PART I WRITING ILLUMINATING CHAPTER I THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING
Nearly every type of letter with which we are familiar is derived from the Roman Capitals, and has come to us through the medium, or been modified by the influence, of the pen. And, therefore, in trying to revive good Lettering, we cannot do better than make a practical study of the best pen-forms, and learn at the same time to appreciate the forms of their magnificent archetypes as preserved in the monumental Roman inscriptions.
The development and the relations of the principal types of letters are briefly set out in the accompanying “family tree”—fig. 1. When the student has learnt to cut and handle a pen, he can trace this development practically by trying to copy a few words from each example given below. [p036]
THE ROMAN ALPHABET.—The Alphabet, as we know it, begins with the ROMAN CAPITALS5 (see fig. 2). Their fine monumental forms were evolved by the use of the chisel—probably under the influence of writing—and had reached full development about 2000 years ago (see Plates I., II., and Chapter XV.).
FORMAL WRITING—the “book-hand” or professional writing of the scribes—comes of the careful writing of the Roman Capitals (see also footnote, p. 38, on the beginnings of fine penmanship). It was the—
“literary hand, used in the production of exactly written MSS., and therefore a hand of comparatively limited use. By its side, and of course of far more extensive and general use, was the cursive hand of the time”6 [p037]
In early cursive writing—the running-hand or ordinary writing of the people—
“The Letters are nothing more than the old Roman letters written with speed, and thus undergoing certain modifications in their forms, which eventually developed into the minuscule hand.”7 (See fig. 3.)
Here it is sufficient to trace the history of the formal Latin “hands,” but the continual, modifying influence exerted on them by the ordinary cursive writing should be borne in mind. Notable results of this influence are seen in Half-Uncials and Italics.
SQUARE CAPITALS were formal, pen-made Roman Capitals, of the monumental type: they were used (perhaps from the second) till about the [p038] end of the fifth century for important books (see Plate III.).
RUSTIC CAPITALS were probably a variety of the “Square Capitals,” and were in use till about the end of the fifth century (fig. 4; see also p. 297).
ROMAN UNCIALS were fully developed by the fourth century, and were used from the fifth till the eighth century for the finest books (fig. 5).
Uncials are true pen-forms8—more quickly written than the “Square,” and clearer than the “Rustic” Capitals—having the characteristic, simple strokes and beautiful, rounded shapes which flow from the rightly handled reed or quill. The [p040] typical Uncial letters are the round D, E, H, M, U (or V), and A and Q (see p. 300).
ROMAN HALF-UNCIALS—or Semi-Uncials—(fig. 6) were mixed Uncial and Cursive forms adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in writing. Their evolution marks the formal change from Capitals to “Small-Letters.”
They were first used as a book-hand for the less important books about the beginning of the sixth century.
IRISH HALF-UNCIALS were founded on the Roman Half-Uncials (probably brought to Ireland by Roman missionaries in the sixth century). As a beautiful writing, they attained in the seventh century a degree of perfection since unrivalled (see Plate VI.).
They developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a “pointed” writing, which became the Irish national hand.
ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS (fig. 7) were modelled on the Irish Half-Uncials in the seventh [p041] century. They also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a “pointed” writing.
CAROLINE (or CARLOVINGIAN) WRITING.—While English and Irish writing thus came from Roman Half-Uncial, the Continental hands were much influenced by the rougher Roman Cursive, and were, till near the end of the eighth century, comparatively poor.
“The period of Charlemagne is an epoch in the history of the handwritings of Western Europe. With the revival of learning naturally came a reform of the writing in which the works of literature were to be made known. A decree of the year 789 called for the revision of church books; and this work naturally brought with it a great activity in the writing schools of the chief monastic centres of France. And in none was there greater activity than at Tours, where, under the rule of Alcuin of York, who was abbot of St. Martin’s from 796 to 804, was specially developed the exact hand which has received the name of the Caroline Minuscule.”9 [p042]
The influence of the Caroline hands (see fig. 8) presently spread throughout Europe. The letters in our modern copy-books may be regarded as their direct, though degenerate, descendants.
SLANTED-PEN or TILTED WRITING.—The forms of the letters in early writing indicate an easily held pen—slanted away from the right shoulder. The slanted pen naturally produced oblique thick strokes and thin strokes, and the letters were “tilted” (see fig. 9).
In the highly finished hands—used from the sixth to the eighth centuries—such as the later Uncials and the Roman, Irish, and English Half-Uncials, the pen was manipulated or cut so that the thin strokes were approximately horizontal, and the thick strokes vertical (fig. 10). The earlier and easier practice came into fashion again in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the round Irish and English hands became “pointed” as a result of slanting the pen.
The alteration in widths and directions of pen strokes, due to the use of the “slanted pen,” had these effects on the half-uncial forms (see fig. 11):—
1. The thin strokes taking an oblique (upward) direction (a) (giving a sharp angle with the verticals (d, a)) led to angularity and narrower forms (a1), and a marked contrast between thick and thin strokes—due to the abrupt change from one to the other (a2).
2. The thick strokes becoming oblique (b) caused a thickening of the curves below on the left (b1), and above on the right (b2), which gave heavy shoulders and feet.
3. The horizontal strokes becoming thicker (c) gave stronger and less elegant forms. [p044]
4. The vertical strokes becoming thinner (d) (with oblique or pointed ends—not square ended) increased the tendency to narrow letters.
It is to be noted that the Caroline letters—though written with a “slanted pen”—kept the open, round appearance of the earlier forms. [p046]
TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH CENTURY WRITING.—The easy use of the slanted pen, and the lateral compression of the letters which naturally followed, resulted in a valuable economy of time and space in the making of books. This lateral compression is strongly marked in the tenth century (see fig. 12), and in the eleventh and twelfth centuries it caused curves to give place to angles, and writing to become “Gothic” in character (see Plate XI.).
THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND FIFTEENTH CENTURY WRITING.—The tendency to compression continued, and a further economy of space was effected in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries by the general use of much smaller writing (see fig. 13). In the fifteenth century writing grew larger and taller again, but the letters had steadily become [p047] narrower, more angular, and stiffer, till the written page consisted of rows of perpendicular thick strokes with heads and feet connected by oblique hair-lines—which often look as if they had been dashed in after with a fine pen—all made with an almost mechanical precision (see Plate XVII.).
ITALIAN WRITING.—In Italy alone the roundness of the earlier hands was preserved, and though in course of time the letters were affected by the “Gothic” tendency, they never lost the curved forms or acquired the extreme angularity which is seen in the writings of Northern Europe (compare Plates X. and XI.).
At the time of the Renaissance the Italian scribes remodelled their “hands” on the beautiful Italian writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (see Plates X. and XVIII., XIX., XX.). The early Italian printers followed after the scribes and modelled their types on these round clear letters. And thus the fifteenth century Italian formal writing became the foundation of the “Roman” small letters, which have superseded all others for the printing of books. [p048]
ITALICS.—The Roman Letters, together with the cursive hand of the time, gave rise to “Italic” letters (see fig. 1, & pp. 311, 316, 483).
ORNAMENTAL LETTERS originated in the simple written forms, which were developed for special purposes, and were made larger or written in colour (see Versals, &c., fig. 1, 189).
Their first object was to mark important words, or the beginnings of verses, chapters, or books. As Initial Letters they were much modified and embellished, and so gave rise to the art of Illumination (see pp. 113, 114).
CHAPTER II ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (1) TOOLS Acquiring a Formal Hand: Tools, &c. — The Desk — Paper & Ink — Pens: The Reed: The Quill — Of Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c.
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: TOOLS, &C.
The simplest way of learning how to make letters is to acquire a fine formal hand. To this end a legible and beautiful writing (see p. 70) should be chosen, and be carefully copied with a properly cut pen.
For learning to write, the following tools and materials are required:—
- Desk.
- Writing-paper.
- Ink and filler.
- Pens (Reed and Quill) with “springs.” [p049]
- Pen-knife, sharpening-stone, and cutting-slab.
- Magnifying glass.
- Two-foot (preferably three-foot) rule, and pencil.
- Linen pen-wiper.
THE DESK
An ordinary desk or drawing-board can be used, but the best desk is made by hinging a drawing-board (“Imperial” size) to the edge of a table. The board may be raised and supported at any desired angle by a hinged support, or by a round tin set under it (fig. 14). For a more portable [p050] desk two drawing-boards may be similarly hinged together and placed on a table (fig. 15).
A tape or string is tightly stretched—horizontally—across the desk to hold the writing-paper (which, as a rule, is not pinned on). The lower part of the writing-paper is held and protected by a piece of stout paper or vellum fixed tightly, with drawing-pins, across and over it (fig. 16). Under the writing-paper there should be a “writing-pad,” consisting of one or two [p051] sheets of blotting-paper, or some other suitable substance.10
It is a good plan to have the lower, front edge of the desk bevelled or rounded, so that the tail part of a deep sheet, which may hang below the table, does not become accidentally creased by being pressed against it. A curved piece of cardboard fixed on the edge will answer the same purpose.
PAPER & INK
For “practice” any smooth—not glazed—paper will do. For careful work a smooth hand-made paper is best (pp. 103, 111).
A good, prepared, liquid (carbon) ink is best. It should be as black as possible, without being too thick. A jet-black ink will test the quality of the writing by “showing up” all the faults; “pale” or “tinted” inks rather conceal the faults, and lend a false appearance of excellence (p. 322). A thin ink greatly adds to the ease of writing (see Addenda, p. 23). Waterproof inks, as a rule, are too thick or gummy, and do not flow freely enough.
The ink-bottle is kept corked when not in use, to keep the ink clean and prevent evaporation. Thick or muddy ink should be put away: it is not worth while trying to use it.
A small brush is used for filling the pen.
PENS
V. A pencil or brush-handle is held under the nib, and is gently twitched upwards to lengthen the slit (fig. 21). An ordinary reed should have a slit about 34 inch long. A very stiff pen may have in addition a slit on either side of the centre.
The left thumb nail is pressed against the back of the pen—about 1 inch from the tip—to prevent it splitting too far up (see also fig. 27).
VII. A strip of thin metal (very thin tin, or clock spring with the “temper” taken out by heating and slowly cooling) is cut the width of the nib and about 2 inches long. This is folded into a “spring” (fig. 23).
The loop a b c is “sprung” into place, and holds the spring in the right position. The loop c d, which should be rather flat, holds the ink in the pen. The point d should be about 18 inch from the end of the nib.
THE QUILL.—A Turkey’s Quill is strong, and suitable for general writing. As supplied by the stationers it consists of a complete wing-feather, about 12 inches long, having the quill part cut for ordinary use. For careful writing it should be re-made thus:—
I. The quill should be cut down to 7 or 8 inches (fig. 25); the long feather if left is apt to be in the way.
II. The “barbs” or filaments of the feather are stripped off the shaft (fig. 26). [p055]
III. The nib already has a slit usually about 14 inch long. This is sufficient in a fairly pliant pen; in a very stiff pen (see p. 60) the slit may be lengthened to 38 inch. This may be done with care by holding a half-nib between the forefinger [p056] and thumb of each hand, but the safest way is to twitch the slit open (fig. 27), using the end of another pen (or a brush-handle) as explained under Reed, V. (see p. 53).
IV. The sides of the nib are pared till the width across the tip is rather less than the width desired12 (fig. 28).
V. The nib is laid, back up, on the glass slab, and the extreme tip is cut off obliquely to the slit, the knife blade being slightly sloped, and its edge forming an angle of about 70° with the line of the shaft (fig. 29; see also fig. 36). [p057]
The shaft rests lightly in the left hand (not gripped and not pressed down on slab at all), and the knife blade is entered with a steady pressure.
If the nib is then not wide enough it may be cut again; if too wide, the sides may be pared down.
Cut very little at a time off the tip of the nib; a heavy cut is apt to force the pen out of shape and spoil the edge of the nib.
VI. The nib should then be examined with the magnifying glass. Hold the pen, back down, over a sheet of white paper, and see that the ends of the two half-nibs are in the same straight line a–b (fig. 30).
The nib should have an oblique chisel-shaped tip, very sharply cut (fig. 31).
A magnifying glass is necessary for examining a fine pen; a coarse pen may be held up against [p058] the light from a window—a finger-tip being held just over the nib to direct the eye (fig. 32).
VII. The Spring (see Reed, VII.) (about 332 inch by 112 inch) is placed so that the point is about 116 inch from the end of the nib. The long loop should be made rather flat to hold plenty of ink (A, fig. 35)—neither too much curved (B: this holds only a drop), nor quite flat (C: this draws the ink up and away from the nib).
OF QUILLS GENERALLY
For ordinary use the nib may be cut with a fairly steep angle, as shown (magnified) at (a) (fig. 36).
But it is better for fine, sharp writing that the angle be made very sharp: the knife blade is laid back (much flatter than is shown in fig. 29) and the quill is cut quite thin; the knife blade is then held vertical and the extreme tip of the nib is cut off sharp and true (b, fig. 36).
For large writing, the curved inside of the quill is pared flat (c, d, fig. 36) [p060] to give full strokes. If the nib be left curved and hollow underneath (e), it is apt to make hollow strokes.
The pen may be made more pliant by scraping it till it is thinner, or by cutting the “shoulder” (a–b, fig. 29) longer, or stiffer by cutting the nib back until the “shoulder” is short.
Goose and Crow Quills (see p. 172).
The main advantages of a quill over a metal pen are, that the former may be shaped exactly as the writer desires, and be re-cut when it becomes blunt.
A metal pen may be sharpened on an oilstone, but the process takes so much longer that there is no saving in time: it is not easily cut to the exact shape, and it lacks the pleasant elasticity of the quill.
A gold pen is probably the best substitute for a quill, and if it were possible to have a sharp, “chisel-edged” iridium tip on the gold nib, it would be an extremely convenient form of pen. A “fountain pen” might be used with thin ink.
PEN-KNIFE, CUTTING-SLAB, &C.
THE KNIFE.—Quill makers use a special knife. A surgical scalpel makes an excellent pen-knife. The blade should be fairly stout, as the edge of a thin blade is easily damaged. It should be ground almost entirely on the right side of the blade (fig. 37) and kept very sharp. [p061]
THE SLAB.—A piece of glass (preferably white) may be used for fine quills; hard wood, bone, or celluloid for reed and cane pens.
SHARPENING STONE.—A “Turkey” (fine) or “Washita” (fine or coarse grained) stone.
MAGNIFYING GLASS.—A magnifying glass (about 1 inch in diameter) is necessary for examining fine pen nibs to see if they are “true.” A “pocket” glass is the most suitable for general use, and for the analysis of small writing, &c.
RULE.—A 2, or 3-foot wood rule having brass strips let in to protect the edges, or a metal rule.
LINEN PEN-WIPER.—A piece of an old linen handkerchief may be used to keep the pen clean.