Footnote 1:
  Persons who wish to become well acquainted with the principles of
English Grammar
by an easy process, are recommended to procure "The Useful Grammar," price 3d., published by Houlston and Sons.

return to footnote mark


Some Female Spiders Produce 2,000 Eggs.


182.  Pronunciation


Accent is a particular stress or force of the voice upon certain syllables or words. This mark ' in printing denotes the syllable upon which the stress or force of the voice should he placed.

There are 9,000 Cells in a Square Foot of Honeycomb.


183.  A Word may have more than One Accent.


Take as an instance aspiration. In uttering this word we give a marked emphasis of the voice upon the first and third syllables, and therefore those syllables are said to be accented. The first of these accents is less distinguishable than the second, upon which we dwell longer, therefore the second accent in point of order is called the primary, or chief accent of the word.

A Cow Consumes 100 lbs. of Green Food Daily.


184.  When the full Accent falls on a Vowel


that vowel should have a long sound, as in
vo'cal;
but when it, falls on or after a consonant, the preceding vowel has a short sound, as in
hab'it
.

2,300 Silkworms Produce 1lb of Silk.


185.  To obtain a Good Knowledge of Pronunciation


it is advisable for the reader to listen to the examples given by good speakers, and by educated persons. We learn the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by
imitation
, just as birds acquire the notes of other birds which may be near them.

A Queen Bee Produces 100,000 Eggs in a Season.


186.  Double Meaning


But it will be very important to bear in mind that there are many words having a double meaning or application, and that the difference of meaning is indicated by the difference of the accent. Among these words,
nouns
are distinguished from
verbs
by this means:
nouns
are mostly accented on the first syllable, and
verbs
on the last.

A Cow Yields 168 lbs. of Butter per Annum.


187.  Noun signifies Name


Nouns
are the names of persons and things, as well as of things not material and palpable, but of which we have a conception and knowledge, such as
courage
,
firmness
,
goodness
,
strength
; and
verbs
express
actions, movements,
&c If the word used signifies that anything has been done, or is being done, or is, or is to be done, then that word is a
verb
.

It would Take 27,600 Spiders to Produce 1 lb. of Web


188.  Examples of the above.


Thus when we say that anything is "an
in
'sult," that word is a
noun
, and is accented on the first syllable; but when we say he did it "to in
sult
sult' another person," the word in
sult
' implies
acting
, and becomes a verb, and should be accented on the last syllable. The effect is, that, in speaking, you should employ a different pronunciation in the use of the same word, when uttering such sentences as these:—"What an
in
'sult!" "Do you mean to in
sult
' me?" In the first sentence the stress of voice must be laid upon the first syllable,
in'
, and in the latter case upon the second syllable,
sult'
.


189.  Meaning varied by Accentuation.


A list of nearly all the words that are liable to this variation is given in the following page. It will be noticed that those in the first column, having the accent on the first syllable, are mostly nouns; and that those in the second column, which have the accent on the second and final syllable, are mostly verbs:


noun verb noun verb noun verb
abject abject contrast contrast inlay inlay
absent absent converse converse inlay inlay
abstract abstract convert convert object object
accent accent convict convict outleap outleap
afsix affix convoy convoy perfect perfect
aspect aspect decrease decrease perfume perfume
attribute attribute descant descant permit permit
augment augment desert desert prefix prefix
august august detail detail premise premise
bombard bombard digest digest presage presage
colleague colleague discord discord present present
collect collect discount discount produce produce
comment comment efflux efflux project project
compact compact escort escort protest protest
complot complot essay essay rebel rebel
comport comport exile exile record record
compound compound export export refuse refuse
compresss compress extract extract retail retail
concert concert ferment ferment subject subject
concrete concrete forecast forecast supine supine
conduct conduct foretaste foretaste survey survey
confine confine frequent frequent torment torment
conflict conflict impart impart traject traject
conserve conserve import import transfer transfer
consort consort impress impress transport transport
contest contest imprint imprint undress undress
context context incense incense upcast upcast
contract contract increase increase upstart upstart


190.  Exceptions


Ce
ment
is an Exception to the above rule, and should always be accented on the last syllable. So also the word Con
sols
.


191.  Hints to "Cockney Speakers."


The most objectionable error of the Cockney, that of substituting the
v
for the
w
, and
vice versâ
, is, we believe, pretty generally abandoned. Such sentences as "Are you going to Vest Vickkam?" "This is wery good weal," &c, were too intolerable to be retained. Moreover, there has been a very able schoolmaster at work during the past forty years. This schoolmaster is no other than the loquacious Mr.
Punch
, from whose works we quote a few admirable exercises:

  1. Low Cockney.—"Seen that party lately?" "What! the party with the wooden leg, as come with—" "No, no—not that party. The party, you know, as—" "Oh! ah! I know the party you mean, now." "Well, a party told me as he can't agree with that other party, and he says that if another party can't be found to make it all square, he shall look out for a party as will."—(And so on for half an hour.)
  1. Police.—"Lor, Soosan, how's a feller to eat meat such weather as this! Now, a bit o' pickled salmon and cowcumber, or a lobster salid, might do."
  1. Cockney Yachtsman.—(Example of affectation.) Scene: the Regatta Ball.—"I say, Tom, what's that little craft with the black velvet flying at the fore, close under the lee scuppers of the man-of-war?" "Why, from her fore-and-aft rig, and the cut of her mainsail, I should say she's down from the port of London; but I'll signal the commodore to come and introduce us!"
  1. Omnibus Driver.—Old acquaintance. "'Ave a drop, Bill?" Driver. "Why, yer see, Jim, this 'ere young hoss has only been in 'arness once afore, and he's such a beggar to bolt, ten to one if I leave 'im he'll be a-runnin' hoff, and a smashin' into suthun. Howsoever—here—(handing reins to a timid passenger)—lay hold, sir, I'll Chance It!"
  1. Costermonger (to extremely genteel person).—"I say, guv'ner, give us a hist with this 'ere bilin' o' greens!' (A large hamper of market stuff.)
  1. Genteel Cockney (by the seaside).—Blanche. "How grand, how solemn, dear Frederick, this is! I really think the ocean is more beautiful under this aspect than under any other!" Frederick.—"H'm—ah! Per-waps. By the way, Blanche, there's a fella shwimping. S'pose we ask him if he can get us some pwawns for breakfast to-mowaw mawning?"
  1. Stuck-up Cockney.—(Small Swell enters a tailor's shop.) "A—Brown, A—want some more coats!" Snip. "Yes, sir. Thank you, sir. How many would you please to want?" Small Swell. "A—let me see; A—ll have eight. A—no, I'll have nine; and look here! A—shall want some trousers." Snip. "Yes, sir, thank you, sir. How many would you like?" Small Swell.—"A— don't know exactly. S'pose we say twenty-four pairs; and look here! Show me some patterns that won't be worn by any snobs!"
  1. Cockney Flunkey,—(Country Footman meekly inquires of London Footman)—"Pray, sir, what do you think of our town? A nice place, ain't it" London Footman (condescendingly). "Vell, Joseph, I likes your town well enough. It's clean: your streets are hairy; and you have lots of rewins. But I don't like your champagne, it's all gewsberry!"
  1. Cockney Cabby (with politeness). — "Beg pardon, sir; please don't smoke in the keb. sir; ladies do complain o' the 'bacca uncommon. Better let me smoke it for yer outside, sir!"
  1. Military Cockney.—Lieutenant Blazer (of the Plungers).—"Gwood wacious! Here's a howible go! The ifan [?word illegible] v's going to gwow a moustache! Cornet Huffey (whose face is whiskerless). "Yaw don't mean that! Wall! there's only one alternative for us. We must shave!"
  1. Juvenile Low Cockney.—"Jack; Whereabouts is Amstid-am?" Jack. "Well, I can't say exackerley, but I know it's somewhere near "Ampstid-'eath!"
  1. Cockney Domestic.—Servant girl—" Well, mam—Heverythink considered, I'm afraid you won't suit me. I've always bin brought up genteel: and I couldn't go nowheres where there ain't no footman kep'."
  1. Another.—Lady. "Wish to leave! why, I thought, Thompson, you were very comfortable with me!" Thompson (who is extremely refined). "Ho yes, mum! I don't find no fault with you, mum—nor yet with master—but the truth his, mum—the hother servants is so orrid vulgar and hignorant, and speaks so hungrammaticai, that I reely cannot live in the same 'ouse with 'em—and I should like to go this day month, if so be has it won't illconvenience you!"
  1. Cockney Waiter.—"'Am, sir? Yessir? Don't take anything with your 'am, do you, sir?" Gentleman. "Yes, I do; I take the letter H!"
  1. Cockney Hairdresser.—"They say, sir, the cholera is in the Hair, sir!" Gent (very uneasy). "Indeed! Ahem! Then I hope you're very particular about the brushes you use." Hairdresser. "Oh, I see you don't nunderstand me, sir; I don't mean the 'air of the 'ed, but the hair hof the hatmosphere?"
  1. Cockney Sweep (seated upon a donkey).—"Fitch us out another penn'orth o' strawberry hice, with a dollop o' lemon water in it."
  1. Feminine Cookney (by the sea-side.)—"Oh, Harriet, dear, put on your hat and let us thee the stheamboat come in. The thea is tho rough!—and the people will be tho abthurdly thick!"


Alum First Discovered A.D. 1300.


192.  Correction


Londoners who desire to correct the defects of their utterance cannot do better than to exercise themselves frequently upon those words respecting which they have been in error.


193.  Hints for the Correction of the Irish Brogue


According to the directions given by Mr. B. H. Smart, an Irishman wishing to throw off the brogue of his mother country should avoid hurling out his words with a superfluous quantity of breath. It is not
broadher
and
widher
that he should say, but the
d
, and every other consonant, should be neatly delivered by the tongue, with as little riot, clattering, or breathing as possible. Next let him drop the roughness or rolling of the
r
in all places but the beginning of syllables; he must not say
stor-rum
and
far-rum
, but let the word be heard in one smooth syllable. He should exercise himself until he can convert
plaze
into
please
,
planty
into
plenty
,
Jasus
into
Jesus
, and so on. He should modulate his sentences, so as to avoid directing his accent all in one manner—from the acute to the grave. Keeping his ear on the watch for good examples, and exercising himself frequently upon them, he may become master of a greatly improved utterance.

Tea First Used In England A. D. 1698.


194.  Hints for Correcting the Scotch Brogue.


The same authority remarks that as an Irishman uses the closing accent of the voice too much, so a Scotchman has the contrary habit, and is continually drawling his tones from the grave to the acute, with an effect which, to southern ears, is suspensive in character. The smooth guttural
r
is as little heard in Scotland as in Ireland, the trilled
r
taking its place. The substitution of the former instead of the latter must be a matter of practice. The peculiar sound of the
u
, which in the north so of ten borders on the French
u
, must be compared with the several sounds of the letter as they are heard in the south; and the long quality which a Scotchman is apt to give to the vowels that ought to be essentially short, must he clipped. In fact, aural observation and lingual exercise are the only sure means to the end; so that a Scotchman going to a well for a bucket of water, and finding a countryman bathing therein, would not exclaim, "Hey, Colin, dinna ye ken the water's for drink, and nae for bathin'?"


195.  Of Provincial Brogues


it is scarcely necessary to say much, as the foregoing advice applies to them. One militiaman exclaimed to another, "Jim, you hain't in step" "Bain't I?" exclaimed the other; "well, change yourn!" Whoever desires knowledge must strive for it. It must not be dispensed with after the fashion of Tummus and Jim, who held the following dialogue upon a vital question:—
Tummus
. "I zay, Jim, be you a purtectionist?"
Jim
. "E'as I be."
Tummus
. "Wall, I zay, Jim, what
be
purtection?"
Jim
. " Loa'r, Tummus, doan't 'ee knaw? "
Tummus
. "Naw, I doan't."
Jim
. "Wall, I doan't knaw as can tell 'ee, Tummus,
vur I doan't exakerly knaw mysel'!
"


196.  Rules of Pronunciation.


  1. C before a, o, and u, and in some other situations, is a close articulation, like k. Before e, i, and y, c is precisely equivalent to s in same, this; as in cedar, civil, cypress, capacity.
  1. E final indicates that the preceding vowel is long; as in hate, mete, sire, robe, lyre, abate, recede, invite, remote, intrude.
  1. E final indicates that c preceding has the sound of s; as in lace, lance; and that g preceding has the sound of j, as in charge, page, challenge.
  1. E final, in proper English words, never forms a syllable, and in the most-used words, in the terminating unaccented syllable it is silent. Thus, motive, genuine, examine, granite, are pronounced motiv, genuin, examin, granit.
  1. E final, in a few words of foreign origin, forms a syllable; as syncope, simile.
  1. E final is silent after l in the following terminations,—ble, cle, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, tle, zle; as in able, manacle, cradle, ruffle, mangle, wrinkle, supple, rattle, puzzle, which are pronounced a'bl, mana'cl, cra'dl, ruf'fl man'gl, wrin'kl, sup'pl, puz'zl.
  1. E is usually silent in the termination en; as in token, broken; pronounced tokn, brokn.
  1. ous, in the termination of adjectives and their derivatives, is pronounced us; as in gracious, pious, pompously.
  1. ce, ci, ti before a vowel, have the sound of sh; as in cetaceous, gracious, motion, partial, ingratiate; pronounced cetashus, grashus, moshun, parshal, ingrashiate.
  1. si, after an accented vowel, is pronounced like zh; as in Ephesian, confusion; pronounced Ephezhan, confuzhon
  1. When ci or ti precede similar combinations, as in pronunciation, negotiation, they should be pronounced ze instead of she, to prevent a repetition of the latter syllable; as pronunceashon instead of pronunsheashon.
  1. gh, both in the middle and at the end of words ia silent; as in caught, bought, fright, nigh, sigh; pronounced caut, baut, frite, ni, si. In the following exceptions, however, gh are pronounced as f:—cough, chough, clough, enough, laugh, rough, slough, tough, trough.
  1. When wh begins a word, the aspirate h precedes w in pronunciation; as in what, whiff, whale; pronounced hwat, hwiff, hwale, w having precisely the sound of oo, French ou. In the following words w is silent:—who, whom, whose, whoop, whole.
  1. h after r has no sound or use; as in rheum, rhyme; pronounced reum, ryme.
  1. h should be sounded in the middle of words; as in forehead, abhor, behold, exhaust, inhabit, unhorse.
  1. H should always be sounded except in the following words:—heir, herb, honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humour, and humble, and all their derivatives,—such as humorously, derived from humour.
  1. k and g are silent before n; as know, gnaw; pronounced no, naw.
  1. w before r is silent; as in wring, wreath; pronounced ring, reath.
  1. b after m is silent; as in dumb, numb; pronounced dum, num.
  1. L before k is silent; as in balk, walk, talk; pronounced bauk, wauk, tauk.
  1. ph has the sound of f; as in philosophy; pronounced filosofy.
  1. ng has two sounds, one as in anger, the other as in fin-ger.
  1. nafter m, and closing a syllable, is silent; as in hymn, condemn.
  1. pbefore s and t is mute; as in psalm, pseudo, ptarmigan; pronounced sarm, sudo, tarmigan.
  1. r has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the beginning of words and syllables, such as robber, reckon, error; the other as at the terminations of words, or when succeeded by a consonant, as farmer, morn.
  1. Before the letter r, there is a slight sound of e between the vowel and the consonant. Thus, bare, parent, apparent, mere, mire, more, pure, pyre, are pronounced nearly baer, paerent, appaerent, me-er,mier, moer,puer, pyer. This pronunciation proceeds from the peculiar articulation of r, and it occasions a slight change of the sound of a, which can only be learned by the ear.
  1. There are other rules of pronunciation affecting the combinations of vowels, &c; but as they are more difficult to describe, and as they do not relate to errors which are commonly prevalent, we shall content ourselves with giving examples of them in the following list of words. When, a syllable in any word in this list is printed in bold, the accent or stress of voice should be laid on that syllable.

Auctions Commenced in Britain in A.D. 1779.


197.  Proper Pronunciations of Words often Wrongly Pronounced.


Again usually pronounced a-gen, not as spelled.
Alien á-li-en not ale-yen.
Antipodes an-tip-o-dees.
Apostle as a-pos'l, without the t.
Arch- artch in compounds of our own language, as in archbishop, archduke; but ark in words derived from the Greek, as archaic, ar-ka-ik; archaeology, ar-ke-ol-o-gy; archangel, ark-ain-gel; archetype, ar-ke-type; archiepiscopal, ar-ke-e-pis-co-pal; archipelago, ar-ke-pel-a-go; ar-chives, ar-kivz, &c
Asia a-sha.
Asparagus as spelled, not asparagrass.
Aunt ant, not aunt.
Awkward awk-wurd, not awk-urd.
Bade bad
Because be-cawz, not ba-cos
Been bin
Beloved as a verb, be-luvd; as an adjective, be-luv-ed. Blessed, cursed, &c, are subject to the same rule.
Beneath with the th in breath, not with the th in breathe.
Bio'graphy as spelled, not beography.
Buoy boy, not bwoy.
Canal' as spelled, not ca-nel.
Caprice capreece
Catch as spelled, not ketch.
Chaos ka-oss.
Charlatan shar-latan.
Chasm kazm
Chasten chasn
Chivalry shiv-alry.
Chemistry kem'-is-tre, not kim-is-tre.
Choir kwire
Clerk klark
Combat kum-bat.
Conduit kun-dit.
Corps kor: the plural corps is pronounced korz.
Covetous cuv-e-tus, not cov-e-tus.
Courteous curt-yus.
Courtesy 1. (politeness), cur-te-sey.
2. (a lowering of the body), curt-sey.
Cresses as spelled, not cree-ses.
Cu'riosity cu-re-os-e-ty, not curosity.
Cushion coosh-un, not coosh-in.
Daunt dawnt, not dant or darnt, as some erroneously pronounce it.
Design and Desist have the sound of s, not of z.
Desire should have the sound of z.
Despatch de-spatch, not dis-patch.
Dew due, not doo.
Diamond as spelled, not dimond.
Diploma de-plo-ma, not dip-lo-ma.
Diplomacy de-plo-ma-cy, not dip-lo-ma-cy.
Direct de-reckt, not di-rect.
Divers (several), di-verz; but diverse (different), di-verse.
Dome as spelled, not doom.
Drought drowt, not drawt.
Duke as spelled, not dook.
Dynasty dyn-as-te, not dy-nas-ty.
Edict e-dickt, not ed-ickt.
E'en and e'er een and air.
Egotism eg-o-tizm, not e-go-tism.
Either e-ther or i-ther.
Engine en-jin, not in-jin.
Ensign en-sign; ensigncy, en-sin-se.
Epistle without the t.
Epitome e-pit-o-me
Epoch e-pock, not ep-ock.
Equinox e-qui-nox, not eck-wi-nox.
Europe U-rope, not U-rup. Euro-pean not Eu-ro-pean.
Every ev-er-y, not ev-ry.
Executor egz-ec-utor, not with the sound of x.
Extraordinary as spelled, not ex-tror—di-ner-i, or ex-traordinary, nor extrornarey
February as spelled, not Febuary.
Finance fe-nance, not finance.
Foundling as spelled, not fond-ling.
Garden gar-dn, not gar-den, nor gard-ing.
Gauntlet gawnt-let, not gant-let.
Geography as spelled, not jography, or gehography.
Geometry as spelled, not jom-etry.
Haunt hawnt, not hant.
Height hite, not highth.
Heinous hay-nuss, not hee-nus.
Highland hi-land, not hee-land.
Horizon ho-ri-zn, not hor-i-zon.
Housewife pronounced in the ordinary way when it means the mistress of a house who is a good manager, but huz-wif, when it means a small case for needles.
Hymeneal hy-men-e-al, not hy-menal.
Instead in-sted, not instid.
Isolate i-so-late; not iz-o-late, nor is-olate.
Jalap jal-ap, not jolup.
January as spelled, not Jenuary nor Janewary.
Leave as spelled, not leaf.
Legend lej-end, not le-gend.
Lieutenant lef-ten-ant, not leu-ten-ant.
Many men-ney, not man-ny.
Marchioness mar-shun-ess, not as spelled.
Massacre mas-sa-ker, not mas-sa-cre.
Mattress as spelled, not mat-trass.
Matron ma-trun, not mat-ron.
Medicine med-e-cin, not med-cin.
Minute 1.   (sixty seconds), min-it.
2.   (small), mi-nute.
Miscellany mis-cel-lany, not mis-cellany.
Mischievous mis-chiv-us, not mis-cheev-us.
Ne'er for never, nare.
Neighbourhood nay-bur-hood, not nay-burwood.
Nephew nev-u, not nefu.
New nu, not noo.
Notable (worthy of notice), no-tu-bl.
Obilge as spelled, not obleege.
Oblique ob-leek, not o-blike.
Odorous o-der-us, not od-ur-us.
Of ov, except when compounded with the here, and where, which should be pronounced here-of, there-of, and where-of.
Off as spelt, not awf.
Organization or-gan-i-za-shun, not or-ga-ne-za-shun.
Ostrich os-tr'ch, not os-tridge.
Pageant paj-ent, not pa-jant.
Parent pare-ent, not par-ent.
Partisan par-te-zan, not par-te-zan, nor par—ti-zan.
Patent pa-tent, not pat-ent.
Physiognomy as fiz-i-ognomy, not phy-sionnomy.
Pincers pin-cerz, not pinch-erz.
Plaintiff as spelled, not plan-tiff.
Pour pore, not so as to rhyme with our.
Precedent (an example), pres-e-dent; pre-ce-dent (going before in point of time, previous, former), is the pronunciation of the adjective.
Prologue pro-log, not prol-og.
Quadrille ka-dril, not quod-ril.
Quay key, not as spelled.
Radish as spelled, not red-ish.
Raillery rail'-er-y, or ral-er y, not as spelled.
Rather rar-ther, not ray-ther.
Resort re-sort.
Resound re-zound.
Respite res-pit, not as spelled.
Rout (a party; and to rout), should be pronounced rowt.
Route (a road), root.
Saunter saun-ter, not sarn-ter or san-ter.
Sausage saw-sage not sos-sidge, nor sassage.
Schedule shed-ule, not shed-dle.
Seamstress is pronounced seem-stress, but semp-stress, as the word is now commonly spelt, is pronounced sem-stress.
Sewer soo-er or su-er, not shore, nor shure.
Shire as spelled, when uttered as a single word, but shortened into shir in composition.
Shone shon, not shun, nor as spelled.
Soldier sole-jer.
Solecism sol-e-cizm, not sole-cizm.
Soot as spelled, not sut.
Sovereign sov-er-in, not suv-er-in.
Specious spe-shus, not spesh-us.
Stomacher stum-a-cher.
Stone (weight), as spelled, not stun.
Synod sin-od, not sy-nod.
Tenure ten-ure, not te-nure.
Tenet ten-et, not te-net.
Than as spelled, not thun.
Tremor trem-ur, not tre-mor.
Twelfth should have the th sounded.
Umbrella as spelled, not um-ber-el-la.
Vase vaiz or varz, not vawze.
Was woz, not wuz.
Weary weer-i, not wary.
Were wer, not ware.
Wont wunt, not as spelled.
Wrath rawth, not rath: as an adjective it is spelled wroth, and pronounced with the vowel sound shorter, as wrath-ful, &c
Yacht yot, not yat.
Yeast as spelled, not yest.
Zenith zen-ith, not ze-nith.
Zodiac zo-de-ak.
Zoology should have both o's sounded,as zo-ol-o-gy, not zoo-lo-gy.