Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering

The “Round” Wide Letters—O, Q, C, G, D.—

O may be regarded as the Key letter of an alphabet. Given an O and an I of any alphabet, we can make a very good guess at the forms of the other letters.

In fine Inscriptions the external line of O is commonly an almost perfect circle (see Plate II.)—i.e. its height and width are equal. This may be regarded as the ideal shape, though a slight widening or narrowing of the letter (fig. 157) is quite permissible.65

Q, C, G, and D follow the proportions of O [p271] very nearly, and, though C, G, D are a little narrower, they have the same effect of roundness and width.

The “Square” Wide Letters—M, W, and H, (U), A, N, V, T, (Z)—

M & W Their mean width is properly about equal to their height.

H Width equal to, or a little less than, height (fig. 158), but if made too narrow it would look heavy, being double-stemmed.

(see pp. 287, 284) resembles H.

A, N, & V are double-stemmed, and have internal angles, moreover, which would become too sharp—and tend to close [p272] up—if they were made too narrow (fig. 158).

T The cross-bar—the characteristic part of T—projects a fair way on either side of the stem.

Z Either wide or (moderately) narrow (fig. 158).

The Narrow Letters, B, E, F, R, S, Y (X)
(see fig. 159).

There is a point of division in these letters about the middle of the stem or a little above (see p. 273), and we may argue that each being composed, as it were, of two little letters—which are half-height, they are proportionately half-width: and this will be found approximately correct. B may be said to consist of one little D on the top of another, averaging respectively half the height and width of a full-sized D.

E, F, & R follow the proportions of B (see also E, 4, p. 282). [p273]

S may be made of one little tilted O on the top of another—joined together and having the superfluous parts removed.

Y is like a little V upon a little I.

X Either narrow or wide (fig. 159).

The Narrow letters, K, L, and P—

These forms are related to the B, E forms, but it is permissible to make them a little wider to give clearance to the angles of the K and force to the single arm and loop—the characteristic parts (see fig. 149)—of L and P.

UPPER & LOWER PARTS

In the letters B, E, H, K, X (A), F, R, P (S), Y there is generally a tendency to enlarge the lower part, the cross-bar—or division—being set above mid-height. This tendency may reasonably be accounted for as follows:—

The natural division of B, E, H, K, & X, regarded as abstract forms, would be symmetrical—i.e. at the centre of the stem.66 In order that its apparent position may be central, however, it is necessary, for optical reasons, to make [p274] its actual position above the centre.67 And further, by a reasonable enlargement of the lower part, these letters acquire a greater appearance of stability.

It would be well, I think, for the letter-craftsman to begin by making such divisions at the apparent centre (i.e. very slightly above mid-height; see E, F, X, Plate II.), so keeping most nearly to the essential forms (see p. 275). Later he might consider the question of stability (see B, Plate II.). The exaggerated raising (or lowering) of the division associated with “Art Lettering” is illegible and ridiculous.

A The lower part is essentially bigger, and the cross-bar is not raised, as that would make the top part disproportionately small.

F usually follows E, but being asymmetrical and open below it may, if desired, be made with the bar at—or even slightly below—the actual centre.

R In early forms the bow was frequently rather large (see Plate II.), but it is safer to make the tail—the characteristic part—more pronounced (see Plates III., XXIV.).

P The characteristic part of P is the bow, which may therefore be a little larger than the bow of R (see Plate III.).

S In the best types of this letter the upper and lower parts are approximately equal; there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the lower [p275] part. (In Uncial and early round-hands the top part was larger: see Plates IV. to VII.)

Y varies: the upper part may be less than that of X, or somewhat larger.

ESSENTIAL OR STRUCTURAL FORMS The essential or structural forms (see p. 240) are the simplest forms which preserve the characteristic structure, distinctiveness, and proportions of each individual letter.

The letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of the skeletons of his letters. While in every case the precise form which commends itself to him is matter for his individual choice, it is suggested in the following discussion of a typical form—the Roman B—that the rationale of his selection (whether conscious or unconscious) is in brief to determine what is ABSOLUTELY essential to a form, and then how far this may be amplified in the direction of the PRACTICALLY essential.

The very idea of an essential form excludes the unnecessary, and its further amplification is apt to take from its distinctiveness and legibility. Where no limits are set, modification is apt to become [p276] exaggeration. And, though special forms and ornamental letters may be produced by “reasonable exaggeration” (k, l, m, fig. 161), if the tool be kept [p278] under proper control, yet, generally, such structural changes do not improve the appearance of the plain letter forms.

Widening and narrowing are both allowable and occasionally desirable, but assuming that a standard or ideal width can be approximately determined, it is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use.

CHARACTERISATION OF FORMS (See also Built-Up Forms, pp. 291–6, and pp. 240, 253)

That the tool69 gives character and finish to the Essential Forms of letters, can easily be proved by a little practical experience of the natural action of a properly cut pen (see figs. 142 to 148, and 162). And the penman—or indeed any other letter-maker—is advised to allow the pen to train his hand to [p280] make the proper strokes automatically: then he may begin to master and control the pen, making it conform to his hand and so produce Letters which have every possible virtue of penmanship and are as much his own as his common handwriting.

Most of the letters in a good alphabet have specially interesting or characteristic parts (p. 250), or they exhibit some general principles in letter making, which are worth noting, with a view to making good letters, and in order to understand better the manner in which the tool—whether pen, chisel, or brush—should be used.

The characterisation of the Roman Capital Form.    Note.—The large types below are indices—not models.

1. A pointed form of A, M, and N (see Plate II.) may be suitable for inscriptions in stone, &c., but in pen work the top is preferably hooked (fig. 167), beaked (fig. 147), or broken (fig. 158), or specially marked in some way, as this part (both in Capital A and small a) has generally been (fig. 189).

2. The oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V, W, X, Y, whether thick or thin, are naturally finished with a short point inside the letter and a long, sharp point, or beak, outside (see serifs of oblique strokes, p. 289).

3. The thin stem may be drawn out below for an occasional form (see F, 3).

1. B, D, R, and P are generally best made round-shouldered (fig. 162 & Addenda, p. 26).

2. B, D, E, F, P, R (and T) have generally an angle between the stem and the top horizontal, while [p281]

3. below in B, D, E (and L) the stem curves or blends with the horizontal.

4. See O, 2.

1. C, G, and S; the top horizontals or ‘arms’ may be straighter than the lower arms, or vice versâ (see figs. 167 and 206).

2. C, G, and S; the inside curve is best continuous—from the ‘bow’ to the ends of the ‘arms’—not being broken by the serifs, and

3. it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve at the termination of all free arms and stems in built-up Roman Capitals. In C, G, S, E, F, L, T, and Z the upper and lower arms are curved on the inside, and squared or slightly pointed outside (the vertical stems curve on either side) (fig. 163).

4. ‘Arms’ are best shaped and curved rather gradually out to the terminal or serif, which then is an actual part of the letter, not an added lump (p. 289).

5. See O, 2.

1. See B, 1.

2. See B, 2 and 3.

3. The curve may be considered as springing from the foot of the stem, and may therefore for an occasional form be separated from the stem at the top (D, fig. 177).

4. See O, 2.

1. See B, 2 and 3.

2. See C, 3 and 4.

3. The lower limb in E, L (and Z) is often drawn out: these, however, are properly to be regarded as occasional or special [p282] forms: the lower serif of this type commonly points out (see figs. 206, 188).

4. E’s three arms (& F’s two) are approximately equal in length in the best early forms (Plate II., &c.).

1. See B, 2.

2. See C, 3 and 4 (and E, 4 above).

3. One or more (the development of the letter and tradition may decide which) of the free stems of A, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, P, R, T, V, W, X, Y may be drawn out for occasional forms (see fig. 188).

4. The elongated stems of F, I, J, P, T, Y may hang below the line, or they may (occasionally) stand on the line and overtop the other letters.

1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

2. The stem may be drawn out below the line (F, 3).

3. The stem sometimes forms an angle with the lower ‘arm’ (this is safest: see fig. 148), sometimes they blend (fig. 147).

4. The point of the lower ‘arm’ may project a very little beyond the stem to mark the outer angle.

5. The wholly curved “gothic” (and also the other round letters: see p. 119) may be introduced occasionally among Roman Capitals.

6. See O, 2.

The left-hand stem is occasionally drawn out above (F, 3 & comp. fig. 3), and

2. this form is sometimes associated with an ornamental cross-bar (fig. 189).

3. H and N may slightly widen out above.

1. The stem may be drawn out above or below (F, 3 and 4).

2. See J, 2.

1. The stem or tail may be drawn out (F, 3 and 4).

2. Note.—With regard to the use of I for J (and V for U): this is associated so much with the Latin usage, that it is perhaps permissible still in Latin.70 But for modern English, in which these letters are strongly differentiated, the tailed J and the round U are to be preferred. Besides the suspicion of affectation attaching to the other mode, its strangeness gives an appearance of awkwardness—almost amounting to illegibility—to common words, such as “A QVAINT IVG” or “IAM IAR.” And, at the least, very careful [p284] discrimination is desirable: “IVBILATE” may pass, but “IVIVBE” is not really readable.

3. The tail of the J may be slight, provided it be distinct, and the second stem of the U may match the first (fig. 158); the ugly and in common use need not be copied.

4. See also Tails, pp. 289–291.

1. The stem is sometimes drawn out above (F, 3).

2. Both arms are occasionally lengthened, and the width of the letter increased, by joining the thin arm to the stem lower down; the thick arm, or tail, then springs from the side of the thin arm (compare ). This tends away from the essential, and is therefore a less safe form.

3. The tail may be curved or drawn out occasionally (see Tails, pp. 289–291).

4. Serifs on arms. See A, 2.

1. See B, 3.

2. See C, 3 and 4.

3. See E, 3.

4. See F, 3.

1. The stems are commonly slightly spread out to give greater clearance for the inner angles. An occasional form is much spread out .

2. Note.—There are inscriptional forms of M [p285] and N without the top serif (Plate II.). But the pen forms and others have top serifs, and these commonly extend outward—tending to beaks (see A, 1 and 2)—rather than in. (V, W, X, Y (and N) show a similar tendency—see p. 289.)

3. The thin stem of M is occasionally drawn out (F, 3).

1. Sec C, 3 and 4.

2. See H, 3.

3. See M, 2, and A, 1 and 2.

4. The first stem is drawn out below the line for an occasional form (most suitable for an Initial Letter): the right-hand stem is very occasionally raised (when a final letter) (F, 3).

5. Note.—The stems of N (the only vertical thins—not counting M’s—in the Roman Capitals) tend sometimes to be thicker: see Plate II.

1. O is the key letter of the curved forms and, in a sense, of the whole alphabet (p. 270). The upright form——may be regarded as the ideal simple letter.

2. Very commonly, however, O is tilted——(see fig. 163), and when this is the case, all the curved letters—B, C, D, G, P, Q, R, S, U—are correspondingly tilted (see Plate II.). The tilted form is more easily made, but both are good forms.

1. See B, 1 and 2.

2. See O, 2.

3. (P with stem below line (see Plate IV.) must not be allowed to confuse with D) (see F, 3 and 4). [p286]

4. The bow of P appears to be attached (to the stem) above: in certain forms it is slightly separated from the stem below: see Plate II.

1. Q resembles O with a tail: see O.

2. There are many characteristic varieties of the tail: see Tails (pp. 289–291).

3. Note.—Q being always followed by U, it is convenient often to deal with the two letters together. (See Plate II.)

1. See B, 1 and 2.

2. See O, 2.

3. In the form nearest the essential, the junction of the Bow and the Tail touches the stem. If the tail springs from the curve of the bow (Plate II.) greater care in construction is necessary (compare K). The treatment of the tail is very important. It may end in a serif (see A, 2), or it may be curved and pointed (see Tails, pp. 289–291). It may be drawn out (see fig. 50).

4. See F, 3 (& comp. fig. 169).

1. See C, 1, 2, 3, and 4.

2. See O, 2 (and p. 273).

3. S very often leans slightly forward.

1. See B, 2.

2. See C, 3 and 4.

3. Drawing out of stem: see F, 3 and 4.

4. Note.—The right arm is occasionally extended—to fill a line—when T is a terminal letter (in this case it is generally made lighter, and the left arm heavier—somewhat as in the Uncial T, figs. 56 & 188). [p287]

1. Note.—The curve—if it be modelled on the common tilted O (see O, 2)—is thin where it meets the second stem.

2. (V for U). See J, 2, 3, and footnote.

3. The foot of the second stem projects on the right only, and gives clearance to the angle of the curve on the left. Sometimes the second stem ends in a hook or beak, which (very occasionally) is drawn out below.

1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. The thick stem may be drawn up (F, 3), in which case the thin commonly curves over for strength (see figs. 89, 95).

3. (See note on V for U, under J.)

1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. The best form is of two V’s crossed, .

3. The first or both the thick stems may be drawn up and the thins curved over (see V, 2).

1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. There is sometimes a slight curving in of the stems, especially the thin stem (see fig. 80).

3. The thin stem is sometimes drawn out below (F, 3), and commonly curved.

1. See M, 2, and A, 2.

2. See F, 3 and 4. (Y with stem below line (see Plate V.) must not be allowed to confuse with V.)

3. An occasional rather interesting form [p288] of Y has the arms curving out and ending in points (see fig. 167).

1. See C, 3 and 4.

2. The lower arm of Z is sometimes drawn out (see E, 3): it may be curved and pointed (or flourished).