OTHER MEANS OF CAPTURING GAME.

General Remarks.--A trapper will never succeed, unless he thoroughly enters into the habits of life and mind of wild animals. He must ever bear in mind how suspicious they are; how quickly their eye is caught by unusual traces; and, lastly, how strong and enduring a taint is left by the human touch. Our own senses do not make us aware of what it is disagreeable enough to acknowledge, that the whole species of man yields a powerful and wide-spreading emanation, that is utterly disgusting and repulsive to every animal in its wild state. It requires some experience to realise this fact: a man must frequently have watched the heads of a herd of far distant animals, tossed up in alarm the moment that they catch his wind; he must have observed the tracks of animals--how, when they crossed his path of the preceding day, the beast that made the tracks has stopped, scrutinised, and shunned it--before he can believe what a Yahoo he is among the brute creation. No cleanliness of the individual seems to diminish this remarkable odour: indeed, the more civilised the man, the more subtle does it appear to be; the touch of a game-keeper scares less than that of the master, and the touch of a negro or bushman less than that of a traveller from Europe.

If a novice thinks he will trap successfully by such artless endeavours as putting a bait on the plate of a trap that is covered over with moss, or by digging a pitfall in the middle of a wild beast's track, he is utterly mistaken. The bait Should be thrown on the ground, and the trap placed on the way to it; then the animal's mind, being fixed on the meat, takes less heed of the footpath. Or a pitfall should be made near the main path; this being subsequently stopped by boughs, causes the animal to walk in the bushes, and to tumble into the covered hole. The slightest thing diverts an animal's step: watch a wild beast's path across a forest --little twigs and tufts of grass will be seen to have changed its course, and caused it to curve. It is in trifles of this sort that the trapper should look for auxiliaries. After setting traps, Mr. St. John recommends the use of a small branch of a tree; first, to smooth the ground, and then, having dipped it in water, to sprinkle the place: this entirely obliterates all foot-marks.

Springes.--General Remarks.--Harden the wood of which the mechanism has to be made, by means of fire; either baking it in hot sand or ashes, or otherwise applying heat to a degree just short of charring its surface. The mechanism will then retain the sharpness of its edges under a continuance of pressure, and during many hours of wet weather. The slighter the strain on the springe, the more delicately can its mechanism be set.

Nooses.--Catgut (which see) makes better nooses than string, because it is stiff enough to keep in shape when set: brass wife that has been heated red-hot, is excellent; for it has no tendency whatever to twist, and yet is perfectly pliable. Fish-hooks are sometimes attached to springes; sometimes a tree is bent down and a strong cord is used for the noose, by which large animals are strangled up in the air, as leopards are in Abyssinia. A noose may be set in any place where there is a run; it can be kept spread out, by thin rushes or twigs set crosswise in it. If the animal it is set for can gnaw, a heavy stone should be loosely propped up, which the animal in its struggles may set free, and by the weight of which it may be hung up and strangled. It is a very convenient plan for a traveller who has not time to look for runs, to make little hedges across a creek, or at right angles to a clump of trees, and to set his snares in gaps left in these artificial hedges. On the same principle, artificial islands of piles and faggots Are commonly made in lakes that are destitute of any real ones, in order that they may become a resort of wild-fowl.

Javelins.--Heavy poisoned javelins, hung over elephant and hippopotamus paths, and dropped on a catch being touched, after the manner of a springe, are used generally in Africa. They sometimes consist of a "sharp little assegai, or spike, most thoroughly poisoned, and stuck firmly into the end of a heavy block of thornwood, about four feet long and five inches in diameter. This formidable affair is suspended over the centre of a sea-cow path, at about thirty feet from the ground, by a bark cord, which passes over a high branch of a tree, and thence, by a peg, on one side of a path beneath." (Gordon Cumming.)

Trigger.--Where a trigger has to release a strong spring, an arrangement on the principle of a figure of 4 trap is, I believe, the most delicate; the standard may be a branch or the stock of a tree; and the other pieces should be hardened by fire.

Pitfalls.--Very small pitfalls, with sharpened stakes, planted inside them, that have been baked hard by the fire and well poisoned, are easily to be set, but they are very dangerous to man and beast. In preparing a pitfall for animals of prey, it is usual to ascertain whether they are deep enough, by putting in a large dog; if he cannot get out, it is very unlikely that any wild beast can. (See "Trous de loup," p. 312.)

Pitfalls are often dug in great numbers, near frequented watering-places, to which numerous intersecting paths lead: by stopping up particular paths, the pitfalls can be brought separately into use; therefore, those pitfalls need never be employed in which animals have been freshly killed, and where the smell of blood would scare the game. It is difficult to prevent the covers of pitfalls becoming hollow: the only way is to build the roofs in somewhat of an arch, so as to allow for subsidence. If a herd of animals be driven over pitfalls, some are sure to be pushed in, as the crush makes it impossible for the beasts, however wary, to pick their way.

Uganda Thorn-wreath.--Captain Grant found a very ingenious contrivance in use in Uganda, in Africa. Two small Stout hoops of equal diameter, made of wood fully an inch in thickness, were lashed one above the other; long acacia thorns were interposed, forming the spokes of a wheel of which the hoops formed the rim. The bases of the thorns were nipped between the hoops; and their points radiated towards the centre. A great many thorns were used, so that the appearance was that of a wheel without a nave, whose spokes were so close together that they touched each other, and, as thorns taper from base to point, the spokes touched one another along their whole length, from circumference to centre. This apparatus is always made with great neatness. It is laid over a hole 18 inches deep, dug in the beast's path, and the noose of a cord, of which the other end is secured to a log, is laid closely within the upper hoop. When the beast treads on the apparatus, he crashes through the thorns, but, on withdrawing his foot from the hole, the wreath clings to his fetlock like a ruff, and prevents the noose from slipping off. Thus there is time for the noose to become firmly jammed during the struggles of the beast. Of course, the trapper artfully bushes the path, so as to induce him to step full upon the trap. He sets a great many of them, and they require no looking after. The diameter of the hoops is made proportionate to the size of the beast for which they are intended. Six inches interior diameter was the size used for buffalo and hartebeest.

Traps.--Steel traps should never be tied fast, or the captured animal may struggle loose, or even gnaw off his leg. It is best to cut small bushes, and merely to secure the traps to their cut ends. Steel traps are of but little use to a traveller.

Hawks are trapped by selecting a bare tree, that stands in an open space: its top is sawn off level, and a trap is put upon it: the bait is laid somewhere near, on the ground: the bird is sure to visit the pole, either before or after he has fed.

Poison.--Savages frequently poison the water of drinking-places, and follow, capture, and eat the poisoned animals. Nux vomica or strychnine is a very dangerous poison to use, but it affords the best means of ridding a neighbourhood of noxious beasts and birds: if employed to kill beasts, put it in the belly; if, birds, in the eye, of the bait. Meat for killing Beasts should be set after nightfall; else the crows and other birds will be sure to find it out, and eat it up before the beasts have time to discover it. It would be unsafe to eat an animal killed with strychnine, on account of the deadliness of the poison.

The Swedes put fulminating-powder in a raw shankbone, and throw it down to the wolves; when one of these gnaws and crunches it, it blows his head to atoms.

Poisoned Bullets.--I take the following extract from 'Galignani's Messenger:'--"A new method of catching whales is now being tried with considerable success, science having contributed to its discovery. Our readers are well aware of the deadly effects of the Indian poison called wurare, or woorali, concerning which we have often had occasion to record the most interesting experiments, especially in mentioning the attempts made to use it as a specific for lockjaw, its peculiar action consisting in relaxing the muscular system. Strychnine is a poison producing the contrary effect, the excessive contraction of that system, or, in other words, tetanus, or lockjaw. It is a curious fact that by the conjunction of these two agents, so diametrically opposite in their effects, a poison is obtained that will kill almost instantly if only administered in the dose of half a milligramme per kilogramme of the animal to be subjected to its action, provided its weight do not exceed ten kilogrammes. If larger, the dose must be proportionally increased. M. Thiercelin, the inventor of this poison, composes it by mixing a salt of strychnine with one-twentieth of woorali. To apply it to whale fishing, he makes the compound up into cartridges of thirty grammes (an ounce) each, which is enough to kill an animal of 60,000 kilogrammes weight. Each cartridge is imbedded in the gunpowder contained in an explosive shell which is fired off on the whale. In a late whaling voyage ten whales received such missiles, and all died within from four to eighteen minutes after the infliction of the wound. Out of these ten whales, six were cut up for their blubber and whalebone. Their remains were handled by careless men, who frequently had scratches and sores on their skin, and yet not one of them suffered the slightest injury, a circumstance which Shows that the poison cannot be transmitted from the fish to the men. Its poisonous action on the whale is, however, so great that practically the dose will have to be diminished, so that the death of the creature may not be so sudden. We should not forget to state that two out of the ten whales above mentioned were lost by one of the many accidents incident to whaling, and that two others were of a kind that is not worth fishing for."

Poisoned Arrows.--Arrows are most readily poisoned by steeping a thread in the juice, and wrapping it round the barbs. Serpents' venom may always be used with effect.

Bird-lime can be made from the middle bark of most parasitic plants, that is to say, those that grow like mistletoe, out of the boughs of other trees. Holly and young elder shoots also afford it. The bark is boiled for seven or eight hours, till quite soft, and is then drained of its water and laid in heaps, in pits dug in the ground, where it is covered with stones and left for two or three weeks to ferment; but less time is required, if the weather be hot. It is watered from time to time, if necessary. In this way, it passes into a mucilaginous state; and is then pounded into a paste, washed in running water, and kneaded till it is free from dirt and chips. Lastly, it is left for four or five days in earthen vessels, to ferment and purify itself, when it becomes fit for use. It ought to be greenish, sour, gluey, stringy, and sticky. It becomes brittle when dry, and may be powdered; but, on being wetted, it becomes sticky again. (Ure's Dictionary.)

Vast flocks of birds frequent the scattered watering-places of dry countries at nightfall and at daybreak: by liming the sedges and bushes that grow about them, numbers of birds could be caught.

Crows may be killed by twisting up a piece of paper like an extinguisher, dropping a piece of meat in it, and smearing its sides with bird-lime. When the bird pokes his head in, his eyes are gummed up and blinded; and he towers upwards in the air, whence he soon falls down exhausted, and, it may be, dead with fright. (Lloyd.) Fish-hooks, baited with meat, are good to catch these sorts of birds.

Catching with the Hand.--Ducks.--We hear of Hindoos who, taking advantage of the many gourds floating on their waters, put one of them on their heads, and wade in among wild ducks; they pull them down, one after another, by their legs, under water; wring their necks, and tie them to their girdle. But in Australia, a swimmer binds grass and rushes, or weeds, round his head; and takes a long fishing-rod, with a slip noose working over the pliant twig that forms the last joint of the rod. When he comes near, he gently raises the end, and, putting the noose over the head of the bird, draws it under water to him. He thus catches one after another, and tucks the caught ones in his belt. A windy day is generally chosen, because the water is ruffled. (Eyre.)

Condors and Vultures are caught by spreading a raw ox-hide, under which a man creeps, with a piece of string in his hand, while one or two other men are posted in ambush close by, to give assistance at the proper moment. When the bird flies down upon the bait, his legs are seized by the man underneath the skin, and are tied within it, as in a bag. All his flapping is then useless; he cannot do mischief with his claws, and he is easily overpowered.

Bolas.--The bolas consists of three balls, composed either of lead or stone; two of them are heavy, but the third is rather lighter: they are fastened to long elastic strings, made of twisted sinews, and the ends of the strings are all tied together. The Indian holds the lightest of the three balls in his hand, and swings the two others in a wide circle above his head; then taking his aim, at the distance of about fifteen or twenty paces, he lets go the hand-ball; all the three balls whirl in a circle, and twine round the object aimed at. The aim is usually taken at the hind-legs of the animals, and, the cords twisted round them, they become firmly bound. It requires great skill and long practice to throw the boas dexterously, especially when on horseback. A novice in the art incurs the risk of dangerously hurting either himself or his horse, by not giving the balls the proper swing, or by letting go the hand-ball too soon. (Tschudi's 'Peru.')

Lasso.--It is useless that I should enter into details about making and wielding the lasso, for it is impossible to become Moderately adept in its use, without months of instruction and practice.

Hamstringing.--Animals are hamstrung by riding at them, armed with a sort of spear; the blade of which is fixed at right angles to the shaft, and has a cutting edge.

Hawking is a disappointing pursuit, owing to the frequent loss of hawks; and can hardly be carried on except in a hawking country, where the sportsman has a better chance than elsewhere, both of recovering and replacing them; it is impracticable except where the land is open and bare; and it is quite a science. There are some amateurs who will not hear a word of disparagement about their hawks, but the decided impression that I bear away with me from all I have learnt, is, that the birds are rarely affectionate or intelligent.

FISHING.

Fishing-tackle.--Fish-hooks are made of iron, not steel, wire. While the piece of wire is straight, it is laid along a little groove in a block of wood, and there barbed by the stroke of a chisel, slantwise across it. The other end is flattened by a tap of the hammer, or roughened, that it may be held by the whipping; then the point is sharpened by a file, and finished on a stone. The proper curvature is next given, and then the hook is case-hardened (see "Case-hardening"); lastly, the proper temper is given, by heating the hook red-hot, and quenching it in grease.

A traveller should always take a few hooks with him: they should be of the very small and also of the middling-sized sorts; he might have a dozen of each sort whipped on to gut; and at least a couple of casting-lines, with which to use them: also several dozens of tinned iron fish-hooks, of various sizes, such as are used at sea; and plenty of line.

Fishing-lines.--Twisted sinews will make a fishing-line. To make a strong fine line, unravel a good silk handkerchief, and twist the threads into a whipcord. (See also "Substitutes for String.")

Gut is made from silkworms; but the scrapings of the membrane in the manufacture of catgut (see "Sinew-thread") Make a fine, strong, and somewhat transparent thread: twisted horsehair can almost always be obtained: and boiling this in soap-lees, takes away its oiliness.

Shoemakers' Wax is made by boiling together common resin and any kind of soft grease, which does not contain salt, such as oil or butter. A sixth or seventh part of pitch makes it more tough, but it is not absolutely necessary for making the wax. Try if the quantity of grease is sufficient by dipping the stick with which the wax is stirred, into water to cool it. When the wax is supposed to be successfully made, pour it into water, then taking it out while yet soft, pull it and stretch it with your wet hands as much as it will bear; do this over and over again, after dipping it in lukewarm water, till it is quite tough. Wax is used of different degrees of hardness, according as the weather is warm or cold.

Reel. If you have no reel, make a couple of gimlet-holes, six inches apart, in the butt of your rod, at the place where the reel is usually clamped; drive wooden pegs into these, and wind your spare line round them, as in fig. 1.

The pegs should not be quite square with the butt, but should slope a little, each away from the other, that the line may be better retained on them.

A long line is conveniently wound on a square frame, as shown in the annexed sketch (fig. 2); and a shorter line, as in fig. 3.

If you have no equivalent for a reel, and if your tackle is slight, and the fish likely to be large, provide yourself with A bladder or other float; tie it to the line, and cast the whole adrift.

Trimmers are well known, and are a convenient way of fishing the middle of a pool, with only a short line. Anything will do for the float--a bladder or a bottle is very good.

To recover a lost Line, make a drag of a small bushy tree with plenty of branches, that are so lopped off as to leave spikes on the trunk. This is to be weighted with a stone, and dragged along the bottom.

Otters.--What is called "an otter" is useful to a person on the shore of a wide river or lake which he has no other means of fishing: it is a very successful at first, but soon scares the fish; therefore it is better suited to a traveller than to an ordinary sportsman. It is made as follows:--A board of light wood, fourteen inches long and eight inches high, or thereabouts, is heavily weighted along its lower edge, so as to float upright in the water; a string like the bellyband of a kite, and for the same purpose, is fastened to it; and to this belly-band the end of a line, furnished with a dozen hooks at intervals, is tied. As the fisherman walks along the bank, the otter runs away from him, and carries his line and hooks far out into the stream. It is very convenient to have a large hand-reel to wind and unwind the line upon; but a forked stick will do very well.

Boat fishing.--In fishing with a long ground-line and many hooks, it is of importance to avoid entanglements; make a box in which to coil the line, and a great many deep saw-cuts across the sides, into which the thin short lines, to which the hooks are whipped, may be jammed.

Fishermen who do not use oars, but paddles, tie a loop to their line: they put their thumb through the loop, and fish while they paddle.

To see Things deep under Water, such as dead seals, use a long box or tube with a piece of glass at the lower end; this removes entirely the glare of the water and the effects of a rippled surface. Mr. Campbell, of Islay, suggests that a small glass window might be let into the bottom of the boat: Plate-glass would be amply strong enough. (See "Water-spectacles.")

Nets.--A small square net may be best turned to account by sinking it in holes and other parts of a river which fish frequent; throwing in bait to attract them over it; and then hauling up suddenly. The arrangement shown in the figure is very common. A seine net may be furnished with bladder for floats, or else with pieces of light wood charred to make them more buoyant. The hauling-ropes may be made of bark steeped for three weeks, till the inner bark separates from the outer, when the latter is twisted into a rope. (Lloyd.) Wherever small fish are swimming in shoals near the surface, there the water is sure to be rippled.

Spearing Fish.--The weapon used (sometimes called the "grains") is identical with Neptune's or Britannia's trident, only the prongs should be more numerous and be placed nearer together, in order to catch small fish: the length of the handle gives steadiness to the blow. In spearing by torchlight, a broad oval piece of bark is coated with wet mud, and in it a blazing fire is lighted. It is fixed on a stage, or it is held in the bow of the boat, so high as to be above the spearman's eyes. He can see everything by its light, especially if the water be not above four feet deep, and the bottom sandy. But there are not many kinds of wood that will burn with a sufficiently bright flame; the dry bark of some resinous tree is often used. If tarred rope can be obtained, it may simply be wound round a pole fixed in the bow of the boat, and lighted. Fish can also be shot with a bow and a barbed arrow, to which a string is attached.

Intoxicating Fish.--Lime thrown into a pond will kill the fish; and the similar but far more energetic properties of Cocculus Indicus are well known. Throughout tropical Africa and in South America, the natives catch fish by poisoning them. Dams are made, which, when the river is very low, Enclose deep pools of water with no current; into these the poison is thrown: it intoxicates the fish, which float and are taken by the hand.

Otters, Cormorants, and Dogs.--Both otters and cormorants are trained to catch fish for their masters; and dogs are trained by the Patagonians to drive fish into the nets, and to frighten them from breaking loose when the net is being hauled in. Cormorants, in China, fish during the winter from October to May, working from 10 A.M. to 5 P.M., at which hour their dinner is given to them. When they fish, a straw tie is put round their necks, to keep them from swallowing the fish, but not so tight as to slip down and choke them. A boat takes out ten or twelve of these birds. They obey the voice: if they are disobedient, the water near them is struck with the back of the oar; as soon as one of them has caught a fish, he is called to the boat, and the oar is held out for him to step upon. It requires caution to train a cormorant, because the bird has a habit, when angry, of striking with its beak at its instructor's eye with an exceedingly rapid and sure stroke.

SIGNALS.

Colomb and Bolton's flashing signals, adopted in our Army and Navy, and used in many other countries as well, are eminently suited to the wants of an expedition. Anything may be used for signalling, that appears and disappears, like a lantern, or an opened and closed umbrella, or that moves, as a waved flag or a person walking to and fro on the crest of a hill against the sky. Sound also can be employed, as long and short whistles. Their use can be thoroughly taught in two hours, and however small the practice of the operators, communication, though slow, is fairly accurate, while in practised hands its rapidity is astonishing. The proportion of time occupied by the flashes and intervals is as follows. (I extract all the rest of the article from the pamphlet published by the inventors of the system.)

Flashing Signals, with Flags.--Supposing the short flash to be half a second in duration, the long flash should be fully a second and a half. The interval between the flashes forming a figure should be equal to a short flash, and the interval between two figures should be equal to a long flash. After the last figure of the signal is finished, there should be a pause equal to at least one-third of the time taken up by the figures. After this pause, the signal should be again repeated with the same measured flashes and intervals, and so continued until answered by all to whom it is addressed.

Care must be taken never to commence a fresh signal before the answers to the last have ceased; and signals are never to be answered until their repetitions have been observed a sufficient number of times to make an error impossible.

The signalman may work from left to right, or from right to left, as shown in figs. 1 and 2, according to convenience and the direction of the wind. To make a short flash, the flag is waved from a to b, and back to the normal position a. To make a long flash, the flag is waved from a to c, and back to the normal position a.

The numerals 1 to 5 are, therefore, denoted by one to five waves of the flag from a to b, recovering to a.

The numeral 6 by a wave from a to c, recovering to a. The numeral 7 by a wave from a to b, back to a, and then to c, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 8 is denoted by a wave from a to c, back to a, and then to b, recovering to the normal position a. The numeral 9 is denoted by two waves from a to b, and one from a to c. The numeral 0 by one wave from a to c, recovering again to a, and then two waves from a to b. The other signs are made in the same manner, so that a short motion shall always represent a short flash, and a long motion a long flash.

On the completion of the motions required for each sign, the flag must always be brought to the position a. When the word, or group of figures, is completed, the flag may be lowered in front of the body.

In receiving a message, the flag should always be kept in the position a, except when answering.

In waving the flag, the point of the staff should be made to describe a figure of 8 in the air to keep the flag clear.

Each signal party must consist of not less than two men, whose duties will be as follows:--

In receiving messages: No. 1 works the flag for answering, etc., and refers to the code for the interpretation of the numbers received, and calls out the words to No. 2. No. 2 fixes the telescope and reads from the distant station, calling out the numbers as they are made for the information of No. 1, and writes down the numbers and meaning thereof.

Suppose station "A" in communication with station "B":--No. 1 at "A" on being told by No. 2 that "B" is about to send a message, takes up his position at attention, holding the flag over the left arm and under the right, or vice versa across his body, according to the wind, with the code book in his hand. No. 2 fixes his eyes on the glass, and on receiving the numbers from "B" calls them out to No. 1, who ascertains their meaning from the code, and gives the words to No. 2, who writes them down in his book, and then placing his eye to the glass, tells No. 1 to make the answer. No. 2 does not, however, direct the answer to be made until he is sure of the correctness of the signal received.

Flashing Alphabet, for Use without a Code.--The following alphabet, etc., can be used under circumstances when it is not convenient or possible to have recourse to the Signal Book, and forms in itself a perfect telegraphic system, necessarily somewhat slow in its application, but having the great advantage of requiring very little previous knowledge and practice to work with correctness. The symbols and numbers expressing the alphabet are identical with those forming the alphabet in the Signal Book.

All particulars as to the machines and lanterns used in the Service, for making these flashing signals, and the code, can be procured at W. Nunn and Co.'s Army and Navy Lamp and Signal Works, 65, George Street East, London, E.

Reflecting the Sun with a Mirror.--To attract the notice of a division of your party, five or even ten miles off, glitter a bit of looking-glass in the sun, throwing its flash towards where you expect them to be. It is quite astonishing at how great a distance the gleam of the glass will catch the sharp eyes of a bushman who has learnt to know what it is. It is now a common signal in the North American prairies. (Sullivan.) It should be recollected that a passing flash has far less briliancy than one that dwells for an appreciable time on the retina of the observer; therefore the signaller should do all he can to steady his aim. I find the steadiest way of holding the mirror is to rest the hand firmly against the forehead, and to keep the eyes continually fixed upon the same distant object. The glare of the sun that is reflected from each point of the surface of a mirror forms a cone of light whose vertical angle is constant, and equal to that subtended by the sun. Hence when a flash is sent to a distant place, the size of the mirror is of no appreciable importance in affecting the size of the area over which the flash is visible. That area is the section of the fasciculus of cones that proceed from each point of the mirror, which, in the case we have supposed, differs immaterially from the cone reflected from a single point. Hence, if a man watches the play of the flash from his mirror upon a very near object, it will appear to him of the shape and size of the mirror; but as he retreats from the object, the edges of the flash become rounded, and very soon the flash appears a perfect circle, of precisely the same apparent diameter as the disc of the sun: it will, in short, look just like a very faint sun. The signaller has to cause this disc of light to cover the person whose notice he wishes to attract. I will proceed to show how he can do so; but in the mean time it will be evident that a pretty careful aim is requisite, or he will fail in his object. The steadiness of his aim must be just twice as accurate, neither more nor less, as would suffice to point a rifle at the sun when it was sufficiently obscured by a cloud to bear being looked at: for the object of the aim is of the same apparent size, but a movement of a mirror causes the ray reflected from it to move through a double angle.

The power of these sun-signals is extraordinarily great. The result of several experiments that I made in England showed that the smallest mirror visible under atmospheric conditions such that the signaller's station was discernible, but dim, subtended an angle of only one-tenth of a second of a degree. It is very important that the mirror should be of truly plane and parallel glass, such as instrument-makers procure; the index glass of a full-sized sextant is very suitable for this purpose: there is a loss of power when there is any imperfection in the glass. A plane mirror only three inches across, reflects as much of the sun as a globe of 120 feet diameter; it looks like a dazzling star at ten miles' distance.

To direct the flash of the Mirror.--There are makeshift ways of directing the flash of the mirror; as, by observing its play on an object some paces off, nearly in line with the station it is wished to communicate with. In doing this, two cautions are requisite: first, the distance of the object must be so large compared to the diameter of the mirror that the play of the flash shall appear truly circular and exactly like a faint sun (see preceding paragraph): secondly, be careful to bring the eye to the very edge of the mirror; there should be as little "dispart" as possible, as artillerymen would say. Unless these cautions be attended to very strictly, the flash will never be seen at the distant station.

An object, in reality of a white colour but apparently dark, owing to its being shaded, shows the play of a mirror's flash better than any other. The play of a flash, sent through an open window, on the walls of a room, can be seen at upwards of 100 yards. It is a good object by which to adjust my hand heliostat, which I describe below. Two bits of paper and a couple of sticks, arranged as in the drawing, serve pretty well to direct a flash. Sight the distant object through the holes in the two bits of paper, A and B, at the ends of the horizontal stick; and when you are satisfied that the stick is properly adjusted and quite steady, take your mirror and throw the shadow of A upon B, and further endeavour to throw the white speck in the shadow of A, corresponding to its pin-hole in it, through the centre of the hole in B. Every now and then lay the mirror aside, and bend down to see that A B continues to be properly adjusted.

Hand Heliostat.--Some years ago, I took great pains to contrive a convenient pocket instrument, by which a traveller should be able to signal with the sun, and direct his flash with certainty, in whatever direction he desired. I did so in the belief that a signalling power of extraordinary intensity could thus be made use of; and, I am glad to say, I succeeded in my attempt. I at last obtained a pretty pocket instrument, the design of which I placed in the hands of Messrs. Troughton and Simms; and upon the earlier models of which I read a paper before the British Association in 1858. I called it a "hand heliostat." I always carry one when I travel, for it is a continual source of amusement. The instrument is shown in fig. 1 (p. 280), and its principle is illustrated by fig. 2. The scale is about 2/3.

E is the eye of the signaller; M the mirror; and L, S, fig. 2, a tube containing at one end, L, a lens, and at the other, S, a screen of white porcelain or unpolished ivory, placed at the exact solar focus of L: a shade, K, with two holes in it, is placed before L. Let R, r, be portions of a large pencil of parallel rays, proceeding from any one point on the sun's surface, and reflected from the mirror, as R' r' (fig. 2). R' impinges upon the lens, L, through one of the holes in K, and R' goes free toward some distant point, O. Those that impinge on the lens will be brought to a focus on S, where a bright speck of light might be seen. This speck radiates light in all direction; some of the rays, proceeding from it, impinge on the lens at the other hole in the shade K, as shown in fig. 2, and are reduced by its agency to parallelism with r' and R', that is, with the rays that originally left the mirror: consequently E, looking partly at the edge of the lens, and partly into space, sees a bright speck of light in the former, coincident with the point O in the latter.

What is true for one point in the sun's disc, is true for every point in it. Accordingly, the signaller sees an image of the sun, and not a mere speck of light, in the lens; and the part of the landscape which that image appears to overlay, is precisely that part of it over which the flash from his mirror extends; or, in other words, it is that from any point of which a distant spectator may see some part or other of the sun's disc reflected in the mirror. There is no difficulty in signalling when the sun is far behind the back, if the eye-tubes are made to pull out to a total length of five inches, otherwise the shadow of the head interferes. For want of space, the drawing represents the tubes as only partly drawn out. The instrument is perfectly easy to manage, and letters can be signalled by flashes. Its power is perfectly marvellous. On a day so hazy that colours on the largest scale--such as green fields and white houses--are barely distinguishable at seven miles' distance, a looking-glass no larger than the finger-nail transmits its signals clearly visible to the naked eye.

I have made a makeshift arrangement on the principle of my heliostat, using the object glass of an opera-glass for the lens, and an ordinary looking-glass: the great size and short focus of the object glass is a great convenience when using a mirror with a wide frame.

Professor W. H. Miller, the Foreign Secretary of the Royal Society, has since invented a yet more compact method of directing the flash, which he has described in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1865. It consists of a plate of silvered glass, one of whose rectangular corners is accurately ground and polished. On looking into the corner when the glass is properly held an image of the sun is seen, which overlays the actual flash. Beautifully simple as this instrument is, I do not like it so much as my own, for the very fact of its requiring no "setting" is its drawback. With mine, when the image of the sun is lost it is immediately found again by simply rotating the instrument on its axis; but with Professor Miller's the image must be felt for wholly anew.

Fire Signals.--Fire-beacons, hanging up a lantern, or setting fire to an old nest high up in a tree, serve as night-signals; but they are never to be depended on without previous concert, as bushes and undulations of the ground will often hide them entirely. The sparks from a well-struck flint and steel can be seen for much more than a mile.

Smoke Signals.--The smoke of fires is seen very far by day; and green wood and rotten wood make the most smoke. It is best to make two fires 100 yards apart, lest your signalling should be mistaken for an ordinary fire in the bush. These double fires are a very common signal to vessels in the offing, on the African coast.

Other Signals.--By Sight.--A common signal for a distant scout is, that he should ride or walk round and round in a circle from right to left, or else in one from left to right.

Mr. Parkyns, speaking of Abyssinia, describes the habits of a caste of robbers in the following words:--"At other times they will lie concealed near a road, with scouts in every direction on the look-out; yet no one venturing to speak, but only making known by signs what he may have to communicate to his companions or leader. Thus he will point to his ear and foot on hearing footsteps, to his eyes on seeing persons approach, or to his tongue if voices be audible; and will also indicate on his fingers the numbers of those coming, describing also many particulars as to how many porters, beasts of burden or for riding, there may be with the party."

A kite has been suggested as a day signal; and also a kite with some kind of squib, let off by a slow-light and attached to its tail, as one by night. (Colonel Jackson.)

Sound.--Whistling through the fingers can be heard at considerable distances: the accomplishment should be learnt. Cooing in the Australian fashion, or jvdling in that of the Swiss, are both of them heard a long way. The united holloa of many voices, is heard much further than separate cries. The cracking of a whip has a very penetrating sound.

Smells.--An abominable smell arrests the attention at night.

Letters carried by Animals.--In short reconnoitring expeditions made by a small detachment from a party, the cattle or dogs are often wild, and run home to their comrades on the first opportunity; in the event of not being able to watch them, owing to accident or other cause, advantage may be taken of their restlessness, by tying a note to one of their necks, and letting them go and serve as postmen, or rather as carrier-pigeons.

BEARINGS BY COMPASS, SUN, ETC.

Pocket Compass.--A pocket compass should not be too small; if one of the little toy compasses be carried in the pocket, it should be as a reserve, and not for regular use. A toy compass will of course tell N. from N.N.E., and the like; and that may be very useful information, but the traveller will find that he constantly needs more precise directions. He doubts the identity of some hill or the destination of some path, and finds on referring to his map, that the difference of bearing upon which he must base his conclusion, is small: he therefore requires a good sized compass, to determine the bearing with certainty. One from 1 1/2 to 2 inches in diameter is practically the best. It should have plenty of depth, so that the card may traverse freely, even when the instrument is inclined: it should be light in weight, that it may not be easily jarred by a blow; the catch that relieves the card, when the instrument is closed, should be self-acting and should act well: lastly the movements of the needle should be quick; one that makes slow oscillations should be peremptorily refused, whatever its other merits may be: the graduation of the degrees on the card should be from 0 degrees to 360 degrees, North being 0 degrees and East 90 degrees. I wish some optician would make aluminum cards. The material can be procured as foil, like tinfoil. It can then be stamped and embossed, in which case it retains its shape perfectly, but I cannot satisfy myself as to a good pattern, nor do I see how to make the North and South halves of the disc sufficiently different in appearance.

Compass for use at night.--The great majority of compasses are well-nigh useless in the dark, that is, when it is most important to be able to consult them. They are rarely so constructed, that the difference between the north and south sides is visible by moonlight or by the light of a cigar or piece of tinder. The more modern contrivances are very effective; in these the southern half of the compass card is painted black, the northern being left white. With a very faint light, this difference can be appreciated. In compasses consisting simply of a needle, the north end of the needle should have a conspicuous arrow-head. It is extraordinary how much the power of seeing a compass or a watch at night is increased by looking nearly at it through a magnifying-glass. Thus, young people who can focus their vision through a wide range may be observed poring with their eyes close to their books when the light wanes. So again, at night-time, a placard, even in large type, is illegible at a short distance, but easily read on approaching it. It seems, in order that a faint image on the retina should be appreciated by the nerves of sight, that image must have considerable extent.

Moonlight or the light of a cigar may be condensed on the compass by a burning glass, or other substitute for it. (See "Burning Glass.")

True and Magnetic Bearings.--The confusion between true and magnetic bearings is a continual trouble, even to the most experienced travellers. Sir Thomas Mitchell's exploring party very nearly sustained a loss by mistaking the one for the other. I recommend that the points of the compass, viz. North, N.N.E., etc., should be solely used for the traveller for his true bearings; and the degrees, as 25 degrees (or N. 25 degrees E.), for his magnetic. There would then be no reason why the two nomenclatures should interfere with one another, for a traveller's recollection of the lay of a country depends entirely upon true bearings--or sunrise, sunset, and the stars--and is expressed by North, N.N.E., etc.; but his surveying data which find no place in his memory, but are simply consigned to his note-book, are necessarily registered in degrees. To give every facility for carrying out this principle, a round of paper should be pasted in the middle of the traveller's pocket-compass card, just large enough to hide the ordinary rhumbs, but leaving uncovered the degrees round its rim. On this disk of paper the points of the compass (true bearings) should be marked so as to be as exact as possible for the country about to be visited.

Errors in Magnetic Bearings.--The compass-needle is often found to be disturbed, and sometimes apparently bewitched, when laid upon hill-tops; even when they consist of bare masses of granite. The disturbance is easily accounted for by the hornblende in the granite, or by other iron-bearing rocks. Explorers naturally select hills as their points of triangulation; but compass observations on hill-tops, if unchecked by a sextant observation of the sun's bearings, are never so reliable as those taken on a plain.