Imaginary Conversations, a remarkable work by Landor, in 6 vols., much appreciated by many.

Imagination, the name appropriate to the highest faculty of man, and defined by Ruskin as "mental creation," in the exercise of which the human being discharges his highest function as a responsible being, "the defect of which on common minds it is the main use," says Ruskin, "of works of fiction, and of the drama, as far as possible, to supply."

Imâm is the title of the officer who leads the devotions in Mohammedan mosques, and in Turkey conducts marriage and funeral services, as well as performs the ceremonies connected with circumcision; the office was filled and the title borne by Mahomet, hence it sometimes signifies head of the faith, and is so applied to the Sultan of Turkey; good Mohammedans believe in the future advent of an Imâm—the hidden Imâm—who shall be greater than the Prophet himself.

Imaus, a name the ancients gave to any large mountain chain in Asia, more particularly one bordering on India, or looking down upon it, as the home of the Aryans.

Imitation of Christ, a book of pious reflections, unique in its kind, and much esteemed by piously thoughtful people; ascribed to Thomas à Kempis (q. v.).

Immaculate Conception, the doctrine held by the Roman Catholic Church that the Virgin Mary was conceived and born without taint of sin; first distinctly propounded in the 12th century, at which time a festival was introduced in celebration of it, and which became matter of dispute in the 14th century, and it was only in 1854 that it became by a bull an article of the Catholic faith.

Immanence, the idea that the creative intelligence which made, with the regulative intelligence which governs, the universe, is inherent in it and pervades it.

Immensities, Centre of, an expression of Carlyle's to signify that wherever any one is, he is in touch with the whole universe of being, and is, if he knew it, as near the heart of it there as anywhere else he can be.

Immensity, The Temple of, the universe as felt to be in every corner of it a temple consecrated to worship in with wonder and awe.

Immermann, Karl Leberecht, German novelist and dramatist, born at Magdeburg; fought at Waterloo; entered the public service of Prussia and obtained an appointment at Düsseldorf, where he died; his fame rests upon his miscellaneous tales and satirical novels, such as "Münchausen"; his dramas consisted of both tragedies and comedies (1796-1840).

Immortality, the doctrine of the continued existence of the soul of each individual after death, a doctrine the belief of which is, in one form or another, common to most religious systems; even to those which contemplate absorption in the Deity as the final goal of existence, as is evident from the prevalence in them of the doctrine of transmigration or reincarnation.

Immortals, a regiment of 10,000 foot soldiers who formed the bodyguard of the ancient Persian kings; the name given to the 40 members of the French Academy.

Imogen, the daughter of Cymbeline, in Shakespeare's play of the name, a perfect female character, pronounced "the most tender and the most artless of all Shakespeare's women."

Imo`la (12), a town in Italy, 10 m. N. of Faenza, with some fine palaces; manufactures leather, glass, silk, &c.

Impanation, a name employed to denote the union of the body of Christ with the bread of the Eucharist.

Impenetrability, the name given to that quality of matter whereby two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time.

Imperative, The Categorical. See Categorical.

Imperial Federation, name given to a scheme for uniting more closely together the several interests of the British Empire.

Imperial Institute, South Kensington, founded by the exertions of the Prince of Wales in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria's jubilee, was opened by her in 1893; was intended to include a complete collection of the products of the British Empire, a grand commercial intelligence bureau, and a school of modern Oriental languages; the government to be carried on by a chartered body, whose form of constitution was granted by a royal warrant of date April 21, 1891; the idea is for the present abandoned, and the premises appropriated as henceforth the seat of the London University.

Imperialism, the name given by English politicians to the policy which aims at the consolidation into one empire of all the colonies and dependencies along with the mother-country.

Impetigo, a cutaneous eruption, generally in clusters, of yellow-scaled pustules, which grow thicker and larger; common among children ill fed and ill cared for.

Impey, Sir Elijah, Indian judge, born at Hammersmith; educated at Cambridge, and called to the bar in 1756; was sent out to Bengal as first Chief-Justice in 1774; he supported Warren Hastings's administration, and presided over the court which sentenced Nuncomar to death for forgery; in the quarrel over Hastings's alleged resignation he decided in favour of the governor; was recalled and impeached for his conduct of the Nuncomar trial in 1783, but was honourably acquitted; resigning in 1789, he sat in Parliament for New Romney till 1796 (1732-1809).

Imponderables, the name given to light, heat, and electricity when they were supposed to be material substances, but without weight.

Impressionism, a term in painting that denotes the principle of a new school originating in France before 1870, and introduced into this country some 10 years later; it is a revolt against traditionalism in art, and aims at reproducing on canvas not what the mind knows or by close study observes is in nature, but the "impression" which eye and mind gather. The influence of the movement has been strong, and promises to be lasting both here and in Germany, and not the least interesting work of the kind has of late years issued from the "Glasgow School" and the "London Impressionists."

Impressment, legalised enforcement of service in the British navy, which has for years been in abeyance, and is not likely to be ever again revived.

Impropriation, the transference of the revenues of a benefice to a layman or lay body to be devoted to spiritual uses.

Imputation, the theological dogma of the transference of guilt or merit from one to another who is descended naturally or spiritually from the same stock as the former, as of Adam's guilt to us by nature or Christ's righteousness to us by faith; although in Scripture the term generally, if not always, denotes the reckoning to a man of the merit or the demerit involved in, not another's doings, but his own, as in a single act of faith or a single act of unbelief, the one viewed as allying him with all that is good, or as a proof of his essential goodness, and the other as allying him with all that is evil, or as a proof of his essential wickedness.

In Cæna Domini (i. e. in the Supper of the Lord), a papal bull promulgated in the Middle Ages, denouncing excommunication against all who dispute the claims of the Church, and the promulgation of which was felt on all hands to be intolerable; the promulgation has been discontinued since 1773.

Inachos, in Greek legend the first king of Argos, son of Oceanus and Tethys.

In-and-in, a term applied to the breeding of animals from the same parentage.

Inca, a king or royal prince of the ancient original people of Peru.

Incandescent Light, or Electric Light, a light produced by a thin strip of a non-conducting body, such as carbon, in a vacuum raised to intense heat by an electric current.

Incarnation, the humanisation of the Divine in the person of Christ, a doctrine vehemently opposed in the early times of the Church by both Jews and Gnostics, by the former as inconsistent with the greatness of God, and by the latter as inconsistent with the inbred depravity of man.

Incense, a fragrance which arises from the burning of certain gums and burnt in connection with sundry religious observances, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church, as an expression of praise presumably well pleasing to God; a practice which Protestants repudiate as without warrant in Scripture.

Inchbald, Elizabeth, actress, dramatist, and novelist, daughter of John Simpson, a Suffolk farmer; came to London at the age of 18, seeking a theatrical engagement; after some adventures she met Joseph Inchbald, an actor of no note, to whom she was married in 1772; shortly afterwards she made her début as Cordelia at Bristol; after seven years in the provinces and nine in London, during which she failed to rise high in her profession, she turned to literature; she wrote and adapted many plays, but the works by which she is remembered are two novels, "A Simple Story" and "Nature and Art" (1753-1821).

Inchcolm, an island in the Firth of Forth, near Aberdour, on the Fife coast, so called as the residence of St. Columba when engaged in the conversion of the Northern Picts; has the remains of an abbey founded by Alexander I.

Inchkeith, an island in the Firth of Forth, in the county of Fife, 2½m. N. of Leith, and about ½ m. long, has a lighthouse with a revolving light, and fortifications to protect the Forth.

Incitatus, the horse of Caligula (q. v.); had a house and a servant to itself, was fed from vessels of gold, admitted to the priesthood, and created a consul of Rome.

Incledon, Charles Benjamin, a celebrated ballad-singer with a fine tenor voice, born in Cornwall (1763-1826).

Incorruptible, The, Robespierre (q. v.), a man not to be seduced to betray his principles or party.

Increment, Unearned, an expression denoting increase in the value of landed property due to increased demand and without any expenditure on the part of the proprietor.

Independence, Declaration of, a declaration made July 4, 1776, by the North American States declaring their independence of Great Britain.

Independence, The War of, the name given to the struggle which the North American colonists maintained against the mother country.

Independence Day, a holiday observed throughout the United States annually on the 4th of July in celebration of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 that day.

Independents or Congregationalists are a Protestant sect deriving both names from their principle of government; repudiating both Episcopacy and Presbyterianism, they hold that every congregation should manage its own affairs, and elect its own officers independent of all authority save that of Christ; they profess to derive all rules of faith and practice from the Scriptures, and are closely akin to Presbyterians in doctrine. Numerous as early as Queen Elizabeth's time, they suffered persecution then; many fled or were banished to Holland, whence the Mayflower conveyed the Pilgrim Fathers to New England in 1620. Regaining ascendency under Cromwell, they again suffered at the Restoration; but political disabilities then imposed have gradually been removed, and now they are the most vigorous Dissenting body in England. The congregations in the English Union (a union for common purposes and mutual help) number 4700, those in the Scottish Union 100.

Index Expurgatorius, a list of books issued by the Church of Rome, which, as hostile to her teaching, are placed under her ban, and are under penalties forbidden to be read. The first list published was by Pope Paul IV. in 1557, and in 1562 the Council of Trent appointed a committee whose special business it should be to draw up a complete list of obnoxious writings, a work which it fell to Paul IV. to finish after the sittings of the Council came to a close in an index issued in 1564.

India (287,223), British dependency, consisting of the great peninsula in the S. of Asia, which has the Bay of Bengal on the E. and the Arabian Sea on the W., and is separated from the mainland by the Hindu-Kush and the Himalaya Mountains; politically the name includes besides the Punjab in the N. and Burma in the E.; the centre of the peninsula is a great plateau called the Deccan, between which and the snow-clad Himalaya stretch the great fertile basins of the Ganges, the Thar Desert, and the arid wastes of the Indus Valley; great varieties of climate are of course met with, but the temperature is prevailingly high, and the monsoons of the Indian Ocean determine the regularity of the rainy season, which occurs from June to October; the country generally is insalubrious; the vegetation is correspondingly varied, but largely tropical; rice, cereal crops, sugar, and tobacco are generally grown; cotton in Bombay and the Central Provinces, opium in the Ganges Valley, jute in Eastern Bengal, and indigo in Behar; coffee and tea are raised by Europeans in the hill country on virgin soil; the chief mineral deposits are extensive coal-fields between the Ganges and the Godavari, the most valuable salt deposits in the world in the Punjab, and deposits of iron, the purest found anywhere, in many parts of the country, which, however, are wrought only by native methods; native manufactures are being largely superseded by European methods, and the young cotton-weaving industry flourishes well; the country is well populated on the whole, with a relative scarcity of big towns; the people belong to many different races, and speak languages representing four distinct stocks; the vast bulk of them are Brahmanists or Hindus; there are many Mohammedans, Buddhists (in Burma), and Parsees (in Bombay); 2¼ millions are Christians, and there are other religions; India has been subject to many conquests; the Aryan, Greek, and Mussulman invasions swept from the NW.; the Portuguese obtained a footing on the SW. coast in the 15th century; the victories of Plassey 1757, and Seringapatam 1799, established British rule throughout the whole peninsula, and the principle that native princes where they retained their thrones were vassals; Sind was won in 1843 and the Punjab in 1849, and the powers of the East India Company transferred to the Queen in 1857, who was proclaimed Empress in 1877; the government is vested in a governor-general aided by an executive and a legislative council, under control, however, of a Secretary of State for India and council at home; there are governors and lieutenant-governors of the presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and of the various provinces; native States are all attached to and subject to the supervision of the government of a province; there is a native army of 146,000 men, and 74,000 European troops are maintained in the country; British rule has developed the resources of the country, advanced its civilisation, and contributed to the welfare of the people; Indian finance is not yet satisfactory; the currency is based on silver, the steady depreciation of which metal has never ceased to hamper the national funds.

India, (1) The Imperial Order of the Crown of, founded in 1878, includes the Queen and certain royal princes, English and Indian, female relatives of the Viceroy, of the governors of Bombay and Madras, and others in high places in India; (2) The Most Exalted Order of the Star of, founded in 1861 and since enlarged, with the sovereign for head and the viceroy as grand-master, and three different grades of knights, designed severally G.C.S.I., K.C.S.I, and C.S.I., a blue ribbon with white stripes being the badge; and (3) The Most Eminent Order of the Empire of, founded in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, with queen and empress at the head, and a knighthood similar to the preceding, their motto, "Imperatricis auspiciis."

Indian Civil Service, a service which, besides embracing the ordinary departments of civil administration, includes judicial, medical, territorial, and even military staff appointments, appointments dependent on the possession of regulated, more or less academic, qualifications.

Indian Mutiny, a wide-spread rebellion on the part chiefly of the Sepoys against British authority in 1857, and which was suppressed by a strong force under Sir Colin Campbell in 1858.

Indian Ocean is that stretch of sea between Africa on the W. and Australia, Java, and Sumatra on the E., which separates in the N. into the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal; the monsoons, or trade-winds, blow here with great regularity; from April to October they are strong from the SW., from October to April more gentle in the opposite direction; there are many islands and reefs of coral formation, such as the Maldive group; St. Paul's and Mauritius are volcanic, while Madagascar and Ceylon are typical continental islands.

Indian Territory (186), a stretch of country in the basin of the Arkansas, Canadian, and Red Rivers, with Kansas on the N., Arkansas on the E., Oklahoma Territory on the W., and separated by the Red River from Texas on the S., set apart for the occupation of the Indian tribes of the western prairies; formerly double its present size, it has been reduced by the purchase in 1890 of Oklahoma.; in the centre and east are fertile plains and great forests of walnut and maple, in which deer and bears abound; the west is a treeless prairie supporting vast herds of cattle; mineral resources are probably rich, but are undeveloped; the principal tribes have their own organisations and civilised institutions, churches, schools, banks, and newspapers; the towns are small, Tahlequah, Lehigh, and M'Alister are the chief.

Indiana (2,192), one of the smaller but most populous States of the American Union, lies between Lake Michigan and the Ohio River, with Ohio on the E. and Illinois on the W.; the climate is marked by extremes of heat and cold; the country is somewhat hilly in the S., is mostly level, well watered, and very fertile; agriculture is the chief industry, cereals, potatoes, and tobacco forming the chief crops; there is great mineral wealth, with extensive and varied industries, embracing iron, glass, and textile manufactures, waggon-building, and furniture-making; petroleum wells are abundant, and in one part of the territory natural gas is found in great quantities. First occupied by the French, Indiana was acquired by Britain in 1763, ceded to America 1783, and admitted to the Union in 1816; education in the State university and schools is free; besides Indianapolis, the capital, the largest towns are Evansville (50), Fort Wayne (30), and Terre Haute (30).

Indianapolis (169), capital of Indiana, on the White Ford River, in the centre of the State; a fine city, with wide, tree-lined streets, large iron, brass, and textile manufactures, and canned-meat industry; is a great railroad centre.

Indians, American, the aborigines of America, and now gradually dying out; these aborigines were called Indians by Columbus, because when he discovered America he thought it was India. See American Indians.

India-rubber, Caoutchouc, or Gum Elastic, is a product of the milky juices of several tropical and sub-tropical plants found in the West Indies, Central and South America, West Africa, and India; there is evidence that its properties were partially known to the Spaniards in the West Indies early in the 17th century; but its first introduction to this country was about 1770, when it was employed by artists for erasing black-lead pencil marks, hence its familiar name; it is collected by making incisions in the tree trunk and gathering the slowly exuding juice, which is first solidified by drying, then purified by boiling and washing; it is flexible and elastic, insoluble in water, and impenetrable to gases and fluids, and these qualities give it great commercial importance; the use of pure rubber has been greatly superseded by that of "vulcanised" rubber; mixed with from 1/40 to ½ of its weight of sulphur and combined by heat, the rubber acquires greater elasticity, is not hardened by cold or rendered viscid by heat, and is insoluble in many of the solvents of pure rubber; its usefulness is thus largely increased and greatly extended of late; the demand for rubber is in excess of the supply, but no substitute has been found effective; in recent years care has been bestowed on its economical collection and on its scientific culture.

Indiction, a cycle of 15 years instituted by Constantine the Great, and which began on the 24th September 812, the day of his victory over Maxentius; to find the indiction of any year add 1 and divide by 15.

Indium, a metallic elementary body of rare occurrence, and first discovered in zinc-blende in 1863.

Individualism, the name given to a social system which has respect to the rights of the individual as sovereign, and is strictly opposed to Socialism.

Indo-China, called also the Eastern Peninsula or Farther India, the name given to the large peninsular territory which lies between the Bay of Bengal and the Chinese Sea, lying almost wholly within the Torrid Zone, and embracing the empires of Burma and Annam and the kingdom of Cambodia and Siam, as well as territories under Britain and France, all now mostly divided between the latter two and Siam; it is sparsely peopled owing to its mountainous character and the swampy lands, and the natives are mainly of the Mongolian type.

Indo-European, an epithet applied to a family of the human race with the languages of its several members descended from the Aryans, and found dispersed over an area including the better part of India and Europe.

Indo-Germanic, a term at one time employed especially among German writers, synonymous with Aryan.

Indore, 1, a native principality (1,094), in Central India, somewhat larger than Wales, embraces the Vindbya and Satpura Mountains, and is traversed by the Nerbudda River; there are great forests on the mountains; the valley of the river is fertile; wheat, sugar, cotton, tobacco, and large quantities of opium are raised; the climate is sultry, and at certain seasons unhealthy; the natives are chiefly Mahratta Hindus; among the hills are Bhils and Gonds, the wildest tribes of India; the State is governed by a Maharajah styled Holkar, under supervision of an agent of the Governor-General; education is progressing. Indore, 2, on the Kuthi River, the capital (92), is a poor city of brick and mud; the palace and the British residency, however, are fine buildings; it is connected by rail with Bombay, distant 400 m. SW., and with Ajmere; it was the scene of a British massacre in 1857.

Indra, the king of heaven and national god of the Aryans; gives victory to his people, and is always ready to aid them; he is pre-eminently a warlike god, and as he stands on his war-chariot, drawn by five fawn-coloured horses, he is in a sort the type of an Aryan chieftain; he is sometimes assisted by other gods, but he more frequently fights alone; he is the dispenser, moreover, of all good gifts, and the author and preserver of all living; his power extends over the heavens, and he holds the earth in the hollow of his hand.

Induction, the name given to the logical process by which from a study of particular instances we arrive at a general principle or law. The term is also applied to an electric or magnetic effect produced without direct contact and equal to the cause, being essentially its reproduction.

Indulgence, remission by Church authority of the guilt of a sin on the penitent confession of the sinner to a priest, which, according to Roman Catholic theology, the Church is enabled to dispense out of the inexhaustible treasury in reserve of the merits of Christ.

Indus, a great river of India, 1800 m. long; rises in Thibet, on the N. of the Himalayas, flows NW. through Cashmere, then SW. through the Punjab and Sind to the sea; its upper course is through great gorges and very rapid, but after the entrance of the Kabul River its way lies through arid plains, and it is navigable; after receiving the Panjnad its volume decreases through evaporation and the sinking of some of the many streams into which it divides in the sand; on one of the branches of the delta stands the thriving port of Kurrachee.

Inertia, that property of bodies by which they remain in a state of rest or of motion in a straight line till disturbed by a force moving them in the one case or arresting them in the other.

Inez de Castro. See Castro.

Infallibility, freedom from all error in the past and from all possibility of error in the future as claimed by the Church of Rome. This claim extends to all matters of faith, morals, and discipline in the Church, and is based on an interpretation of Matt. xvi. 18, xxviii. 19; Eph. iv. 11-16, and other passages. It is held that the Church is incapable of embracing any false doctrine from whatever quarter suggested, and that she is guided by the Divine Spirit in actively opposing heresy, in teaching all necessary truth, and in deciding all relative matters of controversy. Infallibility is not claimed in connection with matters of fact, science, or general opinion. The seat of infallibility has been much disputed even in the Roman Catholic Church itself, and the infallibility of the Pope was only decreed so recently as the Vatican Council in 1870. It was always agreed that where the Pope and Bishops were unanimous they were infallible, and their unanimity might be expressed either in a general council, or in a decree of a local council tacitly accepted by the Pope and the rest of the Church, or even in a decree of the Pope alone if the bishops either expressly or tacitly affirmed it. But the Vatican Council decided "that when the Roman Pontiff speaks ex cathedrâ—that is, when he, using his office as pastor and doctor of all Christians, in virtue of his apostolic office, defines a doctrine of faith and morals to be held by the whole Church—he by the Divine assistance, promised to him by the blessed Peter, possesses that infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer was pleased to invest His Church in the definition of doctrine in faith or morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in their own nature and not because of the consent of the Church." The Greek Church puts forward a moderate claim to inerrancy, holding that as a matter of fact those councils which she regards as oecumenical have not erred in their decrees affecting faith and morals.

Infante, Infanta, the titles given respectively to the royal princes and princesses of Spain and Portugal.

Inferi, the name given by the Latins to the nether world and the gods of it.

Inferno, the hell of Dante, represented as included in nine circles, of which the first six, constituting the uppermost hell, are occupied by those who cannot govern themselves yet have no mind to harm any one else, of which the seventh, constituting the mid-hell, is occupied by those who cannot govern their thoughts, and of which the eighth and ninth, constituting the nether hell, are occupied by those who have wilfully done harm to other people, those in the eighth in hot blood and those in the ninth or lowest in cold blood, the former in passion and the latter without passion, far down below the freezing-point. See Ruskin's "Fors Clavigera," more fully, and by way of authority for this.

Inflection, the name given to the changes in the end of words to indicate relations, not so common in English—being usually expressed among us by prepositions—as in Latin, Greek, and other languages, but occurring in English as king's, mine, ours, to indicate possession; inflection in nouns is called declension, and in verbs conjugation.

Influenza, an epidemic disease, closely resembles, but is quite distinct from, cold in the head. It is characterised by early and marked debility and depression; though usually of short duration, attacks must not be disregarded; fatal results often ensue on carelessness. Convalescence is slow, and complications may ensue. The cause of the malady is obscure; sporadic cases always occur, but from time to time great epidemics of this disease have travelled westward over the world. Their movement seems to depend on atmospheric conditions, but is independent of the season of the year and often contrary to the direction of the wind. Visitations occurred in Britain in 1837-38, 1847-48, and 1889-91.

Infralapsarians, those Calvinists who believe that election and predestination are subsequent to the Fall, while the Supralapsarians believe that these ordinations are as old as eternity.

Infusoria, a name given to certain classes of animalculæ engendered in stagnant water infused with decaying organic matter.

Ingelow, Jean, poetess and novelist, born at Boston, Lincolnshire, died at Kensington; her earliest work appeared anonymously, but a volume of verses under her name was successful in 1863; her poetry is chiefly religious and devotional; later she wrote for children; subsequently she turned to novels, and produced besides several others "Off the Skelligs" in 1872; she will be remembered for her ballad "High Tide on the Coast of Lincolnshire," and a song "Supper at the Mill" (1820-1897).

Ingemann, Bernhard Severin, a Danish poet and novelist; in the latter regard took Scott for his model, his subjects being historical; was a man of varied literary ability (1789-1862).

Ingleby, Clement Mansfield, Shakespearian scholar, born near Birmingham, passed from Cambridge, where he graduated in 1847, to practise as a solicitor, but abandoned law for literature in 1859; his early works were of a philosophical nature, but he is best known as the author of a long series of works on Shakespearian subjects, of which "The Shakespeare Fabrications" was the first and "Shakespeare: the Man and the Book" the chief; he was a Vice-President of the Royal Society of Literature (1823-1886).

Inglesant, John, a celebrated romance by J. H. Shorthouse.

Inglis, Sir James, a Fifeshire gentleman, who in the reign of James IV. distinguished himself against the English and was knighted; author of "Complaint of Scotland"; d. 1554.

Inglis, Sir John, English general; entered the army at 19, served in Canada in 1837; was sent to India, and distinguished himself in the Punjab in 1848; at the outbreak of the Mutiny was stationed at Lucknow, where he heroically defended the residency for 87 days till the relief of the city by Havelock and Outram (1814-1862).

Inglis, Sir Robert Harry, Conservative statesman, opposed every Liberal measure of the period, from that of Catholic Emancipation to the Abolition of the Corn Laws (1786-1855).

Ingoldsby, Thomas, the pseudonym of Rev. Richard Barham (q. v.), author of "Ingoldsby Legends," a collection of humorous tales in verse.

Ingolstadt (16), a Bavarian town and fortress on the Danube, 50 m. N. of Münich, has many ancient associations; once the seat of a university; its manufactures now are beer, cannon, gunpowder; salt is mined in the vicinity.

Ingraham, Joseph Holt, author of "The Prince of the House of David," born at Portland, Maine; after some years spent at sea, became a teacher of languages in Mississippi, and was ordained Episcopal clergyman in 1855; prior to his ordination he wrote stories of adventure, "Captain Kyd," &c., but subsequently confined himself to biblical subjects (1809-1860).

Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste, a great French painter, born at Montauban; studied in Paris; in 1806 went to Rome, and 14 years after to Florence, but became professor of Fine Arts at the Academy in Paris in 1824; wounded by hostile criticisms he left Paris for Rome again in 1834, where he became Director of the French Academy in Rome; in 1841 he returned to Paris, where he died; he followed his master David in his choice of classical subjects, but his work met with varied reception, now favourable, now the reverse; the "Portrait of Cherubini," and other pictures, however, won for him great admiration in his later days; he was made a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour (1781-1867).

Ingulph, abbot of Croyland, long credited with the authorship of a history of the monastery, which has since been proved to be a fabrication of a later date, of probably the 13th or 14th century; he was appointed abbot in 1080; d. 1109.

Inkermann, a small Tartar village E. of Sebastopol harbour; the scene of a battle between the Russians and allied forces, to the defeat of the former after a prolonged struggle on 5th November 1854.

Inner Temple. See Inns of Court.

Innes, Cosmo, lawyer and antiquary, born at Durris, of an old Scotch family; professor of History in Edinburgh University; author of "Scotland in the Middle Ages," "Lectures on Scotch Legal Antiquities," and "Sketches of Early Scotch History" (1798-1874).

Innes, Thomas (Father Innes) Scotch historian, born in Aberdeenshire, educated at Paris; became a priest in 1692; after three years' service in Banffshire he returned to Paris, where he held a scholastic appointment till his death; in politics a Jacobite, in religious matters he had leanings to the Jansenist heresy; a diligent student of Scottish history, he produced the earliest scientific Scoto-historical works; his "Critical Essay on the Ancient Inhabitants of Scotland" and "Civil and Ecclesiastical History of Scotland" (unfinished), display honesty and penetration (1662-1744).

Innisfail, an ancient name of Ireland.

Innocent, the name of 13 Popes: Innocent I., Pope from 402 to 417; Innocent II., Pope from 1130 to 1143; Innocent III., Pope from 1198 to 1216; Innocent IV., Pope from 1243 to 1254; Innocent V., Pope in 1276; Innocent VI., Pope from 1352 to 1362, resided at Avignon; Innocent VII., Pope from 1404 to 1406; Innocent VIII., Pope from 1484 to 1492; Innocent IX., Pope in 1591; Innocent X., Pope from 1644 to 1655, condemned Jansenism; Innocent XI., Pope from 1676 to 1689; Innocent XII., Pope from 1691 to 1700; Innocent XIII., Pope from 1721 to 1724; of these there were two of note.

Innocent III., the greatest of the name, born in Arragon; succeeded Celestine III.; extended the territorial power of the Church, and made nearly all Christendom subject to its sway; essayed the recovery of Palestine, and promoted a crusade against the Albigenses; excommunicated Otto IV., emperor of Germany; put England under an interdict, and deposed King John; was zealous for the purity as well as supremacy of the Church, and countenanced every movement that contributed to enhance its influence and stereotype its beliefs as well as its forms of worship, transubstantiation among the one and auricular confession among the other; though harsh, and even cruel, to those whom he conceived to be the enemies of the faith, he was personally a man of blameless life, and did much to reform the morals of the clergy.

Innocent XI., succeeded Clement X., is celebrated for his contest with Louis XIV., and as giving occasion thereby to a protest of the Gallican clergy, and a declaration on their part of what is known as the Gallican Liberties (q. v.), and for a further contest he had with Louis in regard to certain immunities claimed, to the scandal of the Church, by foreign ambassadors residing in Rome, an interference which Louis resented on behalf of his representatives among them, but, as it happened in vain.