Cutting Sheets.—A frame or template (the size of the sheet desired) is used by parchment makers. It is useful for cutting out the sheets for a common size of parchment book. They are cut on the end-grain of wood, or on card or glass.
Folding.—A Folder, as used by bookbinders (or a bone paper-knife), is useful, and also a Set or T-Square for testing right angles, &c. The fold and the top edge of each book-sheet are commonly squared by proper folding.
Ruling, &c. (see p. 343).—For marking distances of lines, a carefully prepared paper17 scale or pattern (p. 25) and an awl (p. 109), or a [p100] “star-wheel”—having regular intervals between the spikes—may be used. Or the ruling—of the writing lines—may be simplified by using a stout card frame (internally the size of the text-column) with strips glued across it: for a common size of book this might be made in stout tin or other metal. The lines are commonly ruled with a ruling stylus (see figs. 72, 77), or a sort of “rake” may be made to rule six lines at once.
Writing, Colouring, Gilding, Binding (Chaps. II., X., IX., XVI.).
METHODS & PROPORTIONS
Having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose, the scribe formulates in his mind a general plan of the work, and decides approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem most suitable.
He endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use, and therefore allows the (most suitable) material, the subject-matter and the office of the book, and the way in which it will be read and handled, to determine as far as is possible the proportions of its parts, and its treatment as a whole.
Its material may be vellum, parchment, or paper, on which a variety of pens, brushes, and other tools, with inks, colours, and metal foils, may be employed. Its office may be “useful” or “ornamental”; its contents may be long or short, weighty or light, and of greater or less worth; it may be for public or for private use; and the book may be intended to be placed on a lectern, to be held in the hand, or to be carried in a coat pocket.
In following out such natural indications, the [p101] practised craftsman relies greatly on his working methods, preferring a direct mode of treatment to one which is too ingenious or subtle. In deciding a doubtful point, a common-sense of proportion is a sufficient guide, and one may generally assume that great works are best “writ large,” and that large letters look best on an ample page, and vice versâ.
The main proportions which have to be considered are interdependent, and follow one another in their natural order (see p. 256), thus—
- 1. The size and shape of the book.
- 2. The widths of the margins.
- 3. The size of the writing, &c.
And the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and regular sizes, each size having corresponding and regular proportions of margins and writing. Though these may greatly depend on individual taste and experience, it is suggested that—like all good designs—they should be allowed as far as possible to settle and arrange themselves.
THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK
A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book, and the width and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its convenient shape and pleasant appearance when open. The most economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of paper can be folded (or a skin of parchment can be cut) may commonly be allowed to decide these proportions.
When a printer is about to print a book he chooses a sheet of paper which will fold into a suitable shape and size. If the sheet be folded [p102] once to form two leaves, the book is called a folio (fig. 69); folded again to form a “section” of four leaves—a quarto (4to); or folded a third time to form a section of eight leaves—an octavo (8vo).18 [p103] The book is made up of a number of sections sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347).
The penman will find that, besides saving time and labour, it conduces to good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for “large,” “medium,” and “small” books; and, if the ordinary sheets of paper which he uses will fold in convenient folio, quarto, and octavo sizes, it is well that he make these his standards for paper books.
Paper being made in sheets of various dimensions, by folding a large or a small sheet, a “large” or “small” folio—4to, 8vo—can be obtained.
It may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper19 are very commonly about as 9 is to 7. And therefore, when the sheet is folded for folio or octavo, the proportions are roughly about 7: 412, which are very good proportions for a page of a book. It is obvious that a narrow (“upright”) book is easier to handle and more pleasant in appearance (when open) than an album or “oblong” shape of book (b and c, fig. 70).
THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS
Margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text: thus they contribute to its legibility and beauty. It is better that they be wide rather than narrow (see p. 106, & Note, p. 265); but excessively wide margins are often neither convenient nor pleasing (see p. 222).
The “page” or column of text should be in such proportion to the page of the book, and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate [p104] margins on every side. A narrow column of text is generally best, for short lines are easiest to write and to read, and do not tire the hand, or the eye, in passing from one line to the next. For this reason the text is often divided into two or more columns when the page is wide, or the writing is very small in comparison.
The exact proportion of margin to text in a given page depends on circumstances, and is largely a matter of taste (ex. fig. 71 & note 2, b, p. 256). But just as it is advantageous generally to keep to certain [p106] sizes of pages, it is well to keep to certain—corresponding—sizes of margins for regular use.
Fig. 71.—Diagram showing the ruling of a (Recto) page 434 inches × 714 inches as for a manuscript book (allowing five or six words to the Writing-line). There are fifteen Writing-lines, the Line-space being 516 inch.
The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are set by the Line-space (footnote, p. 221).
The Foot margin is 178 inch.
Inner margin 58 inch. Side margin 114 inch. Top margin approximately 78 inch (measured to the top of the writing on the first line—see also fig. 65).
The proportions of the margins to each other follow a sort of tradition (see fig. 70), the foot margin (4) usually being twice as wide as that at the top (2), the side margins generally greater than the top and less than the foot. The two pages of an opening may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of text; and the two inner margins, which combine to form an interspace, are therefore made narrow (about 112 each), so that together they are about equal to one side margin (fig. 70). These proportions (112 : 2 : 3 : 4) approximate to the proportions common in early MSS.
Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness and beauty of a book. That the writers and illuminators used them when books were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now, shows that such things are not, as some might suppose, a matter of affectation. Besides the natural fitness of the common proportions commends them: a deep foot margin is a foundation to the whole, and gives a spare piece for the reader to hold,20 and wide side margins rest the eyes and keep the text from “running off the page” at the end of each line; and (the two) narrow inner margins combine to separate the pages sufficiently, but not too far, so that they form two “columns” together, framed by the outer margins of the open book.
When books are meant to be bound, from 116 inch to 18 inch extra margin should be allowed all round the page for the cutting down and binding. The [p107] binding is apt to encroach on the inner margins, especially in vellum books, which do not open fully; in order, therefore, that the inner margins may keep their proper width, an extra width of 18 to 14 inch (according to the stiffness of the material) is allowed.
THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C.
The shape, size, and margins of the page (already settled) together determine the length of the writing-line (see fig. 71); and the size of the writing should be such as will allow a reasonable number of words to that line.21
Eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary printed books, and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary maximum. Lines having very many words are difficult to read.
On the other hand, lines of only two or three words each are generally tiresome, though they may be allowed in special cases of fine writing (see p. 262), where it is less necessary to economise space or time, and the effect of an even mass is not desired. But in any case where there is an attempt to make the right-hand edge of the text approximately even, at least four or five words to the line are necessary; the scribe may therefore take four words per line as his ordinary minimum.
We may say generally, then, that an ordinary manuscript book should contain between four and eight words (or between 25 and 50 letter-spaces) to the line. [p108]
The exact size of the writing allowed in a given case may be found by a process of guess and trial, but this is seldom necessary for the practical scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions.
The line spacing.—The size of the letter determines approximately the distance apart of the writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much depends on whether the ascending and descending letters are long or short (see fig. 154).
The number of writing-lines to the page equals the number of times that the line-space is contained in the text-column (i.e. the height of the page less the top and foot margins)—allowing for the top line not requiring a full space (see fig. 71). Any fractional space left over may be added to the foot margin, or, if nearly equal to one line-space, a little may be taken from the margins to complete it.
The Large Capitals are commonly one, two, or more of the line-spaces in height (fig. 71, & p. 128).
RULING
Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small (book) sheets of the size determined on, take one of these as a pattern and rule it throughout as if it were to be used in the book.
The ruling stylus has a blunt point, which indents the paper, but does not scratch it. A stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a piece of wood does very well (fig. 72). [p109]
Under the writing paper there should be a “pad” of ordinary paper (or blotting paper).
The marginal lines are ruled from head to foot of each leaf (a, fig. 73). Besides being a guide for the writing, they give an appearance of straightness and strength to the written page.22
The writing lines are ruled across, between the marginal lines, their places having been indicated by equidistant dots (b, fig. 73).
A dozen or more of the small sheets of the book are piled together on a board with their top edges exactly coinciding, and the pattern sheet is accurately placed on the top of the pile. The pile of sheets may be fixed by a narrow piece of wood placed across and screwed down (fig. 74). (See Addenda, p. 25.)
The writing line dots are [p110] pricked through all the sheets by means of a fine awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75).
The writing lines are ruled as in fig. 76 (sometimes across the narrow inner margins).
MS. BOOKS—GENERAL REMARKS
Sections (p. 102).—A section, or “gathering,” commonly consists of four book-sheets, folded in half into eight leaves (i.e. sixteen pages), but three or even two sheets are sufficient when they are extra thick, and five or six may be used when extra thin. Parchment sheets should have their smooth sides so placed together that each “opening” of the book has both its pages rough or both smooth and the pages are pounced after they are ruled (see p. 174).
Before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered on the inner marginal line, [p111] about 12 inch or so below the footline. This will prevent mistakes.
Fly-leaves.—One or more leaves of the first and last sections in a book are left blank (besides the extra sheet or section (p. 346) which is used in the binding—attached to the cover). A book of any size or importance ought to have at least three fly-leaves at the beginning, and three or four at the end. These extra leaves protect the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute margins for the whole body of the text. They may also be used to make thin books thicker, for the sake of the binding. At the end of Service books, or other books likely to be of permanent interest, additional fly-leaves should be provided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346).
Rough or Smooth Edges.—The rough “Deckle” edges of hand-made paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness, and should be trimmed off after folding, though they may be left in the case of very thin books. The deckle edge should not occur at the top of the page, as it would there be a trap for dust, and because it is important that the tops of pages should all be level. The top edge or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep out the dust—this is called “Library gilt.” It is more suitable, however, that all the edges be gilt.
The Top Margins throughout the book are kept quite level. Any irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once, while slight differences at the side, or considerable differences at the foot, may occur without spoiling the appearance of the margins. All measurements for marginal and writing lines, &c., are therefore made from the [p112] fold of the book-sheet and from the top edge, which is cut at right angles to the fold.
Regular Writing.—In writing one page it is a good plan to have its fellow page, or a similarly written one, fixed on the desk beside it as a pattern. This will save the beginner from a very common error—writing larger or smaller (which of course spoils the look of the pages).
Initial Page.—The text of a book commonly begins on a recto, or right hand, page (see p. 365).
CHAPTER VII VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on Construction of Versals — Spacing & Arrangement of Versals.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS
The earliest books consisted of a number of lines of continuous writing in capital letters. There were seldom any divisions of the text—into paragraphs, chapters, or the like—or even of one word from another; nor were important words distinguished by larger initials. The first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the text and a mark; later, the first letter of the first complete line of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger. When “small-letters” were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the body of the text, and became distinguishing letters for headings and important words. [p113]
The capitals written at the beginnings of books, chapters, and paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at length were made in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were called “Versals.”23
In modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph is generally indented (a, fig. 78), but the earlier method of employing a special mark or letter (b or c) is more effective, and it might very well be used, even in modern printed books, for fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for illumination and book-ornament, it was (and is) the natural method for the penman, who, starting with these useful capitals, by flourishing them—in their [p114] own colour, or by dotting, outlining, or ornamenting them, with a contrasting colour (see fig. 79, from an old MS.), evolved the Illuminated Initial.
Types of Versal Letters (examples: Plates IX., X., XI., XII., and fig. 1, 78 to 94, 150, 161, 165, 166, 189).—The earlier Versals had very simple and beautiful pen shapes, and are the best models for the modern penman to follow. After the fourteenth century they were often fattened and vulgarised and overdone with ornament. In this way they not only lost their typical forms; but their “essential forms”—as letters derived from the Roman Alphabet—became much disguised and confounded (see fig. 128).