothing to unlearn. At the very outset—

A Feeling for Well-marked Rhythm should receive cultivation. This is perhaps most easily acquired where a kindergarten has been available, by marching round to strongly-marked tunes or even to the beat of a drum. This feeling—more or less instinctive with most, and seldom beyond acquisition by any—should, as soon as possible, be reduced to form and order by—

A Knowledge of Time System and the Key-board: that is to say, a thorough acquaintance with the notes on the key-board, so that they may be readily recognised by their shape, together with their equivalent rests and other signs belonging to the time system. All this should become instinctively familiar; and is followed in natural sequence by—

A Knowledge of the Scale System.—The beginner should be able to locate the several scales on the instrument and to understand their formation. But time ought not to be wasted by insisting too much upon scale practice, until the pupil’s hands are sufficiently strong. It will be quite sufficient, at this period of a course, to gain a thorough knowledge of the notes and fingering of the various scales and chords, great care being taken at the same time to cultivate a good position of hand and a proper use of the fingers themselves, by way of foundation for a good and sound technique. In the case of older and more advanced pupils who have been neglected in this direction, it should be constantly impressed upon their minds that this process is but a means to an end; that adequate interpretation of music is impossible without this mechanical exercise of the fingers, which must be trained to follow and express the most delicate nuance of their owner’s intention. On the other hand, such pupils—especially those gifted with a natural dexterity—should be warned that manual skill has nothing, as such, to do with music: that brilliant execution and the triumph over difficulties are neither more useful nor more admirable than dancing among eggs unless they are subordinate to the real sense and meaning of a composition. Having fairly mastered the notes, time and scale systems, the pupil is now in a position to be introduced to—

A Methodical Selection of Exercises and Pieces Presenting Varied Rhythmical Difficulty, beginning with the simplest, and gradually advancing to those of increased complexity. As the pupil advances, easy duets, dances, marches, etc., sometimes if possible accompanied by another instrument, may be given with advantage, insistence being laid upon a proper habit of counting time. This should not be done in a drawling, undecided manner, but with a clear, sharp and decided utterance. It ought not to be—but is—necessary to add that the production of a fine broad tone and proper touch should receive attention from the outset; and meanwhile, even from the earliest moment of her studies—

No Bad Music should be given to a Pupil for any Purpose, or under any Circumstances.—No doubt where a very bad state of taste exists, it is a matter of necessity to start from a comparatively low level of merit; because in respect of music, at any rate, a pupil should never be given what she cannot possibly understand. Dr. Arnold, it is true, used to say that if you only taught a boy what he could understand, you would teach him very little. But large margins must be allowed to large maxims, and had Dr. Arnold taught music, where the first and foremost thing is taste, instead of language, where the first and foremost thing is memory, he would have modified if not reversed his dictum. Yet though the pupil’s taste and intelligence may be at a low point, and require very simple fare, there is happily no lack of good music adapted to every degree of intelligence, and even of appetite; and under its influence it is surprising how soon any taste for the positively bad will imperceptibly pass away. Of course, the teacher will have to observe much thoughtful care in his selection of music in each individual case of this kind, always remembering two things—to give his pupil the best that she can comprehend, but never to surpass her comprehension. To read Shakspere in a kindergarten would not be worse waste of poetry and brains.

But it is not enough merely to avoid bad music—that can always be done. There is good music which may be as unsuitable to certain temperaments as it is suitable to others: and the teacher should be something of a psychologist in order to exercise his judgment prudently. Chopin’s would be bad music if given in large doses to a girl of sentimental and romantic temperament, though she would probably excel in it. She needs something of a more robust and less emotional character. Bach’s music, on the other hand, is always right for all and cannot be too much employed. For studies, Mr. Franklin Taylor’s judiciously selected Progressive Exercises may be safely and strongly recommended, as enabling the teacher to find, without trouble, instances, from the best composers, of every kind of difficulty.

The Musical Ear simultaneously demands attention. Some pupils have a natural gift for discerning, without reference to the instrument, the exact pitch of a musical sound. This is by no means a necessary indication of great musical ability; but it is unquestionably a very great advantage. Fortunately, it can to a considerable extent be cultivated in many cases where it does not exist naturally: and for this purpose there is nothing so efficacious as—

The Elementary Singing Class, which should be a portion of the curriculum of every school, and should be compulsory for every student of music. Properly conducted, this class cannot be valued too highly. In it, rudimentary theory is taught in a systematic and practical manner. Very few girls are able to think musically. To the best informed among them a major third consists of so many semitones, and can be found in so many scales; but when seen upon paper, the notes convey no idea of their proper sound. Here then, the pupil will be taught to recognise and sing all intervals and chords, and even to write them down from dictation. As practical instruction in time and rhythm forms an important portion of the lesson, the evil effects of the defective sustaining power of the pianoforte can be in a measure remedied. Franz Wüllner’s system is excellent.

Thus the mechanical portion of the pianoforte teacher’s work may be very beneficially supplemented and extended, by being placed in fresh lights under different conditions. The use and meaning of any study are never so manifest as when it is seen to be applicable in several directions.

Here concludes what may be regarded as the first period of instruction. Given sufficient time for practice, fair average ability and no physical defects to contend against, good results may reasonably be looked for. As the pieces selected for study assume a more important character, the pupil should be made to perceive how they are constructed; how one portion grows out of another; and by what artistic process a composition has obtained its symmetry and balance.

The Study of Harmony should now be begun. In addition to the study of part-writing and perhaps counterpoint, standard compositions should be carefully analysed. This gives a power of comprehension and appreciation quite apart from any capacity for interpretation, and probably better worth acquiring. Many persons combine considerable musical talent with a physical inability to achieve excellence as performers. Such of these who have persevered to this point will have learned to find an intellectual and sympathetic delight in the works of the great masters, and an artistic pleasure in the performance of their more gifted interpreters.

More successful executants may now proceed (when it is considered desirable) to the more serious study of scales and finger exercises, the teacher watching carefully for any signs of physical weakness. Willing but weak hands are too often injured by overwork, and the adoption of some means for strengthening them, suitable to each individual case, should be made an essential part of their training. Indeed the teacher would do well to make a careful study of the peculiarities of hands, very great difference of treatment being required in different cases. Some hands are so unfit for pianoforte playing as to make it a question whether it is worth while, for any reason, to continue the attempt. To return to scales and finger exercises—it will not be going too far to say that they cannot be practised too assiduously at this point. As a stimulus it may be found advisable to allow the pupil to avail herself of the numerous musical examinations so much in vogue at the present time. The plan adopted by Mr. Oscar Beringer in his Technical Studies is admirable, and strongly recommended. Musical memory should be assiduously cultivated. No piece of music can be said to be learned until it has been committed to memory. Any tendency of the process to impoverish the power of sight-reading can be adequately guarded against by the daily reading of new music.

A Regularly Organised System of Sight-reading Classes.—No school should be without such classes, and they should be for that matter supplemented by a few minutes each day to be occupied in playing through a new piece from beginning to end, without stop or interruption, however wild the blunders may be. These will soon become fewer and fewer. During the hours of solid practice, however, blunders are quite another matter, and those unable to help themselves in this respect require—

The Attentive Superintendence of Practice.—The time allowed for practice should be arranged to suit the requirements of the pupil, and need never be excessive or interfere with the general course of study. With care and thought, much good work may be done in a short time. A large proportion of pupils of all ages are unable to perceive their own faults, and the time for practice may thus become a means of forming and confirming fresh bad habits as fast as the old ones have been eradicated. Moreover, since the time allotted in schools to practice must needs be short, every moment of it should be utilised; and very clear explanations should therefore be given to those who superintend it of what is required as well as to the pupils themselves—explanations which should be punctiliously followed. There are also many cases in which the instruction of the promising or fairly well-trained young pupil may be almost entirely undertaken by a competent assistant teacher, but subject to the careful supervision of the master, who should be responsible for her proper progress.

Before closing these remarks, which have not been easy to render systematic or consecutive, it would be inexcusable in these days to omit all mention of—

Examinations.—This is too large a subject to be dwelt upon in relation to music alone. But it must needs be said that here again the temperament of pupils must be considered. In some cases good work is helped by examinations of one kind or another; in others it is hindered. On this subject we all have our own views. However, if they can be met easily and in the regular course of study, without forcing or cramming, or interrupting solid work, let them be undergone by all means. Otherwise their use becomes abuse, and frequently tends to entirely false ideas of the proficiency of those who pass them. An apparently low point may be substantially preferable to an apparently high one.

But no matter what point is reached, let it be thoroughly reached, even though the time occupied in attaining thoroughness be apparently deducted from what is required for further progress. The deduction is but seeming—not in reality. School work is neither the end, nor the whole, nor the largest, nor the most important portion of education. Far better for a girl is it to leave school able to play fairly well at sight, and to execute a moderately difficult or even easy piece faultlessly, than with the prestige of a brilliant performer which will crumble to pieces for want of a foundation as soon as she is left to her own resources. Another grand mistake, in the same connection, is made by parents who send children abroad for the continuation or completion of their musical education before, by having been properly and systematically grounded, they are able to reap the slightest benefit from foreign training. But, almost before all things, I would insist upon a good general education for all who show marked musical ability, and are thus justified in making music their special and paramount subject of study. Music is so absorbing a pursuit that it tends to narrowness by its own nature; and all that inclines to extend the outlook and enlarge the mind during the impressionable period of life, is even more important to the musician than to those who are engaged in pursuits of a less exclusive order. The really cultivated musician is a prize product of education; but the mere musician, who may be the mere executant, and nothing else, is the last sort of being that one would wish any school to evolve.

To conclude, there is perhaps no royal road to the successful study of anything; there is certainly none to the pianoforte. I have not attempted so vain a task as to try to make one. What I have undertaken is to point out the crags that must be faced with a stout heart, and the best and safest path—which is not necessarily the shortest—to the vast stores of intellectual pleasure and profit awaiting the aspirant long before the whole journey’s end.

THE VIOLIN.

By Lewis Hann.

The teaching of the violin in our schools has of late years attained a high grade of efficiency. The progress of musical education generally has been remarkable, but most especially so in the study of the violin, and perhaps no branch of the art demands so much of the teacher. It is not enough for him to be a good and brilliant performer; the real gifts which constitute the successful teacher are great patience, self-control, tact, discretion and a good knowledge of character. It is not judicious to lay down hard and fast laws, and pursue a certain beaten track in teaching, for no two pupils are constituted alike, and it is often desirable, according to the disposition of the pupil, to take a somewhat circuitous route to attain the desired goal. With really talented pupils, of course, no trouble whatever is experienced—it is the bringing into life hidden or dormant abilities in the less gifted which proves the art, science and experience of the teacher.

The establishment of a string orchestral or an ensemble class, even in a humble way, is of great advantage to violin students. Not only are the practices a source of pleasure and delight to the pupils, but they help greatly to improve them in the practice of sight-reading; and in the study of ensemble music they learn to give more serious attention to the marks of expression and to observe the nuances. Also by taking part themselves in the performance of important compositions they learn to appreciate these properly when they hear them rendered by great performers. It is well for the pupils to attend high-class concerts as frequently as possible; the earnest, observant student will derive great benefit and learn much that is invaluable from hearing good works performed by sound artists.

CLASS-SINGING.

By Florence Mosley, Pupil of Shakespeare.

Class-singing.Class-singing is good for all; it educates not the voice only, but ear, eye and memory. Classes of young children should not be composed of less than fifteen or twenty; if the voice of a pupil is too audible to herself and her neighbour, she becomes self-conscious and shy; in a fairly large class the pupil merely swells a general body of sound. In a class of thirty the teacher should be able easily to detect a defaulter; she should not however correct by name, as this tends to produce nervousness; she should indicate the direction from which the faulty sound proceeds. A few voices should not be allowed to predominate over the others, and care should be taken to prevent any over-exertion of voice.

Position is very important; the pupils should stand upright, with heels together and hands loosely clasped in front. Good order must be maintained, and thorough attention exacted.

The classes for young children should not exceed half an hour in length, but for elder pupils forty-five minutes to an hour is desirable.

Notation.In each lesson a few test questions on notation should be given, and in order to avoid the answers proceeding only from a few of the more musical or quicker pupils, all answers should be written.

Ear tests.Ear tests are best taught by taking the middle C as a starting-point, the pupils being required to give the name of every note struck within the octave, and also of the interval so formed; when they are thoroughly familiar with all the sounds contained in that octave, the process should be repeated with another note as the tonic. Having written the ear tests, they should proceed to sing them, the conductor striking a note upon the piano and requiring the class to pitch any interval he mentions either above or below that note, without assistance from the instrument. By this means the pupils become familiar with the relation of one note to another, and so find no difficulty in reading.

Dictation.Musical dictation is another important means of training the ear; the melody of a simple well-known tune—if possible within the compass of an octave—should be played over; the key and starting-note being given to the class, they should be required to write down the notes of the melody from memory. At first it will be found necessary to play the tune over several times, until the class becomes used to the exercise. To more advanced classes more elaborate melodies can be given, and the harmonies filled in.

Rhythm.This is best taught by making each member of the class beat time, while the conductor plays tunes of various measures on the instrument used for accompanying the class. This enables the pupils to realise the strong and weak beats.

Another way is to dictate the notes of a melody to the class, making the pupils fill in the bar lines and time signature.

Reading at sight.The pupils should first read unaccompanied single notes from the blackboard, followed by easy exercises in unison, and then exercises in two or three parts; the more advanced classes should read some oratorio music and standard works.

Voice production.Purity rather than volume of sound should be insisted upon; the former can be satisfactorily obtained only by a series of diaphragm breathing exercises, which will result in the throat being left free and open. The first vocal exercises should consist of simple vowel sounds, sung on every note from the middle C to the fourth space in the treble clef. These should be followed by tuned consonants, “koo” being most useful for bringing the tone forward. Sustained notes should then be practised, also major, minor and chromatic scales.

Singing in parts.On receiving the part-song the pupils should be called upon to give the key, time and form of the composition. The simplest method of teaching young children to hold their several parts is to give them simple canons and rounds. In a two-part song the whole class should first learn the seconds and then the firsts; when thoroughly conversant with both parts, the class should be divided, the pupils being called upon to sing either firsts or seconds at any time. When the notes have been learnt the words should be committed to memory and the part-song sung without copies of the music; we thus train the memory, enable the pupils to stand in good position and to give full attention to the conductor’s beat. Elder classes may be taught to sing in three or four parts, but much care is needed in the selection of part-songs, as it is difficult to get compositions with a small enough compass to avoid straining either in the upper or lower registers of young and untrained voices. I need hardly add how much choral singing helps to promote a feeling of sympathy, a right kind of emulation, and a fuller appreciation of beautiful compositions than can be gained by solo singing or passive listening.

SINGING. TONIC SOL-FA.

By Rhoda Rooney, Certif. Fröbel Society, Cl. 1.

The Tonic Sol-fa system is one which gives every advantage for producing good and accurate sight-singing, and this without the aid of a piano or any other instrument. The pupils can test the notes as they proceed by referring to the Doh from which they start, and which is regarded as the governing note of the scale or piece.

The Doh is not necessarily middle C on the piano, but is the tonic of any major scale, all the notes of which have a certain association with each other and with the governing Doh. This relationship of sounds can be felt by the pupils as they listen attentively to the first easy patterns sung by the teacher for their imitation, thereby discovering what is understood by the “mental effect of sound”. Sufficient practice of sounds with “the modulator” gives familiarity with the notes of the scale, change of key, or pitch in any relation, and it will be found that it becomes almost impossible for the class to sing out of tune. The Tonic Sol-fa hand-signs practised with the modulator are a very considerable help, whether the class is composed of little children or adults.

Time is indicated by lines and dots. A perpendicular line is placed before a strong beat or pulse, and a colon before a weak pulse. A single dot divides the beat in half, and a comma is used to show the division of a quarter beat. A horizontal line shows a tied note, or its equivalent, and a rest is represented by a blank.