Chapels and Churches.—See "Places of Worship."

Charity.—Charitable collections were made in this neighbourhood in 1655, for the Redmontese Protestants, Birmingham giving £15 11s. 2d., Sutton Coldfield £14, and Aston £4 14s. 2d. On the 6th of June, 1690, £13 18s. 1-1/2d. were collected at St. Martin's "for ye Irish Protestants." In 1764 some Christmas performances were given for the relief of aged and distressed housekeepers, and the charitable custom thus inaugurated was kept up for over seventy years. In the days of monks and monasteries, the poor and needy, the halt and lame, received charitable doles at the hands of the former and at the gates of the latter, but it would be questionable how far the liberality of the parsons, priests, and preachers of the present day would go were the same system now in vogue. It has been estimated that nearly £5,000 is given every year in what may be called the indiscriminate charity of giving alms to those who ask it in the streets or from door to door. By far the largest portion of this amount goes into the hands of the undeserving and the worthless, and the formation of a central relief office, into which the charitably-disposed may hand in their contributions, and from whence the really poor and deserving may receive help in times of distress, has been a long felt want. In 1869 a "Charity Organisation Society" was established here, and it is still in existence, but it does not appear to meet with that recognised support which such an institution as suggested requires. In 1882 a special fund was started for the purpose of giving aid to women left with children, and about £380 was subscribed thereto, while the ordinary income was only £680. The special fund can hardly be said as yet to have got into working order, but when the cost of proving the property of the recipients, with the necessary expenses of office rent, salaries, &c., have been deducted from the ordinary income, the amount left to be distributed among the persons deemed by the officials deserving of assistance is small indeed, the expenses reaching about £330 per year. In 1880 it cost £329 18s. 4d. to give away food, cash, and clothing, &c., valued at £386 16s. 6d., an apparent anomally which would not be so glaring if the kind-hearted and charitable would only increase the income of the Society, or re-organise it upon a wider basis.—For statistics of poverty and the poor see "Pauperism" and "Poor Rates."

Charitable Trusts.—See "Philanthropical Institutions," &c.

Chartism.—Following the great Reform movement of 1832, in which Birmingham led the van, came years of bad harvests, bad trade, and bitter distress. The great Chartist movement, though not supported by the leaders of the local Liberal party, was taken up with a warmth almost unequalled in any other town in the Kingdom, meetings being held daily and nightly for months in succession, Feargus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, and many other "orators of the fiery tongue," taking part. On the 13th of August, 1838, a monstre demonstration took place on Holloway Head, at which it was reckoned there were over 100,000 persons present, and a petition in favour of "The Charter" was adopted that received the signatures of 95,000 people in a few days. The Chartist "National Convention" met here May 13, 1839, and noisy assemblages almost daily affrighted the respectable townsmen out of their propriety. It was advised that the people should abstain from all exciseable articles, and "run for gold" upon the savings banks—very good advice when given by Attwood in 1832, but shockingly wicked in 1839 when given to people who could have had but little in the savings or any other banks. This, and the meetings which ensued, so alarmed the magistrates for the safety of property that, in addition to swearing in hundreds of special constables, they sent to London for a body of police. These arrived on July 4, and unfortunately at the time a stormy meeting was being held in the Bull Ring, which they were at once set to disperse, a work soon accomplished by the free use they made of their staves. The indignant Brums, however, soon rallied and drove the police into the Station, several being wounded on either side. The latent fury thus engendered burst out in full force on the 15th when the notorious Chartist Riots commenced, but the scenes then enacted, disgraceful as they were, may well be left in oblivion, especially as the best of "the points" of the Charter are now part of the laws of the land. Besides many others who were punished more or less, two of the leaders, Wm. Lovett and John Collins, were sentenced to one year's imprisonment for a seditious libel in saying that "the people of Birmingham were the best judges of their own rights to meet in the Bull Ring, and the best judges of their own power and resources to obtain justice." On the 27th July, 1849, Lovett and Collins were accorded a public welcome on their release from prison, being met at the Angel by a crowd of vehicles, bands of music, &c., and a procession (said to have numbered nearly 30,000), accompanied them to Gosta Green where speeches were delivered; a dinner, at which 800 persons sat down, following on the site of "The People's Hall of Science," in Loveday Street. In 1841, Joseph Sturge gave in his adhesion to some movement for the extension of the franchise to the working classes, and at his suggestion a meeting was held at the Waterloo Rooms (Feb. 25th, 1842), and a memorial to the Queen drawn up, which in less than a month received 16,000 signatures. On the 5th of April, 87 delegates from various parts of England, Ireland, and Scotland, assembled here, and after four days' sitting formed themselves into "The National Complete Suffrage Union," whose "points" were similar to those of the Charter, viz., manhood suffrage, abolition of the property qualification, vote by ballot, equal electoral districts, payment of election expenses and of members, and annual Parliaments. On the 27th of December, another Conference was held (at the Mechanics' Institute), at which nearly 400 delegates were present, but the apple of discord had been introduced, and the "Complete Suffrage Union" was pooh-poohed by the advocates of "the Charter, the whole Charter, and nothing but the Charter," and our peace-loving townsman, whom The Times had dubbed "the Birmingham Quaker Chartist," retired from the scene. From that time until the final collapse of the Chartist movement, notwithstanding many meetings were held, and strong language often used, Birmingham cannot be said to have taken much part in it, though, in 1848 (August 15th), George J. Mantle, George White, and Edward King, three local worthies in the cause, found themselves in custody for using seditious language.

Chess.—See "Sports and Sporting."

Chicago Fire.—The sum of £4,300 was subscribed and sent from here towards relieving the sufferers by this calamity.

Children.—A society known as "The Neglected Children's Aid Society," was founded in 1862, by Mr. Arthur Ryland, for the purpose of looking after and taking care of children under fourteen found wandering or begging, homeless or without proper guardianship. It was the means of rescuing hundreds from the paths of dishonesty and wretchedness, but as its work was in a great measure taken up by the School Board, the society was dissolved Dec. 17, 1877. Mr. Thos. Middlemore, in 1872, pitying the condition of the unfortunate waifs and strays known as "Street Arabs," took a house in St. Luke's Road for boys, and one in Spring Road for girls, and here he has trained nearly a thousand poor children in ways of cleanliness and good behaviour prior to taking the larger part of them to Canada. A somewhat similar work, though on a smaller scale, is being carried on by Mr. D. Smith, in connection with the mission attached to the Bloomsbury Institution. In both instances the children are found good homes, and placed with worthy people on their arrival in Canada, and, with scarcely an exception all are doing well. The total cost per head while at the Homes and including the passage money is about £16, and subscriptions will be welcomed, so that the work of the Institutions may be extended as much as possible.

Chimes.—The earliest note we can find respecting the chimes in the tower of St. Martin's is in a record dated 1552, which states there were "iiij belles, with a clocke, and a chyme."

Chimnies.—Like all manufacturing towns Birmingham is pretty well ornamented with tall chimnies, whose foul mouths belch forth clouds of sooty blackness, but the loftiest and most substantial belongs to the town itself. At the Corporation Wharf in Montague Street the "stack" is 258 feet in height, with a base 54 feet in circumference, and an inside diameter of 12 feet. About 250,000 bricks were used in its construction, which was completed in September, 1879.—Householders of an economical turn must remember it is not always the cheapest plan to clean their chimnies by "burning them out," for in addition to the danger and risk of damage by so doing, the authorities of Moor Street have the peculiar custom of imposing a penalty (generally 10s.) when such cases are brought before them. Should such an event occur by mischance keep all doors and windows shut, and do not admit the sweeps who may come knocking at your door, unless fully prepared with the half-crowns they require as bribes not to tell the police. As a rule it is cheaper to trust to "Robert" not seeing it.

China Temple Field was a noted place for amusements about the year 1820, and was situate where Cattell Road is now. Originally it formed part of the grounds of Bordesley Hall, which was wrecked in the riots of 1791.

Choral Society.—This Society held its first Choral Concert, August 2, 1836. The Festival Choral Society was established in 1845.

Cholera.—This dreadful epidemic has never yet been felt in severity in this town, though several fatal cases were reported in August, 1832. In July, 1865, great alarm was caused by the fact of 243 inmates of the Workhouse being attacked with choleraic symptoms, but they all recovered.

Church Pastoral Aid Society.—There is a local branch of this Society here, and about £1,300 per annum is gathered in and forwarded to the parent society, who in return grant sums in aid of the stipends of thirty Curates and as many Scripture readers, amounting to nearly £4,700 per year.

Churchrates.—Prior to 1831, Churchrates had been regularly levied, and, to a great extent, cheerfully paid, but with the other reforms of that Reforming age came the desire to re-form this impost, by doing away with it altogether, and at a meeting held on August 7, 1832, the ratepayers assembled not only denounced it, but petitioned Parliament for its entire abolition. Between that year and 1837, Churchrates of 6d. to 9d. in the £ were not at all infrequent, but in the latter year there was a sweet little row, which led to an alteration. At a vestry meeting held March 28, the redoubtable George Frederick Muntz, with George Edmonds, and other "advanced" men of the times, demanded a personal examination of the books, &c., &c., with the result doubtless anticipated and wished for—a general shindy, free fight, and tumult. For his share in the riot, G.F.M. was put on his trial in the following year (March 30 to April 1) and had to pay over £2,000 in the shape of costs, but he may be said to have won something after all, for a better feeling gradually took the place of rancour, and a system of "voluntary" rates—notably one for the rebuilding of St. Martin's—was happily brought to work. The Bill for the abolition of Churchrates was passed July 13, 1868.

Church Street.—In 1764 at Warwick a legal battle was fought as to a right of way through the New Hall Park, the path in dispute being the site of the present Church Street.

Circuses.—The first notice we have of any circus visiting Birmingham is that of Astley's which came here October 7, 1787. In 1815 Messrs. Adams gave performances in a "new equestrian circus on the Moat," and it has interest in the fact that this was the first appearance locally of Mr. Ryan, a young Irishman, then described as "indisputably the first tight-rope dancer in the world of his age." Mr. Ryan, a few years later, started a circus on his own account, and after a few years of tent performances, which put money in his pocket, ventured on the speculation of building a permanent structure in Bradford-street, opening his "New Grand Arena" there in 1827. Unfortunately, this proved a failure, and poor Ryan went to the wall. The circus (known now as the Circus Chapel), long lay empty, but was again re-opened May 19, 1838, as an amphitheatre, but not successfully. In 1839 the celebrated Van Amburgh, whose establishment combined the attractions of a circus and a menagerie, visited this town, and his performances were held, rather strangely, at the Theatre Royal. On the night of the Bull Ring Riots, July 15th, when there was "a full house," the startling news that a number of buildings were on fire, &c., was shouted out just at the moment that Van Amburgh was on the stage with a number of his well-trained animals. He himself was reclining on the boards, his head resting on the sides of a tawny lion, while in his arms was a beautiful child, four or five years old, playing with the ears of the animal. The intelligence naturally caused great excitement, but the performer went quietly on, hoisting the little darling to his shoulder, and putting his animals through their tricks as calmly as if nothing whatever was the matter. In 1842, Ducrow's famous troupe came, and once again opened Ryan's Circus in the Easter week, and that was the last time the building was used for the purpose it was originally erected for. Cooke's, Hengler's, Newsome's, and Sanger's periodical visits are matters of modern date. The new building erected by Mr. W.R. Inshaw, at foot of Snow Hill, for the purposes of a Concert Hall, will be adaptable as a Circus.

Climate.—From the central position in which Birmingham is situated, and its comparative elevation, the town has always been characterised as one of the healthiest in the kingdom. Dr. Priestley said the air breathed here was as pure as any he had analysed. Were he alive now and in the habit of visiting the neighbourhood of some of our rolling mills, &c., it is possible he might return a different verdict, but nevertheless the fact remains that the rates of mortality still contrast most favourably as against other large manufacturing towns.

Clocks.—One of Boulton's specialties was the manufacture of clocks, but it was one of the few branches that did not pay him. Two of his finest astronomical clocks were bought by the Empress of Russia, after being offered for sale in this country in vain. His friend, Dr. Small, is said to have invented a timepiece containing but a single wheel. The "town clocks" of the present day are only worth notice on account of their regular irregularity, and those who wish to be always "up to the time o' day," had best set their watches by the instrument placed in the wall of the Midland Institute. The dome of the Council House would be a grand position in which to place a really good clock, and if the dials were fitted with electric lights it would be useful at all hours, from near and far.

Clubs.—No place in the kingdom can record the establishment of more clubs than Birmingham, be they Friendly Clubs, Money Clubs (so-called), or the more taking Political Clubs, and it would be a hard task to name them all, or say how they flourished, or dropped and withered. In the years 1850-60 it was estimated that at publichouses and coffeehouses there were not less than 180 Money Clubs, the members paying in weekly or fortnightly subscriptions of varying amount for shares £5 to £100, and though there cannot be the slightest doubt that many of our present mastermen owe their success in life to this kind of mutual help, the spirit of gambling in money shares proved, on the whole, to be disastrous to the members who went in for good interest on their deposits. Of Friendly Clubs we shall have something to say under another beading. Respecting the Political Clubs and those of a general nature we may say that the earliest we have note of is the "Church and King Club," whose first meeting was held at the Royal Hotel, Nov. 27, 1792. Of a slightly different nature was the "Hampden Club," established in 1815, but which was closed by the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in 1817. During the troublous times of 1830-40, many clubs, or "smoke-room palavers," existed, but, perhaps the only one that really showed results was the Branch Club (or local agency), connected with the Land Scheme of Feargus O'Connor [see "Land Societies"], and that ultimately dwindled to naught. On July 5, 1847, a club on the plan of the London "Whittington" was started here, but when or why it ended deponent knoweth not.—The Union Clubhouse, corner of Newhall Street and Colmore Row, which cost £16,000, was built in 1868-9, being opened May 3rd of the latter year. This must be considered as the chief neutral ground in local club matters, gentlemen of all shades of politics, &c., being members. The number of members is limited to 400, with 50 "temporary" members, the entrance fee being £15 15s., and the annual subscription £7 7s.—The Town and District Club, opened at the Shakespeare Rooms, in August, 1876, also started on the non-political theory: the town members paying £3 3s per annum, and country members a guinea or guinea and half, according to their residence being within 25 or 100 miles.—A Liberal Club was founded October 16, 1873, under the auspices of Mr. Joseph Chamberlain and took possession of its present rooms in Corporation Street, January 20, 1880, pending the completion of the palatial edifice now in course of erection in Edmund Street, at the corner of Congreve Street. The "Forward Liberal Club," opened in Great Hampton Street, October 30, 1880. A "Junior Liberal Club" celebrated their establishment by a meeting in the Town Hall, November 16, 1880. The Conservatives, of course, have not been at all backward in Club matters, for there has been some institution or other of the kind connected with the party for the last hundred years. The Midland Conservative Club was started July 4, 1872, and has its head-quarters now in Waterloo-street, the old County Court buildings being remodelled for the purpose. A Junior Conservative Club opened in Castle Street, June 25, 1874; a Young Men's Conservative Club commenced July 26, 1876; the Belmont Conservative Club, July 30, 1877; and the Hampton Conservative Club, August 21st of same year. In fact, every ward in the borough, and every parish and hamlet in the suburbs now has its Conservative and Liberal Club; the workingmen having also had their turn at Club-making, the Birmingham Heath working men opening up shop, August 25, 1864; the Saltley boys in October, 1868; the St. Albanites following suit December 1, 1873; and the Ladywood men, November 30, 1878. A Club of more pretentious character, and called par excellence "The Working-man's Club," was begun July 20, 1863, but the industriously-inclined members thereof did not work together well, and allowed the affair to drop through. Backed by several would-be-thought friends of the working class, another "Working Men's Club" sprung into existence April 29, 1875, with a nominal capital of £2,500 in 10s. shares. Rooms were opened in Corn Exchange Passage on the 31st of May, and for a time all promised well. Unfortunately the half-sovereigns did not come in very fast, and the landlord, though he knew "Nap" to be a very favourite game, did not choose, to be caught napping, and therefore "took his rest" at the end of the fifth half-year, and in so doing rent the whole fabric of the club.—The Edgbaston Art Club was organised in 1878; the Chess Club in 1841; the Germania Club in 1856; the Gymnastic Club in 1866; the Dramatic Club in May, 1865; the Farmer's Club in May, 1864, the Pigeon flying Club at Quilter's in 1875, &c., &c. Club law has great attractions for the Brums—every profession and every trade hath its club, and all the "fanciers" of every sort and kind club by themselves, till their name is "Legion."

Coaches.—From its being situated as it were in the very heart of the kingdom, Birmingham, in the olden days, and it is but fifty years ago, was an important converging central-point of the great mailcoach system, and a few notes in connection therewith cannot be uninteresting. Time was when even coaching was not known, for have we not read how long it took ere the tidings of Prince Rupert's attack on our town reached London. A great fear seems to have possessed the minds of the powers that were in regard to any kind of quick transmission whatever, for in the year 1673 it was actually proposed "to suppress the public coaches that ran within fifty or sixty miles of London," and to limit all the other vehicles to a speed of "thirty miles per day in summer, and twenty-five in winter"—for what might not be dreaded from such an announcement as that "that remarkable swift travelling coach, 'The Fly,' would leave Birmingham on Mondays and reach London on the Thursdays following." Prior to and about 1738, an occasional coach was put on the road, but not as a regular and periodical conveyance, the fare to London being 25 shillings, "children on lap, and footmen behind, being charged half-price." A "Flying Coach" commenced running direct to the Metropolis on May 28th, 1745, and was evidently thought to be an event of some importance, as it was advertised to do the distance in two days "if the roads permitted." In July, 1782, the same journey was accomplished in 14 hours, showing a great improvement in the arrangements of the road. The first mail coaches for the conveyance of letters was started by Mr. Palmer, of Bath, in 1784, the earliest noticed as passing through here being on August 23, 1785, but the first direct mail from this town dates only from May 25, 1812. In February, 1795, the Western mailcoaches were delayed nearly a week together in consequence of a rapid thaw rendering the roads impassable. In 1777 fifty-two coaches passed through here to London and sixteen to Bristol every week. In 1829 at least 100 departed from or passed through the town daily, 550 persons travelling between here and London. In 1832 Mr. Lecount estimated the general results of the road and canal traffic between here and London as follows: Pessengers, 233,155; goods, 62,389 tons; parcels, 46,799; beasts, 50,839; sheep, 365,000; pigs, 15,364; the amount expended in cost of transit being £1,338,217. In 1837 it was estimated that £6,789 was received per week from coach passengers on the road from here to London, £1,571 for parcels per coach, and £729 from persons posting along the same roads; and that £8,120 was received for goods by canals and waggons, not including iron, timber, cattle, minerals, or other goods at low tonnage—£17,209 per week. There was, notwithstanding the large number of coaches leaving here every day, no direct conveyance from Birmingham to Edinburgh. The best and usual route was by Walsall, Manchester, Preston, and Carlisle; distances and times being, Manchester, 78-1/2 miles, 8 hours, fare, 14s.; Manchester to Carlisle, 118 miles, 12 hours 55 minutes by the mail, including stoppage of fifty minutes at Preston for post office purposes, fare, £1 2s. 6d.; Carlisle to Edinburgh, 95 miles, 9 hours 35 minutes, fare, 18s.; coachmen and guards' fees about 15s.; all hotel charges, &c., were paid by the passenger. Total distance, 291-1/2 miles; travelling time, 30-1/2 hours; cost, £3 9s. 6d., in all. The mail coach which left the Albion reached London in 10-1/2 hours, which would be reckoned as very good travelling, even in these days. For some time after the introduction of railways, the coaching interest was still of some account, for as late as 1840 there were 54 coaches and omnibuses running from here every 24 hours.— There has been a kind of modern revival of the good old coaching days, but it has not become popular in this part of the country, though quite a summer feature on the Brighton Road. A four-in-hand, driven by the Earl of Aylesford, was put on the road from here to Coventry, at latter end of April, 1878; and another ran for part of the summer, in 1880, to Leamington. The introduction of railways set many persons to work on the making of "steam coaches" to travel on the highways. Captain Ogle coming here on one of his own inventing September 8th, 1832, direct from Oxford, having travelled at from ten to fourteen miles per hour. Our local geniuses were not behindhand, and Messrs. Heaton Bros., and the well-known Dr. Church brought out machines for the purpose. Both parties started joint-stock companies to carry out their inventions, and in that respect both parties succeeded, for such was the run for shares, that in June, 1833, when Heatons' prospectus came out, offering to the public 2,000 £10 shares, no less than 3,000 were asked for in one day. There was also a third company in the field, the "London, Birmingham, and Liverpool," with a nominal capital of £300,000; but none of them prospered; for though they could construct the engines and the coaches, they could not make receipts cover expenses. Heatons' ran theirs for some little time to Wolverhampton and back, and even to the Lickey; the Doctor came out every month with something new; and even the big Co. managed to bring one carriage all the way from London (August 28th, 1835). Others besides Captain Ogle also came here on their iron horses, and there was plenty of fun and interest for the lookers-on generally— but no trade and no interest for the speculators. For steam coaches of the present day, see "Tramways."

Coal was not in common use much before 1625, and for a long time was rather shunned by householders, more especially in the rural parts where the black diamonds were looked upon as something altogether uncanny. Prior to the opening of the first canal, the roads leading from the Black Country daily presented the curious feature of an almost unending procession of carts and waggons bringing the supplies needed by our manufacturers, and high prices were the rule of the day. The first boatload was brought in on November 6th, 1769, and soon after the price of coal at the wharf was as low as 4d. per cwt.—See "Trades."

Cobbett delivered a lecture on the Corn Laws, &c., at Beardsworth's Repository, May 10 1830.

Cobden.—There was a general closing of places of business here on April 6, 1865, the day on which Richard Cobden was buried.

Cockfighting.—Aris's Gazette of December 26, 1780, announced in one of its advertisements that "the Annual Subscription Match of Cocks" would be fought at Duddeston Hall, commonly called "Vauxhall," on the New Year's day and day after.—The same paper printed an account of another Cockfight, at Sutton, as late as April 17, 1875.

Coffeehouses.—Coffee, which takes its name from the Abyssinian province of Kaffa, was introduced into this country in the early part of the 17th century, the first coffeehouse being opened in London in 1652. Until very late years coffeehouses in provincial towns were more noted for their stuffy untidiness than aught else, those of Birmingham not excepted, but quite a change has come o'er the scene now, and with all the brave glitter of paint and glaring gas they attempt to rival the public-houses. The Birmingham Coffeehouse Company, Limited (originally miscalled The Artizan's Clubhouse Company), which came into existence March 27, 1877, with a capital of £20,000 in 10s. shares, has now near upon a score of houses open, and their business is so successful that very fair dividends are realised.

Coffins.—Excluding textile fabrics and agricultural produce, Birmingham supplies almost every article necessary for the comfort of man's life, and it is therefore not surprising that some little attention has been given to the construction of the "casket" which is to enclose his remains when dead. Coffins of wood, stone, lead, &c., have been known for centuries, but coffins of glass and coffins of brass must be ranked amongst the curiosities of our later trades. Two of the latter kind polished, lacquered, and decorated in a variety of ways, with massive handles and emblazoned shields, were made here some few years back for King Egbo Jack and another dark-skinned potentate of South Africa. "By particular request" each of these coffins were provided with four padlocks, two outside and two inside, though how to use the latter must have been a puzzle even for a dead king. The Patent Metallic Air-tight Coffin Co., whose name pretty accurately describes their productions, in 1861 introduced hermetically-sealed coffins with plate glass panels in the lid, exceedingly useful articles in case of contagious diseases, &c., &c. The trade in coffin "furniture" seems to have originated about 1760, when one ingenious "Mole" pushed it forward; and among the list of patents taken out in 1796 by a local worthy there is one for "a patent coffin," though its particular speciality could not have met with much approval, as although some thousands of bodies have been removed from our various sepultures nothing curious or rarer than rotten boards and old lead has been brought to light.

Coinage.—So far had our patriotic forefathers proceeded in the art of making money that about the middle of the last century it was estimated over one half the copper coin in circulation was counterfeit, and that nine-tenths thereof was manufactured in Birmingham, where 1,000 halfpennies could be had of the makers for 25s. Boulton's big pennies were counterfeited by lead pennies faced with copper. One of these would be a curiosity now. The bronze coinage was first issued December 1, 1860, and soon after Messrs. Ralph Heaton & Sons made 100 tons of bronze coins for the Mint. They are distinguished by the letter "H" under the date. The number, weight, and value of this issue were as follows:—

Colleges.—See "Schools," &c.

Colmore Row, which now extends from the Council House to the Great Western Hotel (including Ann Street and Monmouth Street) is named after the Colmore family, the owners of the freehold. Great Colmore Street, Caroline and Charlotte Streets, Great and Little Charles Streets, Cregoe, Lionel, and Edmund Streets, all take their names from the same source.

Colonnade.—This very handsome and (for Birmingham) rather novel-looking building, was opened Jan. 10, 1883, being erected by Mr. A. Humpage, at a cost of about £70,000, from the designs of Mr. W.H. Ward. The Colonnade proper runs round the entire building, giving frontage to a number of shops, the upper portion of the block being partly occupied by the Midland Conservative Club, and the rest of the building, with the basement, fitted up as a Temperance Hotel and "Restaurant."

Comets.—The inhabitants were very much terrified by the appearance of a comet in December, 1680. At Michaelmas, 1811, an exceedingly brilliant comet appeared, supposed to have been the same which was seen at the birth of Jesus Christ. Donati's comet was first observed June 2, 1858, but was most brilliant in September and October. The comets of 1861 and 1883 were also visible here.

Commissioners.—The first local governing body of the town, though with but the merest shadow of power as compared with the Corporation of to-day, were the Street Commissioners appointed under an Act of Geo. III. in 1769, their duties being confined almost solely to repairing, cleansing, and "enlightening" the streets of the town, appointing watchmen, &c., their power of raising funds being limited to 1s. in the £. By succeeding Acts of 1773, 1801, 1812, and 1828, the powers of the Commissioners were considerably enlarged, and they must be credited with the introduction of the first set of local improvement schemes, including the widening of streets, clearing the Bull Ring of the houses round St. Martin's Church, making owners lay out proper streets for building, purchasing the market tolls, building of Town Hall and Market Hall, regulating carriages, and "suppressing the smoke nuisance arising from engines commonly called steam engines," &c., and, though they came in for their full share of obloquy and political rancour, it cannot be denied they did good and faithful service to the town. The Commissioners had the power of electing themselves, every vacancy being filled as it occurred by those who remained, and, as the Act of 1828 increased their number to no less than 89, perhaps some little excuse may be made for the would-be leading men of the day who were left out in the cold. Be that as it may, the Charter of Incorporation put them aside, and gave their power and authority into the hands of a popularly-elected representative body. The Commissioners, however, remained as a body in name until the last day of December, 1851, when, as a token of remembrance, they presented the town with the ornamental fountain formerly standing in the centre of the Market Hall, but which has been removed to Highgate Park. On the transfer of their powers to the Corporation, the Commissioners handed over a schedule of indebtedness, showing that there was then due on mortgage of the "lamp rate," of 4 per cent, £87,350; on the "Town Hall rate," at 4 per cent., £25,000; annuities, £947 3s. 4d.; besides £7,800, at 5 percent., borrowed by the Duddeston and Nechells Commissioners, making a total of £121,097 3s. 4d.

Commons.—Handsworth Common was enclosed in 1793. An Act was passed in 1798 for enclosing and allotting the commons and waste land in Birmingham. The commons and open fields of Erdington and Witton were enclosed and divided in 1801.

Concert Halls, &c.—The Birmingham Concert Hall, better known as "Holder's," was built in 1846, though for years previous the house was noted for its harmonic meetings; the present Hall has seats for 2,200 persons. Day's Concert Hall was erected in 1862 the opening night, September 17, being for the benefit of the Queen's Hospital, when £70 was realised therefor; the Hall will accommodate 1,500.—The Museum Concert Hall was opened Dec. 20, 1863, and will hold about 1,000 people.—A very large building intended for use as a Concert Hall, &c., will soon be opened in Snow Hill, to be conducted on temperance principles.—A series of popular Monday evening concerts was commenced in the Town Hall, Nov. 12, 1844, and was continued for nearly two years.—Twopenny weekly "Concerts for the People" were started at the Music Hall, Broad Street (now Prince of Wales' Theatre), March 25, 1847, but they did not take well.—Threepenny Saturday evening concerts in Town Hall, were begun in November, 1879.

Constables.—In 1776 it was necessary to have as many as 25 constables sworn in to protect the farmers coming to the weekly market.—See also "Police."

Consuls.—There are Consulates here for the following countries (for addresses see Directory):—Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Chili, France, Germany, Greece, Liberia, Portugal, Spain and Italy, Turkey, United States, United States of Columbia, and Uruguay.

Convents.—See "Religious Institutions."

Co-operative Societies at one time were put in the same category as Chartist, Socialist, and Communistic Associations, all banned alike. Nevertheless, in the old "Reform days" the theory of co-operation was most enthusiastically taken up by the workers of this town, even more so than in any other place in the kingdom. As early as 1828 several attempts had been made to form such societies, but the one which appeared the most likely to succeed was the so-called "Labour Exchange," situated in the old Coach Yard, in Bull Street, formed on the basis so eloquently and perseveringly advocated by Robert Owen. The principle of this Exchange was to value all goods brought in at the cost of the raw material, plus the labour and work bestowed thereon, the said labour being calculated at the uniform rate of 6d. per hour. On the reception of the goods "notes" to the value were given which could be handed over as equivalent for any other articles there on sale, and for a time this rather crude plan was successful. Sharp customers, however found that by giving in an advanced valuation of their own goods they could by using their "notes" procure others on which a handsome profit was to be made outside the Labour Mart, and this ultimately brought the Exchange to grief. Mr. William Pare and Mr. George Jacob Holyoake, were foremost among the advocates of Co-operation at the period, and a most interesting history of "Co-operation in England" has been written by the latter gentleman. Other societies were also in operation from time to time, the longest-lived being the "Economic Provision Company," which was commenced at Handsworth in 1830 by some of the workers at Soho and Soho Foundry, 139 of whom clubbed 20s. each as a starting fund. After a few months' trial, the profits were allowed to accumulate until they made up £5 per share, on which capital no less than £6,000 were paid in dividends during the first thirty years. The Supply Associations of the present day are somewhat differently constituted, such establishments as the one in Corporation Street (formerly in Cannon Street) and that in High Street being on the most extensive scale, offering to the general public all the advantages derivable from the use of large capital, combined with a fair division of profits to the customer, as well as to the shareholders. The Birmingham Household Supply Association in Corporation Street supplies all the necessaries required in the household, in addition to eatables and drinkables of the very best quality, including Messrs. Walter Showell and Sons' ales, which are sent out at the same prices as from the firm's own offices, either in cask or bottle.

Cornavii.—The ancient inhabitants of this part of England, but who were subdued by the Romans. Whether the said inhabitants had any name for the particular spot now called Birmingham must for ever remain doubtful.

Corn Exchange, in High-street, was opened October 28, 1847. The original capital of the Company was £5,000, in shares of £25 each; but the total cost of erection was a little over £6,000. The length of the interior is 172 feet and the breadth 40 feet.

Corn Laws.—Long before the formation of the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838, a movement for the repeal of the obnoxious imposts had been started in this town, a petition being sent from here to Parliament in March, 1815, with 48,600 signatures attached. The doings of the League and their ultimate success is an off-told tale, the men of Birmingham of course taking their part in the struggle, which culminated on the 26th of June, 1846, in the passing of Sir Robert Peel's Bill for the total repeal of all duties levied on corn and breadstuffs.

Coroners.—The first borough coroner, the late Dr. Birt Davies, was appointed May 15, 1839, and he held the office till July, 1875, when Mr. Henry Hawkes was chosen as his successor, only one member of the Town Council voting against him. The preent coroner has introduced several improvements on the old system, especially in the matters of holding inquests at public-houses, and the summoning of jurors. Formerly the latter were chosen from the residents nearest to the scene of death, some gentlemen being continually called upon, while the occasional exhibition of a dead body in the back lumberroom of an inn yard, among broken bottles and gaping stablemen, was not conductive to the dignity of a coroner's court or particularly agreeable to the unfortunate surgeon who might have to perform a post mortem. Thanks to the persevering tenacity of Mr. Hawkes we have a proper court in Moor-street, and a mortuary at every police station to which bodies can at once be taken. The jurors are now chosen by rotation, so that having been once called upon to act as a good citizen in such a capacity no gentleman need fear a fresh summons for some years to come. Mr. Hooper, the coroner for South Staffordshire, received his appointment in 1860.

Corporation.—The Charter of Incorporation of the Borough of Birmingham, authorising the formation of a Governing body, consisting of Mayor, Aldermen, and Councillors, duly elected by the Burgesses, dates from October 31, 1838. The elections took place in December, the first meeting being held on the 27. The borough was originally divided into 13 wards, but has since been, by Order in Council, made into 16, though the number of Aldermen (16) and Councillors (48) has not been increased. The Mayor is elected for one year, the Councillors for three, and the Aldermen for six. The first Mayor chosen was William Schofield, Esq., who was succeeded by P.H. Muntz, Esq., in 1839 and 1840, the election taking place at the November sitting in each year. Since 1840, the Mayoral chair has been successively filled by:—

Council House.—See "Public Buildings."

County Areas.—The total areas of this and adjoining counties are:— Warwickshire 566,458 acres, Worcestershire 472,453, Staffordshire 732,434, and Shropshire 841,167.

County Court.—First opened in Birmingham at the Waterloo Rooms, Waterloo Street, April 28th, 1847. R. G. Welford, Esq., Q.C., acting as judge until September, 1872. He was followed by H. W. Cole, Esq., Q.C., who died in June, 1876; James Motteram, Esq., Q.C., who died Sept. 19, 1884: the present judge being W. Chambers, Esq., Q.C. The Circuit (No. 21) includes the towns and places of Aston, Atherstone, Balsall Heath, Curdworth, Castle Bromwich, Erdington, Gravelly Hill, Handsworth, Harborne, King's Heath, King's Norton, Lea Marston, Little Bromwich, Maxstoke, Minworth, Moseley, Nether Whitacre, Perry Barr, Saltley, Selly Oak, Sutton Coldfield, Tamworth, Water Orton and Wishaw.

County Officials.—For names and addresses of the Lord Lieutenant, Deputy Lieutenant, High Sheriff, County Magistrates, and other official gentlemen connected with the county of Warwick, see "Red Book."

Court of Bankruptcy holden at Birmingham (at the County Court, in Corporation Street) comprises all the places within the district of the County Court of Warwickshire holden at Birmingham, Tamworth and Solihull, and all the places in the district of the County Court of Worcestershire holden at Redditch.

Court Of Judicature.—Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Walsall, and Worcester, are District Registries of the Supreme Court of Judicature.

Court Leet.—The origin of that peculiar kind of Local Government Board, known in the olden days as the Court Leet of the Manor of Birmingham, is lost in the misty shadows of our past history. Doubtless there were many onerous duties connected therewith, and very possibly the officials considered themselves as "men of high degree," but what those duties actually were, and what the remuneration for their due fulfilment, appears to have been matter of doubt, even so late as a hundred and a few odd years ago. The rights, powers, and privileges of the officers of this Court had evidently been questioned by some of our Radical-minded great-grandfathers, as we find it was deemed necessary to assemble a jury on the 20th day of October, 1779, to "ascertain and present" the same, and from a little pamphlet at that time published, we extract the following:—

The Office of Low Bailiff.—"The Jury find and present that this officer is annually elected by the Jury, and that his office is in the nature of Sheriff of the Manor; that to him all the process of the Court is to be directed, and that it is his right and duty to summon all Juries to this court. And the Low Bailiff, at each fair, is entitled to one penny for each stall or standing pitched in the said fairs."

The Office of High Bailiff.—"The Jury find and present that this Officer is annually elected by the Jury; and that it is his duty to see that the fairs be duly proclaimed, and that due order be preserved in the fairs and markets; and if he sees any person in such fairs or markets using unlawful games, to the injury of ignorant persons and thoughtless youths, he may seize them and commit them to custody, to be taken before a proper magistrate. That it is his duty to see that all persons exposing any wares for sale in the fairs or markets, or as shopkeepers within the manor, have legal weights and measures."

The other officers of the Court Leet, whose duties are also defined in the aforesaid pamphlet, are the "Constables," the "Headborough," two "Affeirers" (who looked after the rents and dues belonging to the Lord of the Manor), two "Leather Sealers" (once important officers, when there was a Leather Market, but whose duties in and about the year named seemed to be confined to attending at the yearly dinners given by the High Bailiff), two "Ale-conners, otherwise high tasters," and two "Flesh-conners, otherwise low tasters." From their name it might be thought the duties of the last named officers were limited to the inspection of meat or flesh, but it will be seen that they were of a more comprehensive character:—

"Their duty is to see that all butchers, fishmongers, poulterers, bakers, and other sellers of victuals, do not sell or expose to sale within this Manor any unwholesome, corrupt, or contagious flesh, fish, or other victuals; and in case any such be exposed to sale, we find that the said Officers, by the ancient custom of the Manor may seize, burn, or destroy the same, or otherwise present the offenders at the next Court Leet to be holden for this Manor."

As we are now officered, inspectored and policed, and generally looked after as to our eating and drinking, &c., in the most improved modern style possible, it is not necessary to further fill space by saying what the "Headborough" had to do, or how many "Constables" assisted him. The last meeting of the Court Leet, long shorn of all its honours and privileges, was held October 28, 1851.

Court Of Record.—This was also called the "Mayor's Court," and was authorised in the Charter of Incorporation for the recovery of small debts under £20, the officers consisting of a Judge, Registrar, and two Sergeants-at-Mace. In 1852 (Oct. 26) the Town Council petitioned the Queen to transfer its powers to the County Court, which was acceded to in the following spring.

Court of Requests.—Constituted by Act of Parliament in 1752 this Court for "the more easy and speedy recovery of small debts within the town of Birmingham and the adjoining hamlet of Deritend" continued in operation until the present County Court system became the law of the land. Its powers were originally limited to debts not exceeding 40s. in amount (which was increased to £5 by an Act passed in 1807), the periods of imprisonment to which defaulting debtors were liable being apportioned out at the rate of one day in durance for each shilling due, except in special cases, wherein an addition (not to exceed three months) might be the reward for fraudulent concealment of property from creditors. The "Court" consisted of no less than six dozen judges, or, as the Act styled them, "Commissioners," from whose decisions there was no appeal whatever. These Commissioners were at first chosen from the ratepayers in a haphazard style, no mental or property qualification whatever being required, though afterwards it was made incumbent that they should be possessed of an income from real estate to value of £50 per year, or be worth £1,000 personalty. From the writings of William Hutton, himself one of the Commissioners, and other sources, we gather that justice, or what was supposed to be equivalent thereto, was administered in a rough-and-ready fashion of the rudest kind, the cases being frequently disposed of at the rate of thirty to forty per hour, and when we consider that imprisonment resulted at an average of one case in ten the troubles attendant upon impecuniosity in those days may be better imagined then described. The Court House, which is now occupied by sundry tradesmen, lay a little back from High-street, nearly opposite New-street, and in itself was no mean structure, having been (it is said), erected about the year 1650, as the town house of John Jennens, or Jennings, one of the wealthy family, the claims to whose estates have been unending, as well as unprofitable, barring, of course, to the long-robed and bewigged fraternity. A narrow passage from the right of the entrance hall leads by a dark winding staircase to the cellars, now filled with merchandise, but which formerly constituted the debtors' prison, or, as it was vulgarly called, "The Louse Hole," and doubtless from its frequently-crowded and horribly-dirty condition, with half-starved, though often debauched and dissipated, occupants, the nasty name was not inappropriately given. Shocking tales have been told of the scenes and practices here carried on, and many are still living who can recollect the miserable cry of "Remember the poor debtors," which resounded morning, noon, and night from the heavily-barred windows of these underground dungeons. The last batch of unfortunates here confined were liberated August 16, 1844.

Cricket.—See "Sports."

Crime.—A few local writers like to acknowledge that Birmingham is any worse than other large towns in the matter of crime and criminals, and the old adage respecting the bird that fouls its own nest has been more than once applied to the individuals who have ventured to demur from the boast that ours is par excellence, a highly moral, fair-dealing, sober, and superlatively honest community. Notwithstanding the character given it of old, and the everlasting sneer that is connected with the term "Brummagem," the fast still remains that our cases of drunkenness are far less than in Liverpool, our petty larcenies fewer than in Leeds, our highway robberies about half compared with Manchester, malicious damage a long way under Sheffield, and robberies from the person not more than a third of those reported in Glasgow; while as to smashing and coining, though it has been flung at us from the time of William of Orange to the present day; that all the bad money ever made must be manufactured here, the truth is that five-sixths of the villainous crew who deal in that commodity obtain their supplies from London, and not from our little "hardware village." But alas! there is a dark side to the picture, indeed, for, according to the Registrar-General's return of June, 1879 (and the proportionate ratio, we are sorry to say, still remains the same), Birmingham holds the unenviable position of being the town where most deaths from violence occur, the annual rate per 1,000 being 1.08 in Birmingham, 0.99 in Liverpool, 0.38in Sheffield, 0.37 in Portsmouth, the average for the kingdom being even less than that—"the proportional fatality from violence being almost invariably more than twice as large in Birmingham as in Sheffield."

Cross.—In the Bull Ring, when Hutton first came here, a poor wayfarer seeking employ, there was a square building standing on arches called "The Cross," or "Market Cross," the lower part giving a small shelter to the few countrywomen who brought their butter and eggs to market, while the chamber above provided accommodation for meetings of a public character. When the Corn Cheaping, the Shambles, and all the other heterogeneous collection of tumbledown shanties and domiciles which in the course of centuries had been allowed to gather round St. Martin's were cleared away, the Market Cross was demolished, and its exact site is hardly ascertainable. At Dale End there was a somewhat similar erection known as the "Welsh Cross," taking its peculiar name, says Hutton, from the locality then called "Welsh End," on account of the number of Welsh people living on that side of the town; though why the "Taffies" were honoured with a distinct little market house of their own is not made clear. This building was taken down in 1803, the 3-dial clock, weathercock, &c., being advertised for sale, October 12, 1802.

Crown.—The old Crown Inn, Deritend, is one of the very few specimens we have of the style of architecture adopted in the days of old, when timber was largely used in place of our modern bricks. Leland mentions the Crown Inn as existing in 1538, and a much longer history than that is claimed for it. In 1817 there was another Old Crown Inn in New Street, on the spot where Hyam's now stands, access to the Cherry Orchard being had through its yard, the right of way thus obtained being the origin of the present Union Passage.

Crystal Palaces.—It was proposed in August, 1853, that the Corporation should join with the Midland Railway Co. and the Corporation of Sutton in the erection of a "Sydenham Palace" in Sutton Park: Birmingham to lease 250 acres for 999 years, at 1s. per acre, find from £20,000 to £30,000 for the building and divide profits, the Midland Railway Co. being willing to make branch from Bromford and run cheap trains. The scheme was highly approved, but the Suttonites killed the goose that was to lay them such golden eggs by refusing to lease the land for more than ninety-nine years and wanting 20s. per acre rent. In July, 1877, a "Sutton Park Crystal Palace Co. (Lim.)" was registered, with a capital of £25,000 in £5 shares, for buying Mr. Cole's Promenade Gardens, erecting Hotel, Aquarium, Skating Rink, Concert Hall, Winter Gardens, &c., and the shares were readily taken up. Additional grounds were purchased, and though the original plans have not yet been all carried out, a very pleasant resort is to be found there. Day's, in Smallbrook Street, is also called a "Crystal Palace," on account of the style of decoration, and the immense mirror the proprietor purchased from the Hyde Park Exhibition of 1851.

Curzon Hall, built originally for the purposes of the Dog Shows, was opened in 1865. It is the property of a company, and cost about £7,500. The building is well suited and has been often used for exhibitions, panoramas, circus entertainments, &c., the hall being 103 ft. long by 91 ft. wide; the stage is of the fullest width, with a depth of 45 ft. There is room for 3,000 seats.

Danielites.—A tribe who eschew fish, flesh, and fowl, and drink no alcohol; neither do they snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco. At a fruit banquet, held on August, 1877, it was decided to organise a "Garden of Danielites" in Birmingham.

Dates.—The most complete work giving the dates of all the leading events in the world's history is "Haydn's Book of Dates," the latest edition bringing them down to 1882. For local events, the only "Local Book of Dates" published is that of 1874, but "Showell's Dictionary of Birmingham" (by the same author), will be found to contain more reliable data than any book hitherto issued. For information of a general character, respecting the immediate neighbourhood and adjoining counties, our readers cannot do better than refer to the files of Birmingham newspapers, preserved in the Reference Library, or write to the present editors of the said papers, gentlemen noted for their urbanity, and readiness to tell anybody anything.

Dawson, George, See "Parsons, Preachers, and Priests," and "Statues."

Deaf and Dumb Asylum.—See "Philanthropic Institutions."

Debating Societies.—From time immemorial the Brums have had their little Parliaments, mostly in public-house parlours and clubrooms, and certain Sunday nights gathering at "Bob Edmonds" and other well-known houses have acquired quite an historical interest; but the regularly-constituted "Spouting Clubs" of the present day cannot claim a very long existence, the Birmingham Debating Society having held their first palaver on the 3rd of Dec., 1846. In 1855 they joined the Edgbastonians. The latest of the kind started in 1884, is known as the Birmingham Parliamentary Debating Society, and has its premier, parties, and political fights, in proper Parliamentary style.

Deer Stealers.—There was a taste for venison in more classes than one in 1765, for it was found necessary to offer rewards for the detection of those persons who stole the deer from Aston Park.