Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering

The pen generally is held so as to give approximately horizontal thin strokes (see p. 66), but in making v (w, y) and x, parts of z, &c., it is “slanted.” In figs. 51 and 57 these forms are marked with a small diagonal cross × (see also p. 25).

Most of the strokes begin as down-strokes, but at the end of a down-stroke, when the ink is flowing freely, the stroke may be continued in an upward direction (as in coupling-strokes, &c., the feet of letters, the thin stroke of x, and, if preferred, in making the last stroke of g, s, and y).

While the ink is still wet in a down-stroke, the nib may be replaced on it and be pushed upward and outward to form the round arch in b, h, m, n, p, and r. This stroke, reversed, is also used for the top of t.

The making of these UP-strokes is shown diagrammatically in fig. 51.

Note.—The forms +oin× in fig. 51 contain all the principal strokes in this alphabet, and are therefore useful for early practice.

COUPLING THE LETTERS

The letters are joined together by means of their coupling-strokes, which for this purpose may be slightly drawn out, and forward, from the naturally round forms of the letters (see c, e, &c., fig. 52 & fig. 59).

The coupling-strokes are finishing strokes—and as such are akin to serifs (p. 244)—growing out of or added to such stems as need “finishing.”

Coupling enables one to write faster and with [p076] more freedom, the concluding or “coupling” stroke not being slowed down, but written with a dash, which is covered by the first stroke of the succeeding [p077] letter. It keeps the individual words more distinct, and therefore permits closer spacing of the text. Coupling is for convenience and legibility, and where it tends to interfere with legibility, we must be careful. The freer and more cursive the hand, the greater is the tendency to join and run letters together, as in ordinary writing.

It is preferable to couple letters below, if possible. Couplings above are sometimes apt to confuse the reading; for example, the cross-bar of t (though the most natural coupling for the scribe to use—see petatis, Plate VII.) should generally be made to pass over or fall short of the succeeding letter (see fig. 52).

SPACING: LETTERS, WORDS, & LINES

The letters of a word are fitted together so that there is a general effect of evenness. This evenness is only to be attained by practice: it is characteristic of rapid skilful writing, and cannot be produced satisfactorily by any system of measurement while the writer’s hand is still slow and uncertain. It is worth noting, however, that the white interspaces vary slightly, while the actual distances between the letters vary considerably, according to whether the adjacent strokes curve (or slant) away or are perpendicular (figs. 53, 152).

It is sufficient for the beginner to take care that two curved letters are made very near each other, and that two straight strokes are spaced well apart.

If the curves are too far apart there will be spots of light, and where several heavy stems are made too close together, “blots” of dark, marring the evenness of the page. [p078]

Words are kept as close as is compatible with legibility. The average space between two words is the width of the letter o (fig. 54). [p079]

The Lines in massed writing (see p. 262) are kept as close together as is compatible with legibility. The usual distance apart of the writing-lines is about three times the height of the letter o (see also p. 327).

The descending strokes of the upper line must “clear” the ascending strokes of the lower line. Interlocking of these strokes may be avoided by the experimental placing of p over d (fig. 55).

UNCIAL CAPITALS: SCRIPT II.

These modernised Uncials (see fig. 56, & p. 300) are intended to go with Script I., and their analysis and mode of construction are almost identical with those of Script I. (see pp. 72, 73). [p082]

Grouping: Uncials have no coupling-strokes; when several are used together, they are not joined, but evenly grouped, allowing as before for curves and straight strokes (see p. 77).

• Spacing:
  • (a) When used with Script I., Uncials are written on the same lines, and have to follow the same spacing (in spite of their longer stems).
  • (b) When Uncials are used by themselves, their spacing may be wider (p. 297).

Note.—The height of Uncial o is about equal to the height of the Half-Uncial d.

NUMERALS & PUNCTUATION MARKS
(See fig. 57.)

These are best made with a “slanted” pen (fig. 9).

When writing “Arabic numerals,” 1 and 0 may be made on the line, 2468 ascending, and 3579 descending.

OF COPYING MSS. GENERALLY

When copying a MS. it is best to choose a complete page—or part of a page—to be copied in facsimile.

Two or three lines are copied to begin with; then the composition of the individual letters and words is studied by means of a large pen; and finally the whole page is copied in facsimile. (Of practising, see pp. 85, 86).

Make a general examination and analysis as suggested at p. 71. Accurate measurements will be found helpful.

Take the heights of the o and the d, and the distance apart of the writing-lines with dividers [p083] The width of the thick stroke is best found by making experimental thick strokes—the full width of the pen nib—on a scrap of paper: cut the paper in half across the thick strokes, and place the cut edge on the thickest strokes in the original MS., you will then find whether the pen nib should be cut wider or narrower.

The direction of the thickest strokes is approximately at right angles to the direction of the thin strokes; which commonly approaches the horizontal in early round hands, and is oblique in other hands (see fig. 9 and 10). The positions both of these strokes in the model, and of your pen, determine the angle of the nib. Therefore, cut the nib across at such an angle to the shaft of the pen that, when you hold the pen naturally, the direction of the thin strokes which it makes on the writing paper will coincide with the direction of the thin strokes in the model; but

• (a) The way in which the shaft is held,
• (b) The angle at which the nib is cut,
• (c) The position of the writing paper,

may all be slightly varied, so that the direction of the thin strokes can be followed exactly (see p. 66).

The writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in accordance with the model; and the heights of the letters and the widths of the thick strokes in the copy agree as nearly as possible with those in the original. It is therefore a good test for accuracy—when a few lines of writing have been copied—to measure and compare their lengths. If they correspond with their originals, it goes far to prove the copy a good one.

Before copying more of the page, the construction of the letters should be carefully studied. The number and the forms of pen-strokes in each letter [p084] are found by examination—with a magnifying glass if necessary—and by the experimental putting together of strokes, to form a similar letter. For this a large pen, such as a reed, is useful, and it is a good plan to write individual letters and words exactly two, three, or four times their height in the model: both the pen nib and the individual letters are made correspondingly two, three, or four times as wide as in the original.

It is particularly important, in copying, to preserve accurately the proportion of the thick stroke to the height and width of a letter (see p. 324). These are conveniently measured by the pen nib itself, or by the estimated width of the thick stroke; thus, in the writing shown in fig. 50, the width of the o is approximately five, and the height approximately four, times the width of the thick stroke.

Not only must the copier ascertain what the forms are like and what are their proportions, but he must try to find out how they were made. This is of the greatest importance, for the manner of making a letter, or even a single stroke, affects its form and character with a definite tendency (see p. 416 & fig. 172). And this becomes more marked the faster the writing. An apparently right form may yet be wrongly—if slowly—made; but in rapid writing, a wrong manner of handling the pen will inevitably produce wrong forms. As the real virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can write quickly, it is well worth training the hand from the beginning in the proper manner.

Patient and careful examination should be made of the changing pen-strokes, and of the mode in which they join—to form letters—and begin and end—to form “heads” and “feet.” This, accompanied [p085] by practical experiments in cutting and handling the pen, will bring out details of the utmost technical value. A certain amount of legitimate “faking” (p. 246), play of the pen, and sleight of hand (p. 311), may be found, but, in the main, the regular, natural, thick and thin strokes of the pen, and the orderly arrangement of the writing, give to a manuscript its beauty and character.

Then having cut the nib rightly, you may, in a sense, let the pen do the writing, while you merely follow the strokes of the model, and you will, in course of time, have the pleasure of seeing the same beautiful writing—in the very manner of the ancient scribes—growing under your own hand.

CHAPTER V ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) — Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing & Planning Manuscript.

PRACTICE

In acquiring a formal writing the penman should have two paper books constantly in hand: one for the study of the forms of letters, the other for both the letters and their arrangement. The first should contain large and very carefully made writing—with perhaps only one word to the line; the second [p086] should have smaller and quicker writing, neatly arranged on the pages, with four or five words to the line. (See MS. Books, Chap. VI.)

A broad nib is used in preference to a narrow one, so that the characteristics of true pen-work are brought out and the faults made clear. A fine, light handwriting is often very pretty, but it is certain to mislead the novice in penmanship (see p. 324).

Having acquired a formal hand the penman may modify and alter it, taking care that the changes are compatible, and that they do not impair its legibility or beauty. Such letters as are obsolete he replaces by legible forms akin to them in feeling, and, the style of the selected type becoming very naturally and almost unconsciously modified by personal use, he at length attains an appropriate and modern Formal-Handwriting. The process of “forming” a hand requires time and practice: it resembles the passage of “Copy-book” into “Running” hand, familiar to us all (see p. 323).

SCRIPTS I. & II.

Having cut the nib of a reed or large quill to the exact width required for the thick stroke, copy the component strokes of the letter (Script I.), and [p087] immediately make the complete letter: go through the whole alphabet in this way several times (fig. 58). Next join the letters together (see p. 73) [p088] to form words—writing always between ruled lines (fig. 59 & p. 414).

Script II. is similarly practised: the letters are grouped (p. 82) to form words (fig. 60).

Next make a neat page of large writing, and, if possible, write such a page every day. The more definite and methodical practice is, the better. “Practising” anyhow, on scraps of paper, does more harm than good.

ARRANGING & RULING A SINGLE SHEET

The size of an inscription is commonly settled before the arrangement of the text is planned out, being determined by considerations of its future position and office, or by custom and use (see pp. 100–103 & 351). [p089]

The proportions of the writing, spacing, and margins will likewise properly settle themselves (see pp. 265, 103, 107), but where the size of the sheet only is fixed, we have, broadly speaking, to decide between “large” writing with “small” margins (fig. 61), and “small” writing with “large” margins (fig. 62).

Generally a compromise is arrived at and the proportions are more evenly balanced (fig. 63).

Ruling (see also pp. 258, 99).—The mode of ruling marginal lines and writing lines is shown in fig. 65. The ruling should be light, but firm and accurate. A fine pen, or hard pencil, or a blunt point may be used. Where the writing lines are double (as for round hands, p. 304), it is best to have a double ruling point (see fig. 77). Two hard pencils firmly [p090] lashed together make a convenient tool for large work: the distance between the points is easily adjusted by means of a small wedge.

PROBLEM I. (A SHEET OF PROSE)

To write out the Pater noster (50 words) in a formal round-hand (arranged in “mass” of equal lines) on a sheet of “foolscap” (i.e. 17 inches high and 1312 inches wide).

If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, a few words are written out in a script chosen to suit the subject, the space, &c., and these are measured to find the area which the whole text so written would occupy (fig. 64). The size of the script is then modified, if necessary, to suit the available area. [p091]

Frequently it is desirable first to determine the sizes of the margins. These depend on various considerations of the position and office of the MS., but more particularly on the size of the sheet and the character of its future environment14 (see p. 351).

The top and side margins may be of equal width—or the top may be a little less (see a, fig. 70). Ample space should be allowed for the foot margin, which is generally about twice the width of the top, but may vary in different cases, according as the text falls short of or encroaches upon it (see pp. 352, 342). For a plain foolscap sheet: sides (each) 212 inches, top (approx.) 2 inches, and foot (approx.) 4 inches, may be taken as suitable margins (fig. 65).

The width of the sheet (1312 inches) less the two side margins (212 inches each) gives the length of the writing lines (1312 – 5 = 812 inches). One or two such lines are written experimentally in a suitable script (say, 516 inch), and the average number of words per line (four) is found.

The number of words in the complete text (fifty) will determine the number of lines: an extra line or so may be allowed for safety (504 = 1212, say, thirteen). The spacing of these is calculated—

—and if the space is not sufficient, the writing is made a little smaller. If, on the other hand, the [p095] marginal depth left over were excessive, the writing might be made a little larger in order to fill up the space.

PROBLEM II. (A SHEET OF POETRY)

To write out “He that is down, needs fear no fall,” in a formal round-hand on a sheet of foolscap (i.e. 17 inches high × 1312 inches wide).

Here there are three verses of four lines each: these with two space lines, left between the verses, give a total of fourteen lines (fig. 67).

A poem has a given number of lines of various lengths, and only very strong reason or necessity can justify our altering its proper form (e.g. by breaking up the lines) in order to make a mass of equal lines. Such theoretical margins as are possible in the treatment of prose can therefore seldom be observed in writing out a poem, and, unless the height or the width of the sheet can be altered, there is apt to be an excess of margin in one or the other direction. When such excess margin is obviously unavoidable, no objection can be made to its appearance. Poetry may conveniently be treated as “fine writing” (see p. 263).

If the size of the writing be considered of the first importance, several of the longer lines (e.g. the first and the eleventh in the poem given) are written on a piece of paper in the size of writing preferred (say, 14 inch). By laying this paper on the given sheet, it is seen whether such lines would allow of sufficient side margins. (If they would not, the writing may be made smaller.)

The height of the writing (14 inch) must allow of the full number of lines (fourteen) being properly [p097] spaced on the sheet (17 inches) with sufficient head and foot margins. This is calculated—

—and if the space were not sufficient, the lines might be made a little closer, or the writing a little smaller (or, if necessary, the blank lines might be left out between the verses; p. 123).

The Sizes of the Margins.—It will be seen that the above method is primarily for settling a length of line which will allow of sufficient side margins. The process can be reversed; if necessary, the side margins are made of a given width, thus determining the exact length of the line, the size of writing which this line allows being found experimentally.

Note.—The extra long lines may slightly encroach on the right-hand margin: the effect of this is balanced by the falling short of other lines.

SPACING & PLANNING MANUSCRIPT

In penmanship great nicety of spacing and arrangement is possible. The ascending and descending strokes may be shortened or drawn out, the spaces between letters and words may be slightly increased or decreased, the lines may be written near or far apart, and the letters may be written with a broader or narrower nib.

Elaborate spacing and planning, however, should not be attempted at first, and straightforward, undesigned work is often the best. The student is apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft [p098] in order to ascertain how to space the matter. This is a mistake, because if written well, it is a waste of good writing on a mere draft; if written ill, it is bad practice. The briefer experiments and calculations are, the better, though the simplest problem always requires for its solution a calculation or process of guess and trial (such as suggested in the preceding pages). Practice will make people very good guessers, and the best work of all is done when the worker guesses rightly, and follows his guesses with the actual work, itself the trial and proof of accuracy.

CHAPTER VI MANUSCRIPT BOOKS16 MS. Books: Tools & Materials — Methods & Proportions — The Size & Shape of the Book — The Widths of the Margins — The Size of the Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General Remarks.

MS. BOOKS: TOOLS & MATERIALS

The making of manuscript books, based on a study of the early MSS., offers the best training to the scribe and illuminator in writing, lettering, rubricating, gilding, illuminating initials and borders, and miniature painting, and is the best means of mastering the foundations of Book Typography and Decoration.

Materials, &c. for MS. Books; Paper (see pp. 51, 103, 111, 317); Vellum and Parchment and Pounce [p099] (see pp. 110, 167, 173–5).—Cut a small sheet the size of a page of the book, and clip the long edge between two flat pieces of wood (holding it as it would be if bound). If the page will bend over and stay down by its own weight, it is thin enough (R fig. 68); if it stands up (W), it is too stiff.