Construction.—The rapidity and uniformity of this writing are largely due to an extremely easy zigzag movement of the pen, such as is natural in writing m, n, and u—the final upstroke usually running on into the next letter. Note particularly that the round letters c, d, e, g, o, q generally begin with a nearly straight down stroke—like the first part of u—to which tops are added (see fig. 182). In the case of a, the first stroke curves forward to meet the second. [p322]
In the straight-stemmed capitals B, D, E, F, H, I, L, M, N, P, R, and T, the first stroke is made rather like an (showing the tendency to a zigzag) the foot of which is generally crossed horizontally by a second stroke making a form resembling —on this as a base, the rest of the letter is formed (see fig. 182). This tends to preserve the uniformity of the letters: and gives a fine constructive effect, as, for example, in the letter .
General Remarks.—The semi-formal nature of such a MS. would seem to permit of a good quill—not necessarily sharp—being used with the utmost freedom and all reasonable personal sleight of hand; of soft tinted inks—such as browns and brown-reds; of an un-ruled page (a pattern page ruled dark, being laid under the writing paper, will, by showing through, keep the writing sufficiently straight), and of a minimum of precision in the arrangement of the text. And in this freedom and informality lie the reasons for and against the use of such a hand. There is a danger of its becoming more informal and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the true pen in preserving form.82 But, on the other hand, it combines great rapidity and freedom with beauty and legibility: few printed books could compete in charm with this old “catalogue,” which took the scribe but little longer to write than we might take in scribbling it.
Many uses for such a hand will suggest themselves. Semi-formal documents which require to [p323] be neatly written out, and Books and Records of which only one or two copies are required, and even Books which are worthy to be—but never are—printed, might, at a comparatively low cost, be preserved in this legible and beautiful form.
It suggests possibilities for an improvement in the ordinary present-day handwriting—a thing much to be desired, and one of the most practical benefits of the study of calligraphy. The practical scribe, at any rate, will prove the advantages of being a good all-round penman.
OF FORMAL WRITING GENERALLY
On Copying a Hand.—Our intentions being right (viz. to make our work essentially readable) and our actions being expedient (viz. to select and copy the simple forms which have remained essentially the same, leaving the complex forms which have passed out of use—see pp. 195–6), we need not vex ourselves with the question of “lawfulness.”83
Where beautiful character is the natural product of a tool, any person may at any time give such character to a useful form, and as at this time a properly cut and handled pen will produce letters resembling those of the early MSS., we may take as models such early, simple pen-forms as have remained essentially the same,84 and copy them as closely as we can while keeping them exact and formal.
Finally, personal quality is essential to perfect workmanship, but that is the natural and gradual—sometimes [p324] scarcely visible—departure from a model, that comes of practice and time.
Forms of Letters: component pen-strokes.—In a good hand the chief component strokes—stems, bows, and serifs—are repeated again and again (see pp. 244, 254)—this is essential to the uniform character and the quickness of the writing. When substituting a new for an old letter a naturally used pen will produce such common pen-strokes, giving the desired “family likeness” to the new letter85 (b, fig. 183).
Proportion86 of Thick Strokes.—The broader the thick stroke is in proportion to the height of a letter, the more the form of the letter is controlled and affected by the pen (c, fig. 183). For training and practice, therefore, the wide nib is the most useful. A narrower nib (d or e) allows of more freedom and variety, and there is a great charm in slender lettering—this the trained scribe may essay (see Plate XX., and p. 482).
Proportion86 of Stem Height.—The character of a writing depends very much on whether the stems are short, medium, or long. The stems of b and p may be as short as half the height of the bodies (f, fig. 183); a medium stem for ordinary use might be two-thirds of, or equal to, the height of the body (g). Stems may be drawn out to almost any [p326] length, and may constitute a decorative feature of the writing, as in the Anglo-Saxon87 MS., Plate IX. (See p. 331, and fig. 188.)
Distinct Lines of Writing.—The line—especially in MS. books—is really a more important unit than [p327] the page; and the whole question of the arrangement of Lettering hinges on the right treatment of the lines. One is particularly struck by the distinctness of the lines of writing in the old MSS., due mainly to—
(a) The binding together of the letters in the line—commonly by strong serifs or heavy “shoulders” and “feet” (see figs. 11, 184, and p. 414).
(b) Packing the letters well together (see pp. 77, 262).
(c) Spacing the lines sufficiently apart (see pp. 262–265).
It is a good rule (especially when practising) to space the lines fairly widely. Really fine writing shows generally to greater advantage if not too much crowded, and there is more danger of making reading hard by crowding the lines, than by crowding the words (see fig. 156).
Whatever mode of treatment be followed, each line should be written with as much freedom as possible, the simplest straightforward writing being preferable to that which is over-arranged.
DECORATIVE CONTRASTS
The decorative treatment of lettering generally involves contrasts of size, weight, colour, or form—that is, of large and small, heavy and light, variously coloured, or variously shaped letters. As a general rule, marked contrasts are best; a slight contrast may fail of its effect and yet be sufficiently noticeable to give an unpleasant appearance of irregularity.
Contrasts of Colour (see pp. 144, 180).—Note that, while it is convenient to distinguish “colour”—as red, blue, green, &c.—weight strictly involves [p328] colour: built-up or heavy letters in black show extra black beside lighter writing, while the latter appears grey in comparison (see figs. 197, 186); in red writing the heavy letters appear red, the lighter letters, pink (see fig. 90).
Contrast of Size.—The simplest decorative contrast is that of LARGE88 letters with smaller letters (fig. 185); the strokes being of equal, or nearly equal, weight, there is an harmonious evenness of tone throughout. Where the large letters are very much larger, their parts are made somewhat heavier to keep their apparent “weight” approximately equal (see p. 486). This is one of the most effective treatments for inscriptions generally (see p. 299, and Plates V. and XXIV.).
Contrasts of “weight” and size.—In simple writing these are obtained by using two sizes of pen—the small, light letters being used for the bulk of the [p329] text, the larger heavier letters being used for occasional words or lines (or vice versâ). This is a very effective simple treatment for MSS. (fig. 186).
The occasional letters may be more decoratively treated (see Responses and Rubrics, p. 345) by introducing the further contrasts of colour (p. 144) or form (p. 336). [p330]
Contrasts of form, “weight,” and size.—These are generally obtained by the use of large built-up Capitals, together with a simple-written (or ordinarily printed) text (fig. 187).
A marked contrast usually being desirable, the built-up capitals (especially if black) are kept quite distinct from the rest of the text (see fig. 197): if they are scattered among the other letters they are apt to show like blots and give an appearance of irregularity to the whole. As a rule, the effect is improved by the use of red or another colour (see figs. 91, 93).
Contrast of form—for decorative purposes—is usually combined with contrast of weight (e.g. “Gothic,” heavier, p. 336) or size (e.g. Capitals, larger, p. 371).
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS (See Chaps. VII., VIII., X., XII., & pp. 34, 251, 26)
To give ornament its true value we must distinguish between ordinary occasions when simplicity and directness are required, and special occasions when elaboration is desirable or necessary.
The best way to make ornamental letters is to [p331] develop them from the simpler forms. Any plain type may be decoratively treated for special purposes—some part or parts of the letters usually being rationally “exaggerated” (p. 252). Free stems, “branches,” tails, &c., may be drawn out, and terminals or serifs may be decorated or flourished (fig. 203).
Built-Up Forms.—Even greater license (see fig. 161) is allowed in Built-Up Letters—as they are less under the control of the tool (p. 292)—and their natural decorative development tends to produce a subordinate simple line decoration beside or upon their thicker parts (fig. 189 & p. 26). In MSS. the typical built-up, ornamental form is the “Versal” (see Chap. VII.), which developed—or degenerated—into the “Lombardic” (fig. 1). Here again it is preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop a natural decorative treatment of it for ourselves.
“Black Letter” or “Gothic,” still in use as an ornamental letter (fig. 190), is descended from the fifteenth-century writing of Northern Europe (Plate XVII.). A better model may be found in the earlier and more lively forms of twelfth and thirteenth century writing (fig. 191).
Fig. 191.—MS. written by an English Scribe, in 1269, at Mons, in Hainault—Part of Colophon in large text. (B. M. Egerton, MS. 2569. Reduced five-sixths Scale.)
Rightly made, and used, it is one of the most picturesque forms of lettering—and therefore of ornament—and besides its ornamental value, there is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about “black letter,” which may fairly be taken into account. Its comparative illegibility, however,—due mainly to the substitution of straight for curved strokes—debars it from ordinary use.89 Though its [p336] distinction in form and colour (p. 327) from ordinary small lettering, make it useful in arresting attention; as in a legal document, where the clauses are marked by
&c.
Its most effective use, however, is as pure ornament—when it does not matter whether the words are easily read or not. For mottoes, &c., painted or carved on walls or furniture, and for ornamental borders round tapestry hangings, tombs, book-covers, bowls, flagons, plates, &c., bands of such ornamental lettering are extremely decorative (see footnote (2), p. 255, & also p. 364).
Fig. 191a.—Shield of Arms of Earl de Warrenne, Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk (Gold and blue chequers, diapered—see p. 215): reproduced, by permission, from Boutell’s “English Heraldry,” No. 68.
53 In fact, our “small-letters” are the formalised result of the rapidly scratched Square Capitals of the Roman era (p. 37 & fig. 3).
54 Their greater strength may not at first be apparent in fig. 148, as the nib used therefor is narrower, in proportion to the height of letter, than that used for fig. 147 (see also fig. 151).
55 The exaggeration of one part may be said relatively to dwarf the other parts of a letter; but it is seldom advantageous, and often not permissible, to dwarf part of a letter absolutely.
56 As when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar (all the y or g tails, for example, catching the eye, and standing out on the page), or, as when promiscuous types are used, giving the impression of a confused crowd of letters.
57 Variety.—There is a variety both readable and beautiful (see pp. 210, 369), but it is founded on uniformity (and sincerity).
58 “Bands” and symmetrical or asymmetrical groups of lettering adapted to the available space are used—usually as ornament—upon friezes, furniture, chests, book covers, flagons, dishes, and the like (see fig. 156 & p. 336). The special treatment of such things is a matter for the craftsman who makes them.
59 By closing up the letters and the words one may generally avoid “rivers,” or accidental spaces straggling through the text. The presence of “rivers” is at once made evident by slanting the page and looking along its surface, across the lines. Note, that whether the lines be close or wide, the interspacing of the Small-Letters does not vary very much.
60 The gaps on the right may be filled with line-finishings to preserve a “Massed” effect, but for many purposes this would be apt to look too ornamental (see pp. 205, 423).
61 In (b) fig. 155, the letters have been unintentionally narrowed. The natural tendency to do this forms another objection to such undue crowding.
62 In (c) the letters have been unintentionally widened.
63 Experiment.—Cut out a piece of dark brown paper the exact size of the body of the text in an entire page of this Handbook, viz. 5116 inches by 3 inches, and lay it on the text: the tone of the brown paper being much darker than that of the print makes the margins appear wider.
64 Such inscriptions contrast favourably with that Nineteenth Century style in which it was customary to make every letter occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour as possible.
65 Note.—There is less danger of spoiling letters by narrowing them than by widening, because the limits to the possible narrowing of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its possible widening. Further, when letters are widened there is a tendency to thicken their parts and make them heavy and vulgar.
66 The primitive forms of these letters were vertically symmetrical, I believe.
67 It is interesting to note in this connection that the eye seems to prefer looking upon the tops of things, and in reading, is accustomed to run along the tops of the letters—not down one stroke and up the next. This may suggest a further reason for smaller upper parts, viz. the concentration of as much of the letter as possible in the upper half.
68 The extremely beautiful and finished B in the “Trajan Alphabet” (Plate II.) has the division a little higher, and a marked enlargement of the lower part; until the letter-craftsman can approach the perfection of its execution he will find a simpler form more suitable for his “standard.” A curious form, in which the top lobe has nearly or quite disappeared (comp. c, fig. 161), is found in early Roman inscriptions. This form (which may have helped to give us the useful small b) is not suitable for a modern Capital, and would lack the distinctiveness of B.
69 Chisel-made Roman Capitals (possibly influenced by brush, &c., pp. 292, 391), Plates I., II.: (modern), XXIV. Pen-made, Plates III., XVIII.: (modern), figs. 147, 148, 167, 168, &c.
70 J. C. Egbert in an “Introduction to the Study of Latin Inscriptions” says, “J was not specialised as a letter until the 15th Century.” It would seem that in early inscriptions a tall I was frequently used for J between vowels, and for I at the beginnings of words: later, while the medial I remained straight, the initial form was curved to the left and used for both I and J; this curved initial form, J, at length became identified with the letter J.
Similarly, it appears that V was used for an initial, and U for a medial; and later, the V form became identified with the consonant.
In the words in fig. 95, the initial I is curved like a J, while the medial i’s are straight; the initial V has a v form, while the medial V in nativ(itatis) has a u form.
71 The more ornamental treatment of Stems, Bows, Serifs, Tails, &c., is referred to at p. 331, and in figs. 188, 189.
72 Their thin stems and heavy branches may tend to weakness and illegibility—e.g. such letters as E, F, I, L, and T (see fig. 4) are not always easily distinguishable.
75 In a very short book these might even be built-up capitals.
76 Palæographers call them “majuscules” (= “large letters”), but distinguish them from “Capitals.” For the purposes of the modern penman, however, they may be regarded as Round Capitals. (For their treatment, see pp. 297–299, and 304.)
77 The writing in fig. 170 shows a slightly slanted pen. To make quite horizontal thins is difficult, and was probably never done, but it is worth attempting them nearly horizontal for the sake of training the hand.
78 Note.—Single-line ruling is commonly used—the writing being on, or a little above or below, the line: this allows of greater freedom than the double line (see p. 304).
79 It is convenient to use the term “Italics” for both the cursive formal writing and the printing resembling it. Italic type was first used in a “Virgil” printed by Aldus Manutius of Venice in 1500. The type was then called “Venetian” or “Aldine.” It was counterfeited almost immediately (in Germany and Holland it was called “cursive”); Wynkin de Worde used it in 1524. It seems to have been originally intended for printing entire Classics, but was afterwards used to distinguish portions of the text (see also p. 373).
80 The Book is a catalogue of early Roman inscriptions: apparently a written copy of a printed book.
81 With a sheet of paper 1118 inches by 16 inches the student might reconstruct these.
82 Practising a more formal hand as a corrective would prevent this.
83 The Law fulfils itself: that which we must not copy is that which we cannot copy.
84 E.g. the letters in the tenth-century English hand—Plate VIII.: excepting the archaic long and round (b, fig. 183).
85 The propriety of the actual form of the new letter will largely depend on the scribe’s knowledge of the development of that particular letter and its component parts (comp. the interesting development of g, sketched in fig. 3 & 183, but note correction of Ex. 173 in Addenda, p. 26).
86 The proportions of the thick strokes, stem heights, &c., in a given hand need not be exactly followed, but it should be recognised that any alteration in these will inevitably alter the forms and the character of the letters (fig. 183, and pp. 84 & 26).
87 In English so many ascending and descending letters are used, that it might be the best and most natural treatment of these to make them a marked feature of the writing (see also “Fine Writing,” pp. 261–63). Note, in this connection, that our a b c has been developed as a Latin alphabet, and that the evenness of Latin MS. is largely due to the infrequence of tailed letters.
88 Where there is only a slight difference in size, the effect is improved by using a different form or colour (see pp. 130, 345).
89 Compare and monotone. For general purposes, therefore, and particularly for forming a good hand, the earlier scripts are to be preferred (or the late Italian): even twelfth-century “Gothic” writing is hardly readable enough for “practical” purposes.
APPENDIX A
CHAPTER XVI SPECIAL SUBJECTS Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding MSS. (with Note by Douglas Cockerell) — Broadsides, Wall Inscriptions, &c. — Illuminated Addresses, &c. — Monograms & Devices — Title Pages — Lettering for Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions on Metal, Stone, Wood, &c. — Of Inscriptions Generally — Bibliography, &c.
DIVERS USES OF LETTERING
The following list of some of the uses of hand-made lettering, though necessarily very brief, will perhaps suggest possibilities both to the student and the craftsman:—