The intestines as usual taper almost gradually from the stomach and œsophagus, and are gorged with greenish pulp.
This is worth following up. It is scarcely credible, but that the species are really different; or if not, the variety in the length will considerably diminish the value of the length of canal as a principle of arrangement. {484}
The glaucous long-peduncled, large-flowered Statice is limited to the east side of Kaloo. On this side another species occupies similar elevations, viz., 9,500 to 10,500 feet; it is a good deal like the one met with towards Ghuzni. These species are less alpine than the short-peduncled species with large flowers, which continues all over Kaloo, being in great perfection on the west side, near the summit. Another short-peduncled species appears on the descent, close to upper Topehee. Towards this Royleoid occurs but sparingly, and the first change takes place in the abundance of Salicornia or Kochia. Also about this, Peganum and Salvia reoccur, both kinds not being uncommon about Bamean.
Lactuca dislocata occurs throughout.
The vegetation of Bamean is that of Topehee, but the small flowered Tamarisk is scarce—Potentilla anserina is common, Hyoscyamus spinosus of Kaloo occurs.
The Bamean river divides the Kohi-Baba from the Hindoo-koosh, but both are obviously of the same system, i.e. they divide the ranges to the north. To the east their offsets are divided by the Kaloo river. The direction of the Hindoo-koosh and that of the Kohi-Baba, is about 115 west. The space to the west consists of a low, rather flat plateau, (as it appears from the top of Kaloo,) this flat belongs to the Kohi-Baba range; the offsets of the Hindoo-koosh to the east and north are ordinarily shaped. All the hills on the north side of the valley disintegrate on their south faces, forming cliffs of partial extent.
13th.—Proceeded to Akrobat, ascending the Bamean river, and then diverging up a kotul or acclivity of considerable height, but gradual ascent. Then descending at once steeply to Akrobat, which is about 9,500 feet above the sea. Along the river, Rosa, Hippophæ, and Salix occur, the two former being abundant. Scarcely any change in vegetation occurs: an Ephedra, very common up the kotul and abundantly in fruit. The hills are very barren, and nothing remarkable is observable about Syghan. Apricot constitutes the only fruit tree. Salix, Populus, and Sinjit occur.
All the valleys are narrow, and the hills very barren, the chief vegetation being Salsolaceæ. The vegetation of the valleys is the same as that of Bamean; on the north of Akrobat two Statice occur, one with spathulate leaves scapigerous, the other a tall straggling plant.
22nd.—Erak. The vegetation of Kurzar consists of Hypericum, Salsolaceæ, Carduacea, and Hyoscyamus spinosus, but Salsolaceæ occur in profusion and several species.
Hypericum enjoys to perfection, the faculty of condensing water on its leaves, much more so than Salsolaceæ; it presents an obvious affinity to Rutaceæ, capsula radiata 5-valvis, loculicida: valvis linea centrali notatis, septis solutis imo apice exceptis. Seminibus basi locul. affixis, apice villosis; the tobacco is different from the Nicot. tobaccum, cor. virida tubo calyce, duplo longiore lamina brevi plicato: apricots in sheltered places.
24th.—Kurzar. The Erak kotul is thickly covered with Festuca triticoides, two Carduaceæ, Salvia, Artemisiæ, and Statices on the south side. On the north Statices, Onosma, and Carduaceæ are most common, and the vegetation is scantier. Ribes is common up the Erak ravine; with it, Rosa and Symphorema are the chief shrubs. Ephedra ceases about 10,000 feet. A snake found of general grey colour, with black-brown marking.
26th.—Ascended Kohi-Baba from upper Kaloo, the ascent occupied about five hours, the ridge was surmounted but no view of Baissoat was obtained, except that the crest surmounted, as well as the still loftier culminating one belong to ridges running 30° north from a main ridge, the passes of which, although apparently the same height as the peak surmounted, are much more heavily covered with snow. These passes do not appear very difficult.
At 2 P.M. set up the barometer on the ridge, the mercury stood 17.354. Therm. in cistern, 79.5. Detached Therm. in sun 85°—on the ground 105°.
September 2nd.—At 2½ P.M. the barometer stood 17.356.
Assuming this to give about 15,000 feet, none of the peaks will be found to be higher than 16,500. The culminating point was close by, and did not appear more than 1,000 feet above me. The different ridges are separated by deep spaces in which snow lies to a considerable extent.
Having descended a considerable way I again set up the barometer. Time 4-45 P.M.
The mercury stood at 18.889.
The vegetation continues unaltered, the same as that of Kaloo kotul.
Carduaceæ, Astragali, Nardoid, Bromoid, Hordeoid pubescens, and Statices. And up to this, which may be assumed as 13,500 feet, the hills present the same features, rounded with a good deal of soil, and large granitic masses.
But above this the disintegration of the ridge has reached a great extent; for 1,500 to 2,000 feet the ascent is steep, passing over a profusion of blocks and slabs of granite, generally externally of a dark brown colour; here and there there is some coarse granular soil, and towards the second station, say at an altitude of 14,000 feet, a marshy spot occurred, crowded with Primula, together with Arenaria, Fumaria of Erak, Ranunculus of Hajeeguk, Carex, etc. From within 1,000 feet of the summit the ascent was easier, over ground composed entirely of small angular bits of granite, which rock protrudes to the north, forming the south wall of a huge amphitheatre, heavily snowed in places.
This granite varies much; being below a coarse quartzose grey rock, above a very compact brown rock, except perhaps in its lowest outcrop, where it has a slaty structure.
The second station may be assumed as the lowest limit of the inferior snow line, but this so much depends on casual circumstances that even many places at 15,000 feet are uncovered by snow, which as might be expected is always heaviest in the higher valleys which are least exposed to the sun’s rays. The surface of the snow in many places was picturesque, being in the shape of crowded pinnacled ridges, the interstices from 4 to 5 feet deep, holding water or ice. I saw from the summit a flock of the large grouse, and at 14,000 feet, a large hare.
The peak surmounted is the lowest, and the nearest to Upper Kaloo. The granite on the west side formed a precipitous cliff of 200 to 300 feet deep.
The vegetation of the slope with small fragments, say between 14 to 15,000 feet was very scanty, a Cheiranthus, Polygonum scariosum, Papaveraceæ, Phloxoides and Statice, being the only plants; and perhaps this may be assumed as having no particular plant, all those enumerated being found below.
The vegetation of the steep rugged portion, which contained many patches of snow and better soil, was more varied; in the upper parts of this a Carex, two or three Graminæ, Cheiranthus, Plectranthus, Sedoides, Arenaria, Potentilla, Primula, Draboides and Brassicacea occurred. A Tanacetoid was perhaps the most common.
The most alpine forms of these were Carex, Holcoides, Sedoides, Statice densissima, and Papaveracea; but of these Papaveracea, Phloxoid, Statice densissima, Cheiranthus, and Polygonum are alone found above. Here again the effect of the proximity of a bed of snow in retarding vegetation was most evident. Phloxoides elsewhere partly in flower, being found in full flower near one of the beds of snow.
It is curious that no green spots are found above, all the water passing down under the soil, the swardy ravines scarcely extend beyond an elevation of 1,500 feet above the camp on Upper Kaloo.
The limit of the grey shrubby Salix may be taken as 1,000 feet above that, the other plants are precisely the same as those of other swards; Abelia extends higher than Salix.
The limit of crops is about the same, the issue of the water obviously being in relation to the extent of cultivation by irrigation. The associated plants present no change.
23rd.—Cabul. Curious transformation in Carthamus was observed, either affecting the involucrum alone, when those branches that would have become flowers become clavate, covered with very dense aristate leaves, or affecting the florets which become more or less converted in the branches. In these the involucre is little altered, and the receptacle is attacked by larva. In certain of these the florets are submitted to very curious metamorphoses, each envelope remaining, but quite green, the stamina being little changed, the pistillum changed into a leaf-bearing branch, the stigmata, etc. into two leaves.
This is chiefly remarkable because of the general tardiness of change in the stamina, since it shows that the binary formation of the pistillum is a primary effect: it may be asked, if the number should be 5, why has it not reverted to its original or typical state? The calyx is not reducible to 5. The permanency of the character of aggregate flowers is here shown, as well as in Echinops, so that it is scarcely probable we shall ever meet a compositious flower solitary in the axil of an ordinary leaf.
To be examined hereafter in detail.
If wood is a descending formation, produced by leaves, how are woody tendrils to be accounted for. In the vine the ancient tendrils are perfectly woody, although this may not be true wood, yet it is truly fibrous, and I ask, from what is it formed?
The growth of young shoots is at once a proof that the whole system may be formed from ascending growth, for in many we find woody fibre complete, though not indurated, and all the leaves from which wood is said to be formed are only in a rudimentary state.
October 2nd.—Seh-Baba. Spiræa belloides, commonish on limestone rocks in the ravine near the road which leads from Tazeen valley to Khubur-i-Jubbur. This limestone is in thin strata; the strata are subdivided by quartzose veins, they occur generally at a dip of from 15 to 20 degrees, but are occasionally quite vertical or highly wavy, presenting evidence of concentrated force upwards. The outcrop wears an uniform aspect, and occurs to the north of the ravine. The south here and there presents sheets of rock, the overlying strata having slipped off. The strike of the strata is north and south.
Coal is said by Hatchet to be formed chiefly from the resinous principles of plants,—this would account for its appearance when burnt, which is the same as that of burnt bitumen. But resinous principles are, even when they exist, of partial extent only in plants. In good coal the whole of the vegetable substance seems to be transformed, a supposition barely compatible with Hatchet’s idea.
To study this, extensive examination of coal in all degrees of formation would be necessary, beginning with the wood so curiously changed by the Brahmapootra, i.e. brown coal occurring in its sand banks, and which has a very peculiar and disagreeable odour when burning. It would also be necessary to examine how far the coal-plants exhibit vegetable structure, are they mere impressions or are they the plants themselves changed? To what extent do these agree with coal? What particular plants and what parts of these appear to have formed coal? Its fibrous structure would hint at formation from the woody system, and it is not incompatible with the deliquescence of a thick layer of drift.
The plants of coal fields having been drifted, can only give us an idea of the vegetation along the natural drains of the then country, such may by no means have had one universal character.
The plants of the open surface of modern tropical countries being generally different from those along the beds of streams, in which situations now-a-days Equiseteæ, Lycopods and Filicis are chiefly found. Coal being drift, it follows that the plants of the coal fields can give us no information on the distribution of vegetables in those days; to gain information on this, the fossils should be in their original situation. And there again an obstacle may exist in our not being able to ascertain the height or level of that situation.
If the plants of coal fields are found to be converted into coal, then the only difference between coal shale, and coal will consist in the very small proportion of vegetable matter in the former.
The small number of coal plants, i.e. the small number of species, at once points to the supposition that fossil plants are confined to those of the most indestructible nature: here again is another sign of this in the preponderance of Ferns, which Lindley finds to be the most permanent.
Hence the preponderance of Ferns, is by no means explainable by their greatest simplicity of form, and consequent priority of formation.
From Peshawur to Lahore.
October 14th.—Peshawur.—Cucurbitaceæ. The petals of cucurbita were observed in one instance united along two of the corollal sinuses to the staminal column, alternating with the smaller stamina; the processes were produced upwards into petaloid appendages.
17th.—Proceeded to Nowshera. As far as Pubbe the road extended chiefly through a cultivated country, thence as far as could be judged at night, over a plain country covered with coarse grass, and here and there (whenever a sufficiently gravelly surface occurred) among the thick of Bheir, which is here used for fences; Mudar, Ærua, Nerioides and Adhatoda occurred; Furas a common tree.
18th.—Reached Khairabad. The same kind of country as about Nowshera, stony or sandy, with extensive tracts covered with Bheir, Mudar, and Ærua as before, Mimosa common towards Geedur Gulli, and on it also Kureel, which appears for the first time as it was not seen about Jumrood. On to-day’s march many grasses are apparent, the pale Saccharoid grass of Jugdulluck common, a species of Cynodon (given to me by Dr. Ritchie at Dhukk) very common, a Pommereullioid, a curious Schœnanthus, a Poa, all are coarse and cover a large tract towards Geedur Gulli: Barleria spinosa appears.
Geedur Gulli is a ravine winding in and out in a curious manner among low hills at the north-west end of what is called the Afredi Spur. Mimosa very common, Kureel, Dodonæa and Edgeworthia, neither very common, but Moarcurra and Euonymus are both rather common. Mudar common; some Andropogons, of which one is the same as that of the Khyber. Bheir very common, also a Mimosa like the common Babool, but flowers unscented. Chokeys, or police stations are situated along the whole line of road to Peshawur. Adhatoda common at the entrance to Geedur Gulli where the scenery is rather pretty; Adiantum common on banks near the water; the hills of Geedur Gulli are rather thickly sprinkled with wood.
The Cabul river is here a large stream, with a moderate confined bed between high banks on which Akora and Khairabad are situated. The view of the Indus from Geedur Gulli presents a desolate look of sand, which extends over a large space visible through a break in the hills to the north. The passage of the Indus through the Attock range seen from the same point is curious; but general remarks on scenery can be of no use, except when they are founded on an intimate acquaintance with the country. The most natural course, i.e. one less impeded by mountains, would seem to be to the east instead of south.
Mulberry, Salix angustifolia, or willow, and Buckein, were seen at Attock. The scenery is not however bold, but on the contrary very poor compared with the defiles of the Irrawadi. The hills are low, rounded, and present no precipices of striking dimensions. An old fort situated near the junction of the rivers is a handsome looking building, but completely commanded. A large Serai or place for travellers is situated near it to the north. The water of the Indus is muddy, but presents nothing remarkable in temperature. The analogous points between the Indus and Irrawadi consist in defiles and the want of branches for a long way above their mouths. Jackdaws were the first old acquaintances I met with on entering Peshawur; and the common kite, the Affghan one not having the same thrilling cry that the Indian one has; grey partridges are found about Nowshera; as also Kuchaloo or Yams.
19th.—Proceeded over the plain to Chuch and Khot-bha, winding along the Attock hill round to the fort, and passing the Serai, and another smaller one in ruins near the plains, thence over level ground to within two miles of Bhowli, where conspicuous trees were observed, otherwise the plain is rather barren, a few Bheirs and some Phœnix only occurring about villages on hills. The vegetation is the same. Chuch plain, where not cultivated, is covered with short coarse grasses, Andropogoneæ. Among these a large-leaved Salvia occurs. The forms presented by the vegetation are however very little diversified. Mudar, a small-fruited Kochia, like that of Jallalabad; Bœrhaavia very common.
Cultivation is conducted in Bheir fences, and consists of Indian-corn, Bajra, and cotton.
From the Attock hills, the Indus is seen much divided by beds of sand, and churs or islands covered with a large purple Saccharum. Peganum continues to Attock and even extends beyond.
Water plants of Chuch, Trapa, Valisneria verticillata, and Nymphæa.
Shumshbad.—This town lies to the left of the road, one mile in the rear of my encampment.
The spines of Barleria are evidently axillary, as is seen in young branches, probably they represent the lower pair of leaves of the lateral branches, the terminal parts of which have a tendency to develop.
The spines of Mimosa belong evidently to the same exertion as the leaf; they are connate at the base, and from the centre of this hardened part, arises the leaf; they may be either the lower pinnæ, or they may be spurious stipulæ. The leaves developed within the true ones belong to an ill-developed branch. True stipulæ are leaves with a distinct origin. Spurious stipulæ belong to their leaves, as is evident from their not having a distinct origin.
20th.—Hussun Abdul. Until we came near the Boorhan valley, the road passed over a high, dry, sandy plain, with no cultivation, and no water, then the descent took place through picturesque raviny ground with a few isolated mounds, to a fine clear stream. The remaining part extended either along the cultivation of the Boorhan valley, or through similar raviny ground. Two streams were passed, the last is the Hussun Abdul river.
The vegetation of the high plain continues the same. Bheir, Mimosa, Kureel, Ærua, Mudar, Andropogoneæ, Pommereullia, Œgilops, Salvia, and Crotalaria aphylla.
Among the ravines and thence to Hussun Abdul, a new feature presents itself in the frequency of a largish Mimosa, probably that of the Khyber pass. This forms prettily wooded scenery, the white thorned Mimosa also occurs, Moacurra none, Euonymus, Bheir.
About Boorhan a Ficus becomes very common, Achyranthes, Kochia fructibus parvis, Salvia, Serratuloid of Ali-Baghan and Ichardeh. Paganum common—Adhatoda and Vitex. In scenery the country is pretty, particularly after passing the last river: a dampish spot was passed at Bhowli: a large Acacia, Melanoxylon and Pteris were found on the river banks. Dodonæa seen on low hills near Bhowli, as also Adiantum. Started at 5 hours 40 minutes and reached at 11.30; distance at least eighteen miles.
Hussun Abdul, is a pretty place, particularly the broken ground about the sacred stream, and the tank, in which Mahaseers abound; the water beautiful, many trees occur, especially Morus, Salix and Ficus.
Zyziphus is a fine tree here, Phœnix, Khuggur, Bukkein, Ficus, and Cupressus occur.
The jackdaw, mina, blue and chesnut kingfisher, a noisy bird. The small kingfisher, black and white kingfisher common: Myophonus, Pomatorrhinus.
21st.—The chief cultivation here is bajra, and Zea maize. The former produces a second crop from branches; hence it is left standing after the top spike, which is the largest, is picked; vegetation chiefly Indian, very few Affghan forms remaining, those of the hills are Mimosa, Adhatoda, and Euonymus.
The water plants are all decidedly tropical; no Epilobium seen since leaving Peshawar: Eclipta, Cyperaceæ.
Trichodesma, Cannabis.
Fish have few engaging habits, the tame Mahaseers take no notice of any one until food is thrown to them.
Tagetes, Sud Buruk, is a curious genus, on account of its simple tubular involucrum, very entire and pappus florets, conduplicate in æstivation, all florets fæminine are ligulate; are the folded up ones representations of the males?
22nd.—To Janika Sung, seventeen miles: the country continues much the same. The road passes out of Hussun Abdul over a low stony elevation, and enters another valley, the exit from which is through the Maha Gullah: a large Serai is passed about two and a half miles from the Boorgi; in the Gullah near this, is a portion of a formed road. Janika Sung is a small village, about five miles from the Boorgi.
The face of the country is undulated, intersected by ravines, rather thickly covered with the large Mimosa and Bheir: the same may be seen in every direction.
Affghan plants have nearly ended, Moacurra and Euonymus alone continuing. At the Maha Gullah a Carissa, and a Zaitoon, Ehretioides. This defile is picturesque, the wood prettily contrasted with bits of grassy ground. Adhatoda in abundance.
The Maha Gullah was formerly a notorious place for robbers, but is now quite safe, which says much for the Seikh rule.
There was not much cultivation passed to-day, although most of the surface is fit for it: water is near the surface. The Maha Gullah range is composed of limestone.
The white-spined Mimosa and crooked-spined one change places, the former occupies uncultivated plains, the latter stony, undulated, or hilly ground.
Carissa certainly represents Jasminum.
On the Kaliki Serai plain the chief plant is Mimosa albispina, then Bheir—here and there patches of Leguminosa, like the Cytisoides, so common in Affghanistan. In the Bheir thickets Schœnanthus is common; Andropogon and Pommereullioid also occur.
In the Hussun Abdul river there is a species of Perilampus approaching to Leuciscus, but with faint bars. In the sacred stream there is a small Cyprinoid, probably a Systomus, with a conspicuous spot on either side near the tail: there is also a small loach.
The Mahaseer in the water is a handsome fish, the edges of the scales being then blackish, as is also the longitudinal line.
It is curious that all plants hitherto found parasitical on roots, have no green leaves; to this, marked exceptions exists in Cuscuta and Cassytha, such true-leaved parasites being found only on the ascending axis; this rule is so permanent, that species of certain genera, such as Burmannia, the bulk of which are not parasitical, have no leaves. The mode of attachment of all parasitical plants is I think the same, otherwise I should suspect the above difference to point to a marked one in the nature of the fluid derived from the stock: thus leafless plants might be supposed to induce no particular change in the fluid they imbibe, while the others might be supposed to elaborate their own from that of the stock.
There is another very remarkable circumstance connected with the most typical leafless parasites, in their very frequent limitation to the genus Cissus, on which perhaps all Rafflesiaceæ and Cynomorieæ are exclusively found.
My chief reason for supposing Sarcocodon to be Monocotyledonous, or rather Endogenous, is the ternary division of its parts, and if my supposition be correct, it tends to establish, if indeed other ample evidence did not exist, the great permanence and consequent value of this numerical character.
And with respect to Sarcocoidalis I shall adopt the same opinion, if I find on enquiry that a binary number, and imperfection of the female as compared with the male, are more characteristic of Endogenous than of Exogenous growth. This same genus I consider in both these characters to allude to some analogy with one or more Acrogenous divisions.
The establishment of the order of Rhizanths, as well as that of Gymnosperms, I consider as a retrograde step in Botanical science. It is totally opposed to all sound principles of classification, and is a proof that, in the nineteenth century, arbitrary characters are still sought for, and when found are obstinately maintained.
Even in the arbitrary character, which is considered as destructive of all their other claims to ordinary vegetable rank, there is no unison whatever, for Rafflesiaceæ have ordinary ovula, while Sarcocoidalis very extraordinary.
The amount of testimony proving their analogy in germination to be with Acrogens, must be very strong before I am convinced that plants with perfect ovula as Rafflesia, etc. germinate from an indeterminate point, the existence of an aperture in the coats, points in the most marked manner to some part representing a radicle. With the exception perhaps of Sarcocoidalis, these plants differ in no respect whatever from other Phænogamous vegetables; we have instances of the same parasitical growth, and instances of the same apparent want of a radicle or homogeneousness of embryo, and in the structure of the parts of the flower there is tolerably absolute general identity.
It may be worthy of remark, as tending to prove the soundness of Mr. Brown’s views with regard to the affinity of Rafflesia with Aristolochia, that a certain large and fleshy flowered species of the latter genus has the same putrescent smelling flowers.
In Rhizantheæ, as proposed by Endlicher, we have an assemblage of discordant characters; we have plants associated, differing in the number of their parts; we have some of comparatively simple roots associated with others of decidedly complex organization; we have Rafflesia in which highly complex female parts exist, associated with Sarcocoidalis, in which these are very simple. But besides the objection of combining discrepancies on the strength of one agreement, the establishment of divisions upon such pretexts is objectionable in another point of view; viz., that of making a transition of structure on one point, instead of in several.
We might as well form into one division all the ternarily formed Dicotyledons, and into another all those Monocotyledonous plants with evident distinction between the calyx and corolla.
But in addition to reasons founded on structure, I have this theoretical one, that it is as requisite that Endogens should establish a similar relation with Acrogens; otherwise a gradation exists between the first and third classes, and none between the second and third, between which, gradations ought to be the more frequent.
As Rafflesia approaches Aristolochia, so does Sarcocodon, Taccaceæ.
23rd.—Rawil Pendi. The country continues much the same to within five or six miles of this place, viz. high raviny ground, well covered with Mimosa, Bheir, etc.
Thence to Pendi, the country is open, bare, and much cultivated. From high ground near Pendi a considerable tract is visible, consisting of low ridges running nearly due south, interrupted here and there, and apparently quite bare.
24th.—To Manikyala, distance nineteen miles, over an elevated country, with not much cultivation; broken ground occurs here and there, especially near the river Hoomook, now a small stream, the road winding through Mimosa jungle. Moacurra, Bheir, Euonymus.
At a place about three miles from Manikyala, are the remains of a Serai now in ruins. From this to Metope, the road extends over an open country capable of cultivation, but neglected. Water in wells is thirty feet perhaps below the surface: the country about Tope very bare of trees.
A curious low chain of sandstone rocks here occurs, and occasionally protrudes in places from below the soil, seldom rising above five feet and occasionally dilated into undulated tracts.
Drill husbandry, (i.e. seeds sown after the plough,) seems much in practice here. The late noise about improving pasture grasses has been made with little reference to the nature of an Indian climate, or the genius of the Indian people. Pasture grasses only excel in countries where there is no division of climate into hot, rainy, and cold seasons; but not in those in which rain is equally, or nearly so distributed throughout the year. So far as I know, no place in India is calculated for pasture grass cultivation, because as none of excellent kinds can succeed without irrigation, this element of Indian agriculture is applied to more profitable cultures, such as artificial grasses. In the cold season and the rains, nature supplies dhoob grass bountifully, leaving the natives to apply their agricultural labour to other objects, and in such seasons the condition of cattle is decidedly good.
Manikyala Tope, seen from near Rawil Pendi, is an insignificant building, and presents the same architecture as other topes, and as the Cabul tower, although it is not of the same materials. The lower part of the base is of pure sandstone, the upper of a stalactital conglomerate of small pebbles, often perforated. The terraces at the base are now almost hid by rubbish, so that the whole looks like an overgrown dome or a low mound. There are three stone ledges below, with flat pilasters between the middle and lower ledge on the sides. The dome is much damaged. The stones of which the building was erected, were not hewn inside, but I do not know whether they have not been cemented together. Access is easy to the top partly by means of broken steps, otherwise the stones gave good footing. The top of the ruin is now open and discloses a square funnel, penetrating half the height of building; thence modern handiwork has caused a broken irregular perforation. The building is not remarkable for great size, nor are any of the stones large, still as a piece of architecture it is far superior to any thing in modern Affghanistan. The country around is very bare and sufficiently open. It is curious that there are many Indian plants found on or about the building, all indicating a decided approach to Hindoostan. A Sida, Euonymus, Bheir, Lantana, and a Menispermum, are common shrubs on the building, also Solanum quercifolium, spinis albis floribus cœruleo purpureis.
25th.—To Puttiana, seventeen to eighteen miles; the country much the same, little wood but bushes of the old trees: it is tolerably open until Pukkee Serai is approached, when it becomes very much broken and intersected by ravines in every direction, showing most forcibly the action of water, many of the cliffs thus formed are picturesque. At Pukkee a small river is forded, thence to near Puttiana the country then becomes almost as raviny as before.
Ærua, Bheir, Mudar, a Kochia, much like one of the Cutch ones, and the before-mentioned plants continue.
26th.—To Bukriala, twenty-two miles. From Puttiana the road is good, extended over a high open country, except where it crosses two ravines; the first of these containing a stream of water, about ten miles from Puttiana. From Tammuch the road descends steeply into the Bukriala Kakhudd ravine, which takes you to Bukriala.
This ravine runs through a system of sandstone hills, of a blueish muddy aspect, and red clayey earth, often conglomerate. In colours not unlike the Bamean district. Water is plentiful in pools throughout the lower half of the road, which is all descent. Bukriala stands on the right bank of the Khudd river towards its mouth, the vegetation about this place resembles that of the open country, and is unchanged in the Khudd river, consisting of Kochia, Phulahi, and Mimosa albispina, Euonymus, Bheir, Adhatoda, Barleria, Kureel, and Capparis of Gundamuck; also Pommereullioid, Andropogon, Schœnanthus, Holcus, and Stipa of Kuta Sung, Carallunia, Grewia and Menispermum of Manikyala.
Also two plants not before seen, and neither common, one is a Butea, leguminous velutino pubescent arbor, it is the Chuchra of the natives, and is used for paper. The other is a curious, leafless, scandent, monocotyledon. Asparaginea, and an Apocynea.
Alhaji Maurorum is not found between this and Hussun Abdul, which is a curious thing.
27th.—To Rotas. The country to Mittian is very much broken and consequently difficult, consisting entirely of ups and downs: the road is only practicable for cattle; the bad part of it commences with an abrupt ascent. About Puttiana, four miles from Bukriala, it becomes better, but it continues partially raviny until within four miles of Rotas, when the country becomes open, and the road good.
Vegetation continues precisely the same, being still in the region of Phulahi: observed the Asparaginea again, Euonymus continues, also Astragalus, a Kochia, and an Affghan Chenopodium.
A beautiful bhowli or spring is passed on the way two miles from Rotas, it is covered with masonry, and the descent is by means of steps; the water passes under large arches, a work worthy of the Mogul emperors. Sissoo, Peroplocea of Bolan, common. Rotas is an immense irregular fortress, with the usual faults: it is much too large, and situated on a rocky plain partially commanded. It must have once contained a large number of inhabitants. Nelumbium, Potamogeton: half a mile from Rotas towards Peshawur, a square Serai, enclosing a garden, is passed.
The country immediately about it on the west is open: and well cultivated: there is but little water in the river. The town or village is of no size.
Butea not uncommon.
28th.—Proceeded to Jhilun. The road is at first steep, as it passes down along the Rotas river, about three miles from thence it is good, extending over a plain to the Jhilun. Fine cultivation observed on all sides, and of various sorts, chiefly Bajra and Kureel. Dhah abundant, but not arborescent, Euonymus, Peganum, Bheir, and Phulahi, the latter very dwarfish. Mimosa albispina and Adhatoda very common. The commonest tree in these countries is Bheir, and a very handsome tree it is; Nihi-joari cultivated.
Sun and Tel occur, the last is very common. Yesterday a new cultivation presented of a Composite plant, called Kalizeen, used as spice or musala for horses. The birds observed were Hæmatornis, Crateropod, Sylvia, Alauda cristata, Alauda alia in flocks.
The town of Jhilun stands immediately on the right bank of the river of that name, it is a large and flourishing place. The river is about 200 yards broad, not rapid, but here and there deep, and the bed at this place forms one undivided channel. The right bank on which the town stands has a stony sloping shore, the left is sandy.
It is a mistake to suppose that the hilly country ceases here, on the contrary, it crosses the Jhilun. At the ferry this river runs through a large valley, bounded to the west by hills like those to which we have been accustomed; to the east it is bounded by a low chain, which runs parallel with the general course of the river. The valley is open only to the north and south.
Otters, tortoises, and Mahaseer were seen in the river.
29th.—To Sera, twenty-four miles, half the distance extended over the uncultivated base of the hills, and then over the low range itself, from which at two points, fine views are obtained of the vast plain of the Punjab. Throughout this vast surface the vegetation is exactly the same—Euonymus continuing, Peganum and Phulahi forming chief vegetation; numbers of white partridge occur.
In the plains Dhah is found in profusion, especially where the cultivation is not extensive. A new Acacia appears, the Kikkur, forming groves about most of the villages. Noticed the Physaloides of Lundykhanah. Encamped under a fine Mimosa and Bheir near an old Serai which forms part of the village, with a splendid view of the Himalayas stretching away from east to west. It appears from this direction as if there was only one low range between the plains and the culminating range of the Himalayas. Nothing like these mountains has been seen in Khorassan. The chief cultivation about here is Nihi-joari, then Bajra—why is the former always bent?
Prickly pear common from where we crossed the Jhilun river.
A curious metamorphosis of Sesamum is of common occurrence: the calyx being unchanged, while the corolla preserves somewhat its shape, but is foliaceous, the other organs are much transformed, the ovary less so than the stamina, but generally much enlarged; ovules in leaves inside. This is worthy of examination, as it shows very plainly the origin of the stigmata from the placentæ.
30th.—Halted owing to having been robbed of two horses.
31st.—Wuzerabad, twenty-four miles. Ten miles from Wuzerabad the road extended through a highly cultivated country, and crossed the Chenab, on the left bank of which river Wuzerabad is situated. The Chenab is a fine river, the stream 150 yards wide, but on either side extensive beds of sand show that the river during some seasons is of great width.
Wuzerabad is a nice well built town, having a fine straight bazaar, with paved street. The chief gateways and residences built by General Avitabile.
Chilodia occurs in abundance, Eleusine sp., E. coracana; Bajra and Joari Nihi being the prevailing cultivation.
It is curious that in Phulahi major of Sera and the Kikkur, the young branches only are armed with thorns, so that the spines must be deciduous in certain species of Mimosa.
Cactus is an instance of a calyx composed of a congeries of adherent leaves, which leaves produce from their axilla, tufts of white hair and thorns; or is it not an instance of an axis hollowed out towards the apex, to the sides of which the ovary finally adheres, in this case the outermost series of the perianth will be calyx; one reason for adopting this supposition, besides the axillary bodies, is that there is no gradation between the small concave leaves of the calyx, and the outer series of the perianth.
November 1st.—Halted for fishing: Cyorinus Mrigala, is the Mhoori of these parts; it grows to a large size, is a handsome fish, and is indeed considered the king of fishes by the Punjabees. The intestines are in longitudinal folds of extremely small comparative diameter, and enormous length; in a large specimen it is twenty-three times the length of the body. The intestines of the Mahaseer are on the other hand only two and a quarter times the length of the body!
Of the fish obtained, two are Perilamps, here called Rohi,
2nd.—To Goograuwala, twenty-four and a half miles, over a fine populous generally cultivated country. Goograuwala is a large town, having the streets paved with brick like those of Wuzerabad. Cactus very common; Kikkur (Mimosa) is the chief tree here about the Fukeer’s abodes. The Banyan also occurs.
Peganum and Kochia of Jallalabad continue. There is a fort of some size close to this town, built of mud; the ditch is unfinished, and not deep, it has a fau-se-braie, with bastions like those at Peshawur and Jumrood. The surface of the ground is much broken close up to it, the earth being taken away for bricks.
3rd.—Proceeded to Koori, an inconspicuous village, belonging to M. Court; it is surrounded by extensive plains, on which a tall grass occurs to a great extent. Distance twenty-eight and a half miles, the time taken for to-day’s journey was six and a quarter hours.
The country is precisely similar to that previously noticed, the only new feature being the grassy plains, in which at some little distance from Koori, deer, partridge, hares, etc. are said to abound.
A sissoo-like tree is not uncommon.
4th.—To Shah Durrah, twenty-three and a half miles at Nunzul, eight miles from Shah Durrah, a fort with ditch out of repair was passed, at Koori ten miles from Shah Durrah, passed a deep Nullah called Baghbuchah, with high banks, thence entered on a tract of country covered with Saccharum, (Moong), from which ropes are made; (this is the same as the Chuch species,) we next entered on cultivation close to Shah Durrah, which place is well wooded.
Mangoe trees, Ams, Eugenia Jambolana, Jams, Bheirs, Phœnix, Kikkur, and Ficus, are the principal trees.
The grassy tracts of the Punjab represent probably the original vegetation, existing now only here and there owing to the extension of cultivation.
From Shah Durrah Lahore is visible, particularly the buildings of the Mogul emperor’s, consisting of a conspicuous dome in ruins, and some minarets, a large Serai likewise going to ruin, standing in the immediate vicinity of the Royal Gardens, Lahore is decidedly a handsome looking city viewed from Shah Durrah.
So great is the tendency in palms to throw out roots towards the base, that these roots exist in the common Khujoor, although they have to get rid of the indurated bases of the petioles before they can make their exit. They are so extremely short and indurate that it is difficult to imagine the function they perform; at first they are capable probably of absorbing from the air.
5th.—Proceeded to General Court’s house at Lahore, distance six miles, the road after crossing the Ravee river near a royal summer house of no extraordinary merits, passes on to the town, and then winds round under the Simon Boorge, a very striking part, at least exteriorly of the city, for the buildings, works, etc. are in good repair. Besides this the ground outside is swardy and prettily wooded.
From Lahore to Simla.
Lahore is surrounded by a ditch and wall, the work of former emperors’ of Delhi; the environs of the city, particularly towards M. Court’s residence, are studded with mosques, etc. mostly half ruined, and the ground is literally strewn with old bricks, so that the city must at one time have been an enormous one.
Seikh troops in large numbers are cantoned round to the east and south-east skirts of the town, in low pucka barracks.
Several low mounds apparently unconnected with ruins, occur in this direction.
I arrived to hear of the death of Kurruck Sing, who was burned the same day with five women; after the ceremony a scaffolding fell down, wounding Nehal Sing dangerously in the head, and killing the son of Goolab Sing. Late in the evening the Maharajah was senseless.
It is a curious thing, that the prince who this day ascended the guddee, and Goolab Sing, had been active intriguers against Kurruck Sing, who is said to have had his death hastened through chagrin at witnessing Nehal Sing’s usurpation of power.
6th.—Not much cultivation was observed on the road to-day, which extended over a naked marshy saline plain, or through a Kureel, and small Jundy and Phulahi district.
To Kanah, seventeen miles—Jundy, Kureel and Bheir occur extensively. Jundy is a low prickly shrub, Mimosa. There is something curious both in the surface of the cavity enclosing the seed, and in that of the seed itself of Acacia serissa. The former presents the distinct appearance of a straight line, originating in the same spot as the funicle, and terminating in a very well marked, circular depression; it is formed by the funicle as far as the cells of the legume. If a section be made through the seed longitudinally and its cell parallel with the plane of the legume, this mark will be found on both sides of the cell, but more distinct on one than the other.
The mark on the seed by no means relates to this, at least it does not correspond with it, for it consists of a somewhat reniform elevated ridge, the ends of which do not meet, but one of which originates from an elevation to which the depression would seem to respond. The straight line does not correspond with the funicle, which is not straight, but is pushed up in a curved form against the upper edge of the cell.
It corresponds, however, with a straight subclavated line running from the hilum to the elevation whence the curved line originates, although this correspondence is not always well marked.
The above marking, corresponding as it does in the flat part of the legume with the funicle, evidently points to a peculiarity in the distribution of the vascular system; probably it consists of the testa, and if so, it is worthy of remark, as the main vessels ordinarily a single one, run along the edge, and not on the flat surface of the fruit.
I know of no similar instance; in this plant the vessels of the testa are distributed primarily at right angles with the placenta, and not in parallel lines with that organ. If the seed were depressed instead of compressed, it would not present this peculiarity, although even then the two primary vessels would be remarkable. From this instance it may be assumed that the hilum may only be defined correctly as the spot of union between the body of the seed and the funiculus. The leaflets of the plumula are pinnate.
It is also curious that the distribution of green parenchyma is along the course of the veins of the legume, and that there is a more minute reticulation, and a greater development of the green colour on the faces of the cells, than on any other part of the surface of the legume. There is no difference appreciable by the naked eye between the placental and dorsal sutures, with the exception of the sutural line of union, which has the usual relation with the axis of the head of the flowers—Euphorbia occurs here.
The affinity of Cacteæ with Grossulaceæ is questionable, the systems of organization being very different. Query—What instances are there of affinity between inferior ovary plants, with distinct definite envelopes and stamina, and plants with a perhaps similar ovary, but with indefinite envelopes and definite stamina with a want of correspondence in the structure of the fruit?
7th.—To Kussoor, twenty miles. The road extended generally through a Jundy country: about half-way Salvadora appears in abundance. Kussoor is a large well-built town, consisting of three separate parts, each surrounded by a pucka wall furnished with bastions: these three parts are at some distance from each other. Furas tree common.
8th.—Ferozepore. About this place two species of Kochia occur, and Artemisia is not uncommon. The Serratuloides of Alli-Baghan and Ichardeh in profusion, affording cover for game.
16th to 21st.—Loodianah. In the Nullah, Butomus begonifolius occurs.
The following are the fish of Loodianah taken both from the Nullah and the Sutledge.
Roh.—Cyprinus (Cirrhinus), a large, very handsome, excellent, orange-brown fish, takes a bait but is capricious.
Rohoo.—A sombre black-brown fish, intestines several times the length of the body, said to be the young of the above. Both these are different from the Roh or Ruee of the Ganges.
Coorsah.—Labeo Cursis, a definite scaled sombre fish, it is good food, and attains the size of two to three seers; intestines twice the length of the body, very narrow.
Kkul Bhans.—Cirrhinus Calbasu, a sombre looking breamoid-shaped fish, attains the same size as the above, and is reputed to be excellent food.
Mhirgh.—Gobio Mrigala, a handsome fish, particularly when young; form very elegant, intestines fourteen times the length of the body; excellent food.
Bura Raiwah.—Gobio Rewah, a very handsome, eight-cornered, scaled fish, with orange fins and golden sides: takes no bait?
Chota Raiwah.—Gobio occurs in shoals—either occupied in busily turning up its silvery sides against the bottom, or at the surface, above which it may be seen protruding its head.
Bhangun.—Gobio, a handsome fish, not esteemed.
Potea.—Systomus, takes bait—worms; affords good sport and reaches to one seer, but is not esteemed; colours ordinary.
Systomus, a beautiful fish, back shining green, sides yellow, scales beautifully striate, with a spot near the tail; mostly found in still water.
Gonorrhynchus.—Snout rough, colours sombre, belly somewhat protuberant; found with Systomus. The intestines are of the usual form of the genus.
Gonorrhynchus, a sombre smaller fish, found in still water.
Bura Chalwa.—Much esteemed as food in the districts of the Sutledge.
Perilampus.—Intestines shorter than the body, having at the lower end a short curve; above green, from lateral line downwards silvery.
Moh.—A Siluroid fish, does not attain the size of the real Moh, which is a higher or deeper formed fish.
Tengrei.—Silurus platycephalus. Attains a very large size.
Gudha.—A Percoid. Colour irregular brown, mouth very protractile.
Gughal.—Ophiocephalus, a handsome fish, back rich greenish, mottled brown, with 3 or 4 black spots on the sides, which are yellow, passing off into white, and a peacock spot on the tail. Fins spotted with white: it reaches a large size.
Bham.—Macrognathus, body eel-shaped, with a row of movable spines along the back.
About Loodianah, the Naiad of Affghanistan, Monandra, stigmatibus reniformibus, is common in the Nullah, so also is Butomus begonifolius, but this may be a leafless form of Sagittaria.
Towards Roopur, Sissoo becomes more and more common. Roopur is a largish town, with a Seikh pucka fort on a mound. The fort is surrounded by a dry ditch. The town is situated on a low, rather rugged ground, forming the first elevations of the surface towards the Himalayas; beyond it to the north-east is a low spur, also to the west a similar spur, very barren, rugged, clayey rock forming the immediate bank of the river. Every thing assimilates to the Bukriala and Jhilun ranges. Saccharum, Moong, as before, Bheir likewise occurs.
Phœnix, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus, Adhatoda, Boerhaavia scandens, Hyperanthera, Morus, Apluda, Tamarisk, Riccia, Ammannia, Euphorbia antiquorum, Cactus, and Dodonæa, form the chief vegetation.
Some rapids occur near the Bungalow: the strongest is under a cliff on the opposite side; no fish rose to red or black hackle or orange flies, all which were tried in vain in the deep still water close under Bungalow. The plants of this place are Guilandina, Grewia arbuscula in fruit, Justicia, Bheir, Neem, Mango, Parkinsonia, the latter rare.
Fish caught in net are Mullet, this fish is very active, and escapes by jumping over. Silurus, Mahaseer, several of the latter taken at a haul, the largest 10 lbs., it is a beautiful fish with golden sides, scales black, with the anterior half bluish-black, posterior half tawny-yellow, fins orange, lips very thick and leathery; it lives half or three-quarters of an hour after it is taken out of its element.
The Nepura of the natives, Gobio malacostoma, or Rock Carp of Gray, Hardwicke’s Illustrations, is the puhar-ka muchee of these parts: it has the base and edges of the scales dull greenish-blue, fins dusky, a transverse pink line across the scales; the length of the intestines is twenty-two and a half times that of the body, filled with mud and coloured pulp, stomach continuous with the intestine, and more fleshy, filled with green and whitish pulp, and disposed in longitudinal folds.
The Bangun, Roh, (Gobio) is a splendid fish, base and edges of the scales dusky brown, otherwise refulgent gilded, belly white, fins dusky, head greenish-brown, less gilding about the dorsal scales. This fish I have not seen elsewhere. Length of intestines disposed in longitudinal folds, the posterior of which are nearly as long as abdominal cavity, the whole twenty-seven and a half times the length of the body. Organization and contents as in Nepura. The breadth or depth of this fish immediately behind the opercule three inches, across the body, opposite the first ray of dorsal fin, five inches, first ray of anal three inches, length twenty-two inches.
Query—In which part of a fish intestines like that of the Mahaseer, is the chief digestion carried on?
27th.—To Nalighur Bungalow, the distance rather less than sixteen, but over fourteen miles through a similar country to that round Roopur. The road passes a large village called Canowli; at rather less than about half-way it extended across a sandy dry river bed of some extent, on the right bank of which, at the highest part, is a Seikh brick fort. The road subsequently passes the Sursa, a small shallow rapid stream. The dry bed of which turns up on the south side of the low range to the south of Nalighur valley. No change in vegetation takes place, except the occurrence of a Croton, much like that of the Pagoda near Canowli.
Trees observed—Eugenia Jambolana, Mangifera indica, Ficus, Bheir, Neem or Melia Azadarach, Parkinsonia about the bungalow. Toon, Cordia, Bauhinia, Bambusa, Emblica, Morus, Plumeria, Mudar, Saccharum, Moong, Bheir fruticos and Kikkur are the most common indigenous forms. Dhak in patches here and there: Cassia also occurs.
Nalighur consists of a village and fort, the latter situated to the north-east half-way up a range of hills, the country about very barren. Indeed the aspect of the country is much like that between Hussun Abdul and the Jhilun, except in the rarity of Phulahi.
A great affinity exists in foliation between Terebinthace and Sapindaceæ. Also both in foliation, flowers, and habit, between Myrtaceæ and Guttiferæ, the only material differences being in aroma, and adherent ovary.
The plants observed about Nalighur Bungalow, exclusive of species collected, were Cassia lanceolatoid, this is the common Indian Tora, Acacia, Rairoo, Achyranthes aspera, Digera arvensis, Polanisia viscosa, Carissa, Carandas, Bheir frutex, Coccinea communis, Cucurbita, Sida multilocularis, Amaranthus? spicatus, Cassia fistula.
Eleusine echinata; Poa very common, as well as Dhoob.
In gardens—Tabernamontana coronaria, Bhee, Chrysanthemum double and ligulate. Of Birds, Pica vagans.
28th.—From Nalighur to Ramgurh, a good ten miles. The road first ascends through and above the town, then follows a short twisting descent, and soon after a very long but not very steep ascent, until it comes over the ravine of the Ramgurh river, and the descent to that torrent; thence an uninterrupted steep ascent about as much as the descent to Ramgurh. There is no bungalow at this stage, merely a few shops and sheds. The fort is situated to the left of and 600 feet above the town.
From Ramgurh to Sahee Bungalow, the distance is eight miles, there is a steep descent to Sursa torrent, which contains very little water, then a rather long and gradual ascent, then descend to the Gumbur river. The road then extends up this ascent for one and a half mile, and continues ascending on the right bank until within half a mile of the bungalow, to which there is a slight descent. There is no made road along the Gumbur, and I missed or did not observe the Soorog river. The Gumbur is a clear, good-sized stream, fordable about the rapids, bed narrow confined.
The hills traversed were comparatively barren, and decidedly uninteresting. However much in appearance they may here and there assimilate to the Khorassan hills, no identity in vegetation exists except perhaps in the Apocynum found at Attock.
The country is cultivated with great labour, and the villages though small are numerous, and present a look of plenty, like English white-washed cottages.
There is a difference between the vegetation of the hills near the plains and those in the interior. On the former there are scarcely any trees, and Adhatoda occurs in greater profusion than elsewhere. The Himalayan provinces here present an extreme affinity with the same range to the eastward, as Bootan and Mussoorie, but the forms are by no means so frequent—i.e. species are not so numerous. Throughout the above twenty-eight miles the vegetation is tropical: a few European forms occur as one gets into the hills, but they are of no great value. The chief arboreous vegetation consists of Rubiaceæ, Mimoseæ, Cassiaceæ (Bauhinia), Bignoniaceæ, and Myrtaceæ. These are much the most common between Ramgurh and the ridge over Naligurh. Here also Nyctanthes is very common; Zanthoxylon also occurs here and there like an Ash.
On the ridge above Ramgurh, Adhatoda is very common; Carandas likewise occurs, but is not very common; Eranthemoides is rather common, but this occurs in profusion on the descent; Cassia tora, O. lanceolata, and Peristrophe occur.
On the descent from the above ridge, Porana appears. Lemon-grass, Bambusifolia, Cryptogramæ calamelanos, Adiantum flagelliformis.
On the long ascent Grislea, Acacia, Bheir, Zanthoxylon, Cordia, Nyctanthes, Myrtaceæ 1-2, Wendlandia, Bignonia, Randia, and two or three other trees about houses, a species of Ficus; Euphorbia antiquorum common on the drier parts.
On the ascent from the torrent, the vegetation is thick. Bauhinia scandens, Carandas, Butea, Erythrina, neither common, others as before: Loranthus.
At Ramgurh, Peepul, Erythrina, Rhus planted; Euphorbia antiquorum very common, Cassia tora, C. lanceolata, Carandas common, Kalanchœ integrifolia, Adhatoda not rare, scarcely a single wild tree.
Scutellaria occurs on the descent. Rubus, Berberis, Gnaphalium. On the ascent from Sursa, Geranium, Clematis, Asparagus, Trichodesma of the plains, Bombax (young), Bambusa, Hirœa, Dioscorea, Fragaria, Adiantum flagelliformis, Calomelanos, Saccharum, Moong, Acacia, Adhatoda, Vitex, etc. as before, but trees are not common, except Ficus and Bheir in profusion.
Descent to the Gumbur the same. Pyrus pomum appears, Carandas, Anatherum muricatum, Briedleioides common. Along the Gumbur river, Pyrus, Adhatoda, Mimosa, Dalbergia sissoo, Myrtaceæ, Euphorbia, etc. continue as before.
Between Nalighur and the commencement of the descent to the Gumbur, and especially between the Sursa and that descent, the chief vegetation is tropical grasses, such as Andropogons. Along the Gumbur, the hills are well covered with tall bushes. Carandas common, but little if any grass.
Fossil shells are found along the Gumbur. Of birds Pica vagans, Hæmatornis, and several Sylviæ were observed.
About Sahi, young Pinus longifolia; all around, the hills are of the same aspect. No fish were seen in the Gumbur, although I crossed it several times. The view of the plains shows the commencement of the great chain stretching out in low, very much undulated hillocks, precisely as in Khorassan.
29th.—Proceeded from Syree to Konyar: this I think the longest of the marches to Loodianah, and is nothing but one series of ascents and descents chiefly along the Gumbur ravine: at the foot of ascent to the Konyar, the road crosses a considerable stream, and nearly at the summit of the ascent, branches off to Soobathoo.
Konyar is a rather large village, well ornamented with trees, in rather a fine sort of valley, every inch of which is cultivated. The tank adjacent to the village is well stocked with Nelumbium.
To Syree, the distance is eight and a half to nine miles. The road crosses the Konyar village and valley, then ascends to the south-east, and continues ascending gradually by an excellent road for a considerable way, then it skirts a ridge and comes on the grand Soobathoo road. From this a short but steep ascent, followed by a descent of a mile and a quarter, conducts you to the bungalow.
No change occurs in the vegetation. The hills are more grassy and more bare of trees, especially near Syree, but this is partly owing to cultivation. The principal woody feature is Euphorbia antiquorum.
The plants before noticed occur throughout, except about Syree, where scarcely a shrub is to be seen, nothing but burnt up grasses.
At Sahi, Roylea appears, also an odd-looking Modeeca and a Deeringia. Near these is also an Asplenium, Echites. At Konyar, Prinsepia appears, and continues becoming more and more frequent up to Syree. Towards this place V. reniformis is seen, not a single northern grass, although Syree must be nearly 5,000 feet high.
At Sahi, Pinus longifolia, Phœnix, Salix, and Polygonum of Chugur-Serai; this is common as far as Konyar. Acacia, Carandas, Urtica nivea. Rice cultivated.
About three miles beyond it, there is a beautiful ravine with dense jungle and fine trees, chiefly Laurinea, and I think a Rhus; this is the only spot I have seen reminding me of the Himalaya to the eastward.
At Konyar—Toon, Morus, Musa, Deeringia, Berberis, Briedleia.
The hills are as usual marked with wavy parallel lines, on which nothing appears to grow. These lines are united by smaller oblique ones, whence their origin?
30th.—To Simla. The road extends over undulated ground along ridges until the foot of the great ascent is reached; this is long and steep, especially steep at the first, or Buttiara pass, where it turns to the face of the mountain, and extends through beautiful woods. The ground frozen, with some snow; from this to Simla the road is tolerably level, and defended on the Khudd, or precipice side by a railing. It then passes through fir woods, etc. in which the exceedingly pretty Jay of Bharowli is common.
The vegetation to the foot of the ascent, and nearly half-way up, is unchanged. Andropogoneous grasses forming the prevailing feature; but little arboreus or shrubby vegetation occurs. About halfway between Syree and this an ascent takes place, on which Daphne, Hypericum, and Echinops occur.
Near Syree—Bombax, Ruta albiflora, Daphne, Pteris aquilina, Clutia, Aspidium, Polytrichum nanum and aloides, Hypericum, Berberis, Rubus, Prinsepia, Rosa, Jubrung, Grislea, (rare,) Clematis, Cerasus, Datura, Bukhein, Citrus, Spermacoce, Pœderia azurea, and Andropogon bambusifolia were observed. Ficus two species, Ficus repens, Pommereullioid spicis longis, Rubia Mungista, Galium, Polygonum of Chugur, Carissa, (rare,) Amaranthaceæ, Conyza.
The great ascent is very instructive; half-way up observed Gaultheria, conspicuous from its blood-coloured leaves; an oak occurs commonly but stunted, and a few stunted Pinus longifolia.
Buddlæoides occurs two-thirds of the way up, with Mespilus microphyllus, Alpina, Labiata and Pyrus.
The oaks and Gaultheria increase in number and size towards Bithuria, Conaria.
The first to cease is Euphorbia.
At the summit Berberis, Polygonum of Chugur, Rubus deltoideus, Conyza and Prinsepia may be found, but to no extent. From this to Simla the vegetation is chiefly northern.
Nothing definite is observable with regard to the distribution of forests about Simla. The principal secondary ranges, including the Choor, which is quite void of shrubby vegetation, is about north-east and south-west; generally the southern aspects of those ridges on which forests occur is bare; of this, there is a notable instance—Muhassoo.
Mount Jacka, which looks east and west by its broad faces, has both densely enough wooded with oak, Euonymus, Rhododendron, Gaultheria, and Ilex, but the ridge which looks to the plains is bare.
Some ridges again are quite bare, as that lowish one between Mounts Jacka and Muhassoo.
The thickest and most humid woods decidedly occur on the northern faces of the ridges; and all about Simla instances of this occur. Such spots are at Simla so much sheltered from the sun, that the snow which fell on the 23rd November is scarcely diminished.
Even in these there is no comparison in luxuriance and variety of vegetation with the Mishmee or Bootan portions of the same stupendous chain.
The trees are few in number as regards species, the only ones I have observed are a species of oak which is very common, forming the chief vegetation of the northern faces, and of both those of Mount Jacka.
The scarlet Rhododendron which occurs in the highest parts of the woods, an occasional Pyrus, Benthamia, Euonymus, Gaultheria very common, also Pinus Deodara, longifolia, and excelsa; of these the Deodar is most common. Ilex, a pretty tree, occurring on Mount Jacka.
The following forms also I have noticed—Saxifraga ciliata, Berberis asiatica, and Gnaphalia three or four species, which are chiefly confined to grassy naked ridges. Thymus is also confined to these.
Ruta albiflora is very common in woods; Dipsacea and Artemisia on exposed grassy spots; Swertia is common in damp places; Spiræa bella, Ledum, Stemodia, Epilobium, Viola, Saccharum rubrum, Valeriana, Fragaria, Galium, Clematis, Rosa, Rubus, Rumex, Leguminosæ, Coronilloid, Smilax.
Acanthaceæ, Androsaceæ, particularly a Gnaphalioides common on the exposed ridge of Mount Jacka; Myrsinea frutex, Parnassia common, Salix fruticosa; on Prospect Point, Lycopodium, Herminioid, Epipactis, Orchideæ aliæ, 2 Scitamineæ.
Elæagnus, Mespilus microphyllus, Polygonum of Chugur; 2 or 3 Amaranthaceæ; Prinsepia, rare; very little variety in ferns; Pteris chrysocarpa, Aspidium pungens, and another are the most common; nor is there any variety in Epiphytous ferns, and very few Jungermannias. The Mosses are Bartramia, Catharinea, Polytrichum aloides on banks with Fissidens, otherwise Hypna are the most prevalent. A Neckera hangs from every tree, and a Pterogonio Neckeroid covers almost every trunk, a Brachymenium is likewise common.
Altogether, though numerous, there is no great variety in form.
On the summit of Chaka, Quercus, Gaultheria, and Rhododendron are common; with here and there a Deodar.
On the east face of that mountain consisting of a long ridge, grasses form the chief vegetation, among which Andropogons and Schœnanthus are not uncommon, Gnaphalia and Artemisia occur; Thymus, Androsace gnaphalioides, Potentilla, Coronilloid, Labiata frutex, Jasminum, Rosa, Mespilus microphyllus, Clematis, Cnicus, Rubus, Labiata alia, Galium, Swertia, Salvia were noticed.
Of the tropical forms, Andropogoneous grasses are most common, Saccharum rubrum of the Khasyah Mountains, Desmodium, Acanthaceæ, and Elæagnus, which last occurs on Prospect Point.
Saccharum rubrum extends up to 8,000 feet.
The woods generally on the surface are matted down with grasses or Carexes, so that there is no variety of surface for the lower orders; in such places, Ophiopogon is very common.
Regarding the Coniferæ, Pinus excelsa is the rarest, Deodar is the most common; longifolia occurs principally on a southern projection from Chaka, and on the south face of the Mall ridge.
December 5th, 1840.—Went to Mount Fagoo. After passing Mount Jacka, or Chaka, you come on a bare country which continues at least on all the southern aspects until you reach the ascent to Muhassoo, which is at first steep, then gradual and long; the vegetation remains unchanged until the Muhassoo ascent is begun upon; then Rhododendron, Quercus and Gaultheria soon cease, and their places are occupied by a Quercus much like Q. semecarpifolius, Pinus excelsa also occurs rather abundantly, and of good size, the other vegetation continues.
The first part of Muhassoo, along which the road runs for some hundred yards under its crest, is occupied by grassy vegetation, chiefly Andropogon and Schœnanthus; Gnaphalia, Buddlæa, Labiata, Polygonum of Chugur, Thymus, etc., and the crest of the same is chiefly occupied by the undescribed oak.
But where the ridge takes a north and south direction, the west face becomes almost exclusively occupied by Deodars, among which as one proceeds up, Pinus Smithiana occurs; after turning again close to the little Bazar on the north face, the road continues on this side to Fagoo, extending through a heavy and magnificent forest of Pinus Smithiana and Quercus semecarpifolius, the Deodar almost ceasing to appear; occasional knolls are passed, on which grasses, Gnaphalium, etc. occur, the scenery is very beautiful, the trees being ornamented with the grey pendulous lichen, and with Neckeræ, particularly the dark Neckera pendula. The underwood consists here and there of shrubs, but generally herbaceous vegetation, as grasses, Gnaphalia, etc.
In fact Muhassoo is genuinely Himalayan.
From Fagoo eastward the country is bare, except at great elevations; near Muttiara to the north, forest-clad mountains occur, also at Huttoo, and far away to the eastward other fir-clad ridges appear.