"Tres boni fratres per viam unam ibant, et obviavit eis noster dominus jesus christus et dixit eis, tres boni fratres quo itis, etc."

And again, in his discussion of the treatment of gout and rheumatism (f. 327b), Gilbert adds, under the title

"Quamvis ego declino ad has res parum, tamen est bonum scribere in libro nostro, ut non remaneat tractatus sine eis quas dixrunt antiqui. Dico igitur quod dixit torror: Si scinderis pedem rane viridis et ligaveris supra pendem podagrici per tres dies, curatur; ita quod dextrum pedum rane ponas supra dextrum pedem patientis, et e converso. Et dixit Funcius, qui composuit librum de lapidibus, quod magnes, si ligatus fuerit in pedem podagrici, curatur. Et alius philosophus dixit. Si accipiatur calcancus asine et ponatur ligatus supra pedem egri, curatur, ita quod dexter supra dextrum, et e converso. Et juravit quod sit verum. Et dixit torror quod si ponatur pes testudinis dexter supra dextrum pedem podagrici, et e converso, curatur."

We may believe, indeed, that Gilbert would have preferred to follow in the therapeutic footsteps of Hippocrates, had he not disliked to be regarded by his colleagues as eccentric and opinionated. For he says in his treatment of thoracic diseases (f. 193c):

"Etenim eleganter dedit Ipo. (Hippocrates) modum curationis, sed ne a medicis nostri temporis videamur dissidere, secundum eos curam assignemus."

Gilbert was a scholastic-humoralistic physician par excellence, delighting in superfine distinctions and hair-splitting definitions, and deriving even pediculi from a superfluity of the humors (f. 81d). Of course he was also a polypharmacist, and the complexity, ingenuity, and comprehensiveness of his prescriptions would put to shame even the "accomplished therapeutist" of these modern days. In dietetics too Gilbert was careful and intelligent, and upon this branch of therapeutics he justly laid great emphasis.

The first book of the Compendium, comprising no less than 75 folios, is devoted entirely to the discussion of fevers. Beginning with the definition of Joannicius (Honain ebn Ishak):

"Fever is a heat unnatural and surpassing the course of nature, proceeding from the heart into the arteries and injuring the patient by its effects."

Gilbert launches out with genuine scholastic finesse and verbosity into a discussion of the questions whether this definition is based upon the essentia or the differentia of fever; whether the heat of fever is natural or unnatural, and other similar subtle speculations, and finally arrives at a classification of fevers so elaborate and complex as to be practically almost unintelligible to the modern reader.

The more important of these fevers or febrile conditions are:

Some of these names are still preserved in our nosologies of the present day; others will be recalled by the memories of our older physicians, and a few have totally disappeared from our modern medical nomenclature.

Interpolated fevers are characterized by intermissions and remissions, and thus include our intermittent and remittent fevers; synochus depended theoretically upon putrefaction of the blood in the vessels, and was a continued fever. Synocha, on the other hand, was occasioned by a mere superabundance of hot blood, hence the verse:

Causon was due to putrefaction of bile in the smaller vessels of the heart, diaphragm, stomach or liver, and was an acute fever characterized by furred tongue, intolerable frontal headache, tinnitus aurium, constant thirst, delirium, an olive-colored face, redness and twitching of the eyes and a full, frequent and rapid pulse. Epiala and lipparia were febrile conditions concerning which there seems to have been much difference of opinion, even in the days of Gilbert. Apparently they were distinguished by variations of external and internal temperature, or by chills combined with fever. Febris ethica is our modern hectic fever. In the discussion of this last variety we are introduced to the "ros" and "cambium" of Avicenna, apparently varieties of hypothetical humors.

All these fevers are regarded from the standpoint of Humoralism, and depend upon variations in the quantity, quality, mixture or location of the four humors, blood, phlegm, bile and black-bile (melancholia).

In the general treatment of febrile diseases, so-called preparatives and digestives are first employed to ripen the humors, after which evacuatives (emetics, cathartics, sudorifics, and occasionally even venesection) are utilized for the discharge of these peccant humors. Much emphasis is laid upon the dietetics of fevers, and this branch of treatment is highly elaborated. Complications are met by more or less appropriate treatment, and the condition of the urine is studied with great diligence. Venesection is recommended rather sparingly, and is never to be employed during the dies caniculares (dog-days) or dies Aegyptiaci, nor during conjunctions of the moon and planets, nor upon the 5th, 15th, 17th, 25th, 26th, or 27th days thereafter, etc.

Among the complications of fevers discussed by Gilbert, two seem sufficiently important to justify special attention. On folio 74b we find a section entitled "De fluxu materie per parotidas venas," in which he remarks that "Sometimes matter flows through the parotid veins behind the ears down to the neck and nares, and obstructs the passages for air, food and drink, so as to threaten suffocation." He cautions us against the use of repressives, "lest the matter may run to the heart," and recommends mollitives and dissolvents, such as butter, dyaltea, hyssop and especially newly shorn wool (lana succida), which, he says, is a strong solvent. Is this a reference to the septic parotitis not unfrequently seen in low fevers?

The following section, "De inflatione vesice et dolore ejus," discusses the retention of urine in fevers, and its treatment. Gilbert says: "Inflation of, and pain in the bladder are sometimes symptoms of acute fevers, since the humors descend into and fill the bladder." If this occurs in an interpolated (remittent) fever, he directs the patient to be placed in a bath of a decoction of pellitory up to the umbilicus, "et effundet urinam." If the complication occurs in one suffering from a continued fever, the bath should be made of wormwood and a poultice should be placed over the bladder and genitals, "et statim minget." The same effect may be produced by poultice mixed with levisticum (lovage) or leaves of parsley. Singularly enough the catheter is not mentioned, though this instrument, under the medieval name of argalia (cf. French algalie), is noticed frequently in the section devoted to vesical calculus.

With the second book of the Compendium the system of the discussion of diseases a capite ad pedes is commenced, and produces some curious associates. To the modern physician the sudden transition from diseases of the scalp to fractures of the cranium seems at least abrupt, if not illogical. It seems, therefore, wiser, in a hasty review like the present, to take up the various pathological conditions described by Gilbert in their modern order and relations, and to thus facilitate the orientation of the reader.

The second book then opens with a consideration of the hair and scalp, and their respective disorders.

The hair is a dry fume (fumus siccus), escaping from the body through the pores of the scalp and condensed by contact with the air into long, round cylinders. It increases rather by accretion than by internal growth, and its color depends upon the humors. Thus red hair arises from unconsumed blood or bile; white hair, from an excess of phlegm; black hair, from the abundance of black-bile (melancholia), etc. The use of the hair is for ornament, for protection and for the distinction of the sexes. Numerous prescriptions for dyeing the hair, for depilatories (psilothra), for the removal of misplaced hair and for the destruction of vermin in the hair are carefully recorded.

Three varieties of soaps for medicinal use are described, and the process of their manufacture indicated. The base of each is a lixivium made from two parts of the ashes of burned bean-stalks and one of unslaked lime, mixed with water and strained. Of this base (capitellum), two parts mixed with one part of olive oil form the sapo saracenicus. In the sapo gallicus the base is made with the ashes of chaff and bean-stalks with lime, and to it is added goat's fat, in place of the oil. The sapo spatareuticus is made in a similar manner, except that oil replaces the goat's fat and the soap is made only during the dog days, since the necessary heat is to be supplied by the sun alone.

Among the diseases of the scalp attention is given to alopecia, dandruff (furfur), tinea caries and various pustular affections, fanus (favus), rima, spidecia, achora, etc. Caries was a pustular disease, in which bristle-like hairs formed a prominent feature. Rima was a name applied by the physicians of Salernum to a superfluity of hair. In addition to these diseases of the scalp, we find also descriptions of gutta rosacea, morphoea and scabies, a fairly extensive dermatology for this early day. In favus, Gilbert tells us that, after the removal of the pustules, there remain foramina, from which exudes a poisonous substance, resembling honey. Of course his system of treatment is rich in variety and comprehensiveness.

We may notice here too a few chapters on Toilet or Decorative Medicine, a branch of art to which modern physicians have devoted perhaps too little attention, with the natural result that it has fallen largely into the hands of charlatans of both sexes. Gilbert's chapter "De ornatu capillorum" offers the following sensible introduction: "The adornment of the hair affords to women the important advantages of beauty and convenience; and as women desire to please their husbands, they devote themselves to adornment and protect themselves from the charge of carelessness. In order, therefore, that our ministry may not be depreciated, and that we may not render ourselves liable to the accusation of ignorance, let us add a few words on the subject of the dressing of the hair and the general care of the person".

Accordingly Gilbert advises ladies who desire to retain or renew the charms of youth to soften the skin and open its pores by the use of steam baths and careful washing in warm water, followed by drying the surface with the finest cloths (panno mundissimo). If necessary, superfluous hair is to be removed by suitable depilatories, color to be restored to the pale cheeks by a lotion of chips of Brazil-wood⁶ soaked in rose-water and applied with pads of cotton; or, if the face is too red, it may be blanched by the root of the cyclamen (panis porcinus, sowbread) dried in an oven and powdered. A wealth of remedies for freckles, moles, warts, wrinkles, discolorations and other facial blemishes, with foul breath and fetidity of the armpits, is carefully recorded, and would suffice to establish the fortune of any of our modern specialists in female beauty. Finally a long chapter entitled "De sophisticatione vulvae" introduces us to a phase of decoration and sophistication which I would fain believe little known or studied in the development of modern civilization, in which we are prone at least to follow the advice of Hamlet, to

At all events, we may congratulate ourselves that the details of these disgusting cess-pools of medical art have disappeared entirely from the pages of our modern text-books. Even Gilbert considers it advisable to preface this gruesome chapter with a sort of "Caveat emptor" apology to the reader:

"Ut tamen secundum ordinem procedamus, in primis cognosactur cognoscere desiderantibus, ne dolus dolo patrocinetur, vel simplex dolose muscipula claudatur."

In the department of neurology Gilbert, after a philosophical discussion of the nature and variety of pain, devotes considerable chapters to the causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment of headache, hemicrania, epilepsy, catalepsy, analepsy, cerebral congestion, apoplexy and paralysis, phrenitis, mania and melancholia, incubus or nightmare, lethargy and stupor, lippothomia or syncope, sciatica, spasm, tremor, tetanus, vertigo, wakefulness, and jectigation (jactitation, formication, twitching).

The third book of the Compendium opens with several chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the eye and the phenomena of vision. According to Gilbert, the eye consists of three humors, the albugineous (aqueous), the crystalline lens and the vitreous humor, and seven tunics, apparently

though the definitions are not in all cases quite clear and definite. The tela aranea is said to take its origin from the retina, the retina from the optic nerve, and the latter from the rethi (rete, network) involving the substance of the brain. The cornea arises from the sclerotic tunic, the uvea and secundina take their origin from the pia mater, and the conjunctiva from a thin pellicle or membrane which covers the exterior of the cranium and is nourished by a transudation of the blood through the coronal suture. This pellicle is also said to have a connection with the heart, which arrangement furnishes a decidedly curious explanation of the mechanism of sympathetic and maudlin lachrymation. For, as Gilbert tells us, when the heart is compressed this pellicle is also compressed, and if any moisture is found beneath the pellicle it is expressed into the substance of the lachrymal gland by the constriction of the heart, and men in sorrow therefore shed tears. And again, if the heart is much dilated or elevated (by joy), this pellicle is also dilated or elevated, and if any moisture is found beneath it, it is expressed in the form of tears. Accordingly, men who are too joyful shed tears. Still further, drunken men, who are notoriously "moist," and have a superfluity of fluid between the pellicle and the skin of the cranium, are prone to weeping on slight provocation, and their tears are nothing more than an expression of this moisture, which makes its exit, not through the substance of the eye, but through the "lachrymal angle." Q.E.D.

This odd demonstration is followed by a succession of optical questions, which are discussed and answered in true scholastic style, with no little acuteness of observation. Thus: "Utrum visus fiat intus suscipiendo?" Is vision accomplished by something received into the eye? "Utrum color fit de nocte?" Does color exist at night? To the latter question Gilbert replies that in the darkness color exists in posse, but not in esse. Again: "Why do some animals see at night, some in the day only and some only in the twilight?" This phenomenon he ascribes to "the clearness and subtilty of the visual spirits, or to the strength, weakness, grossness or turbidity of the organs of vision." Some animals, he says, have (visual) spirits, subtle and clear as fire, and these animals see perfectly at night because the visual spirits (spiritus visibilis) are sufficient to illuminate the external air. "Why do objects in water seem nearer than those in air?" Gilbert explains this as follows: "Nothing appears distant, except as perceived through an extensive intervening medium. But our judgment is largely guided by the transparency of this medium, since the medium itself is not perceived with much accuracy, except when it is transparent. Accordingly, as the lucidity of air is greater than that of water, an object looks more distant through air than through water."

"Why does not a single object appear double, inasmuch as we have two eyes?" To this he replies: "From the anterior part of the brain two optic nerves pass to the two eyes. But these two nerves unite at a certain point into one. Now, since the two nerves are of equal length, two images proceeding from a single object do not make the object seem double, but single, since the two images are united into one, and accordingly one object is seen as one image."

Other physiological speculations are introduced by the questions: "May one see an object not actually present?" "Why do some animals see best objects at a distance, others those near at hand?" "Why are objects seen in their proper position?" All these questions are answered in accordance with the scholastic formulae, and, not infrequently, with considerable acuteness.

A chapter entitled "De signis oculorum" also introduces us to a curious discussion of ocular physiognomy. Thus:

"When we see a man with large eyes, we argue that he is indolent."

"If his eyes are deeply situated in his head, we say that he is crafty and a deceiver."

"If his eyes are prominent, we say that he is immodest, loquacious and stupid."

"He whose eyes are mobile and sharp is a deceiver, crafty and a thief."

"He whose eyes are large and tremulous is lazy and a braggart (spaciosus?), and fond of women."

and so forth for an entire page of the Compendium.

Actual diseases of the eye are discussed in chapters on pain in the eyes, ophthalmia, pannus (including ungula, egilops and cataract), tumors of the conjunctiva, itching of the eyes, lachrymation, cancer, diseases of the cornea and uvea, diseases of the eyelids, lachrymal fistula and entropion. The treatment consists generally in ointments and collyria in abundance, but in fistula lachrymalis incision and tents of alder-pith, mandragora (malum terrae), briony, gentian, etc., are recommended, and entropion is referred directly to the surgeon.

The Latin term cataracta (also catarracta and catarractes) is applied to a disease of the eyes by Gregory of Tours (Hist. Franc., v. 6) as early as A.D. 650, and again by Constantine Africanus, of the school of Salernum, in 1075 (De Chirurg., cap. XXX). Singularly the word is not found in the "Chirurgia" of Roger of Parma, from whom Gilbert seems to have borrowed most of his surgical knowledge. Nor is it employed by Roland, Roger's pupil and editor. It recurs, however, in the Glossulae Quatuor Magistrorum (about 1270). But in all these writers cataracta seems to be included under the general term pannus, meaning opacities of every kind. Indeed Gilbert says, "Ungula, egilops, cataracta and macula are species of pannus, all arising from the same causes and cured by the same treatment." A few lines later, however, in distinguishing these various species, he adds: "Cataract arises from a humor collected between the tunics of the eye": and again it is said to be blood filling the veins of the eyes, and especially those of the conjunctiva, and derives its name a caracteribus (?). The truth is none of these writers seem to have any very definite knowledge of the distinction between the various opacities of the media of the eye, all of which were included under the general term pannus. But, what is more remarkable, Roger, Roland and The Four Masters make no mention of the possibility of surgical interference in these cases, but content themselves with elaborate collyria and ointments, or simply with internal treatment. Gilbert, on the other hand, while recommending these collyria and ointments, and even the internal remedies, adds the following:

"Interior autem macula, quae tela vocatur, subcornea situata, si vl'e (?) purgatione precendente et colliriis et pulveribus non removetur, acu torta immissa per caprinum angulum extrahatur aut inferius replicetur" (f. 137a).

And again (f. 141d):

"In uvea sunt largitas et constrictio et aqua sive cataracta.... Aqua quandoque per medium pupille descendit, inferius stans, subuvea apparens, quae perfecte curatur secundum quosdam immisso acus aculeo per pupillam, ut extra fluat aqua."

Chapters on the physiology of hearing, smelling and the sensation of touch are followed by a discussion of the symptoms and treatment of earache, abscess of the ear, discharges (bloody and sanious) from the ear, worms and other foreign bodies in the ear, tinnitus aurium, deafness, coryza, epistaxis, nasal polypi, ozaena, cancer of the nose, fissures and ulcers of the lips, foul breath, diseases of the tongue, toothache, etc.

Physiognomy, a favorite theme with our author, appears again in a considerable chapter on the physiognomy of the nose, mouth, face and the teeth.

"He who laughs frequently is kind and genial in all things and is not worried over trifles."

"He who laughs rarely is contrary and critical."

"He who has large ears is stolid and long-lived."

"He who has a large mouth is gluttonous and daring."

"He whose teeth are defective and small is weak in his whole body."

"He whose canine teeth are long and straight is a glutton and a rascal."

The department of genito-urinary diseases is introduced by a long chapter entitled "De approximeron," a formidable Latin word defined by Gilbert as sexual impotence. An elaborate discussion of the physiology of generation and the phenomena of impotence is followed by a collection of remedies for the condition, of which the best that can be said is that they are probably no less effective than most of the modern drugs recommended for the same purpose. Concerning a function over which so many fond superstitions still linger in the public mind we may, perhaps, charitably forgive Gilbert for the introduction of an empirical remedy for sterility, which, he assures us, he has often tried and with invariable success, and which enjoys the double advantage of applicability to either sex.

"Let a man, twenty years of age or more, before the third hour of the vigil of St. John the Baptist, pull up by the roots a specimen of consolida major (comfrey) and another of consolida minor (healall), repeating thrice the Lord's prayer (oratio dominica). Let him speak to no one while either going or returning, say nothing whatever, but in deep silence let him extract the juice from the herbs and with this juice write on as many cards as may be required the following charm:

"Dixit dominus crescite. †. Uthihoth. †. multiplicamini. †. thahechay. †. et replete terram. †. amath.

"If a man wears about his neck a card inscribed with these identical words written in this juice, he will beget a male. Conversely, if a woman, she will conceive a female" (f. 287b).

Gilbert, however, cautions the bearer of this potent charm of the possible dangers of satyriasis incurred thereby, and offers suitable remedies for so alarming a condition.

Chapters on satyriasis, gomorrhea (gonorrhea in its etymological sense, seminal emissions), with a third entitled "De pustulis et *apostematibus virgae" complete this department of medical art. The last chapter recognizes the venereal origin of the pustules and ulcers discussed, but furnishes no direct evidence of Gilbert's belief in the existence of a specific venereal poison.

While Gilbert is very scrupulous in his examination of the gross appearances of the urine in most diseases, his discussion of the diseases of the kidneys and bladder includes only pain in the kidneys, abscess of the kidneys, renal and vesical calculus, hematuria, incontinence of urine, dysuria and strangury.

The chapter on hematuria presents a very curious specimen of medieval pathology. Gilbert says: "The escape of blood in the urine is due sometimes to the liver, sometimes to the bile,⁷ sometimes to the kidneys and loins, sometimes to the bladder. If the blood is pure and clear, in large quantity, mixed perfectly with the urine and accompanied by pain in the right hypochondrium, it comes from the liver. Such urine presents scarcely any sediment. If the blood comes from the lrili vein, it is also rather pure, but less pure than in the former case, nor is the quantity so great, while pain is felt over the region of the seventh vertebra, counting from below. If it comes from the kidneys, it is scanty and pure as it leaves the bladder, but soon coagulates and forms a dark deposit in the vessel, while pain is felt in the pubes and peritoneum.... If pus, blood and epithelium (squamae) are passed, and the odor is strong, it signifies ulceration of the bladder" (f. 275b).

Diabetes is defined as "An immoderate passage or attraction of urine from the liver to the kidneys and its passage through the kidneys, as the result of a warm or dry distemperature of these organs." The idea of some association of the liver and kidneys in the production of diabetes is at least as old as the eleventh century, and Gilbert's definition of the disease is undoubtedly borrowed from the "Practica" of John Platearius (A.D. 1075), of the school of Salernum. The symptoms, continual thirst, dryness of the mouth, emaciation, in spite of an inordinate appetite, frequent and profuse urination, are correctly given, but no knowledge of the presence of sugar in the urine is indicated.

Dyampnes (involuntary micturition) claims a page or more of explanation and treatment, and its frequent occurrence in old men and children is noticed.

In the department of the diseases of women chapters are devoted to amenorrhea, menorrhagia, hysteria (suffocatio matricis), prolapse, ulceration, abscess, cancer, dropsy and "ventosity" of the uterus (physometra).

In the allied department of obstetrics we find chapters on the signs of conception, on the urine in pregnant women, on difficult labor, prolapsus uteri, retention of the placenta, post partum hemorrhage, afterpains, and the oedema of pregnancy. The causes of difficult labor, according to Gilbert, are malposition, dropsy, immoderate size and death of the fetus, debility of the uterus and obstruction of the maternal passages. Malpositions are to be corrected by the hand of the midwife (obstetrix). Adjuvant measures are hot baths, poultices, inunctions, fumigations and sternutatories, and the use of certain herbs.

In the departments of general medicine not as yet entirely appropriated by specialists it will suffice to mention scrofula, pleurisy and pneumonia, hemoptysis, empyema, phthisis, cardiac affections, diseases of the stomach, liver and spleen, diarrhoea and dysentery, intestinal worms, dropsy, jaundice, cancer, rheumatism and gout, small-pox, measles, leprosy and hydrophobia, all of which claim more or less attention.

Peripneumonia and pleurisy are both inflammations of the chest, the former affecting the lungs, the latter the diaphragm and the pellicle which lines the ribs. The prominent symptoms of both diseases are pain in the chest or side, cough and fever and dyspnoea. Accidents or sequelae are hemoptysis, empyema and phthisis.

Empima (empyema) is the hawking-up of sanies, with infection of the lung and a sanious habit. Hence persons laboring under pneumonia or pleurisy are not necessarily empyemics, but when these diseases progress to such a point that blood and sanies are expectorated and the lung is infected, that is when the ulceration of the lungs fails to heal and corruption and infection occur, the disease becomes empima, and is with difficulty, or never cured.

Ptisis is a substantial consumption of the humidity of the body, due to ulceration of the lungs. For when a solution of continuity occurs in the lungs, the inspiratory and expiratory forces fail. Hence the lungs do not inspire sufficient air to mitigate the innate heat of the heart, and the heart fails to purify itself of the fumosity or fumous vapors generated in itself. Accordingly, deprived of the means of mitigating its heat or ventilating its fumosities, the spirits within it become unduly heated, and a consuming fire is generated in the entire body.

The symptoms of ptisis are a continued fever, greater or less, detected in the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, thirst, a roughness of the tongue, slenderness of the neck, wasting of the entire body, constipation, wasting and shrinking of the finger-nails and fingers, hollowness of the eyes, pain in the left scapula extending to the shoulder, pharyngeal catarrh with abundant and mucilaginous sputum and a tendency to lachrymation. If the sputum thrown upon the coals emits a fetid odor, it is a sign of confirmed ptisis, which is incurable. The disease when it occurs in youths and young persons rarely lasts longer than a year, often terminates in less time, and may sometimes, by the aid of medicine, be prolonged for a greater period. If the sputum received during the night in a vessel is flushed in the morning with warm water, while some impurities remain upon the surface, the putrid matter will sink to the bottom (sputum fundum petens), and the indications are fatal. Likewise sharpness of the nose, hollow eyes, slender nails, falling hair, flattened temples and diarrhoea are of evil omen. These patients converse while dying, and die conversing (moriendo loquentur, sed loquendo moriuntur). Gilbert, of course, supplies a formidable array of remedies for the disease, but tells us that the "very latest" is cauterization over the clavicles (Novissimum autem consilium est cauterium in furcula pectoris).

The varieties of difficulty of breathing are classified under the titles of asma, dispnea, orthomia, hanelitus and sansugium. The last title is given to a condition in which, as Gilbert says, "A superfluous humor is abundant in the superficies of the lung, which compresses that organ and renders it unable to dilate in inspiration. Hence it labors in inspiration like a leech, from which the dyspnea derives its name."

Under the single title of "cardiaca passio" are included all possible diseases of the heart. The symptoms of this disease are said to be "palpitation, twitching of the limbs (saltus membrorum), perspiration, weakness of the nerves, facial pallor, weakness of the body as in hectic fever or phthisis, excessive pain and faintness over the precordia, a disposition to sleep and often constipation." The treatment is, of course, entirely symptomatic.

Diseases of the digestive apparatus are discussed under the headings of difficulties of deglutition, canine appetite, bolismus (boulimia), disturbances of thirst, eructations, hiccup, nausea and anorexia, vomiting, anathimiasis (gastric debility), anatropha and catatropha (varieties of obstinate vomiting), pain in the stomach, abscess of the stomach, salivation, colic, dysentery and diarrhoea, intestinal worms, hemorrhoids, rectal tenesmus, prolapsus ani, fistula in ano, diseases of the liver, dropsy, jaundice and diseases of the spleen.

Abscess of the stomach sometimes manifests a circumscribed tumor, and accordingly, probably includes cancer of that organ. Approved remedies are the Al'mirabile, the stomatichon frigidum, calidum or laxativumvum, etc., stereotyped formulae, of which the composition is carefully recorded.

Dysentery is a flux of the bowels with a sanguinolent discharge and excoriation of the intestines. A variety called hepatic dysentery, however, lacks the intestinal excoriation. Diarrhoea is a simple flux of the bowels, without either the sanguinolent discharges or the intestinal excoriation. Lientery is a flux of the bowels with the discharge of undigested food, occasioned by irritability (levitas) of the stomach or intestines. Colical passion and iliac passion derive their names from the supposed origin of the pain in the colon or ileum, a remark which furnishes occasion for the statement that Gilbert divides the bowels into six sections, viz., the duodenum jejunum and ileum, and the orobus, colon and longaon (rectum).

Intestinal worms are not generated in the stomach, as Gilbert says, because of the great heat produced by the process of digestion. In the intestines they originate chiefly from the varieties of phlegm, e.g., saline, sweet, acid, natural, etc. The species mentioned specifically are lumbrici and ascarides or cucubitini, though the terms long, round, short and broad are also employed, and probably include the tape worm or taenia lata. The treatment of these parasites consists generally in the use of aromatic, bitter or acid mixtures, among which gentian, serpentaria, tithymal and cucumis agrestis are especially commended for lumbrici, and enemata of wormwood, lupinus, scammony, salt, aloes, etc., for ascarides.

The diseases of the liver, though not numerous, are allotted considerable space most of which is occupied by scholastic speculations and the usual rich supply of therapeutical suggestions.

Discrasia of the liver has several varieties, warm, cold, moist and dry, and seems nearly equivalent to our somewhat overworked term of "biliousness." Gilbert's favorite compounds for the relief of this condition are the Trifera sarracenica, the Electuarium psilliticum and above all the Dyantos Besonis.

Obstruction (oppilatio) of the liver or enfraxis is defined as a disease of the canals (pori), of which four are enumerated, to-wit, the meseraic, that of the convexity of the organ (gibbus—ubi sunt exitus capillarium venarum), the duct leading to the gall-bladder and that leading to the spleen. With an abundance of symptoms, it is singular that this comprehensive disease does not seem characterized by any constant or severe pain, as we might reasonably expect.

Abscess of the liver depends upon some vice of the blood, the bile, the phlegm or the black-bile. The general treatment is poultices and other maturatives, but, as the author adds rather sadly at the close, ultima cura est per incisionem.

Dropsy is discussed as an independent disease through the exhaustive speculations of thirty-two pages. Gilbert tells us it depends upon some fault of the digestive faculty of the liver, and he divides it into four species, to-wit, leucoflantia, yposarcha, alchitis and tympanitis, each of which has its special and appropriate treatment. In the dreary waste of speculative discussion it is cheering, however, to observe Gilbert's positive recognition of the sphere of percussion indicated in the passage:

"Et venter percussus sonat ad modum utris semipleni aqua et venta." (f. 250b.)

Ycteritia or jaundice receives equally thorough discussion through eight weary pages, including the usual polypharmacal treatment.

The spleen, Gilbert says, is sometimes the name of an organ, sometimes of a disease. As an organ it is spongy and loose in texture, and attracts and retains the superfluities of the black-bile, expelled from the liver for its own cleansing. Hence it is a servile and insensitive organ, and accordingly suffers different diseases, such as obstruction, tumors, hardening, softening, abscess, and sometimes flatulence or repletion. The symptoms and treatment of each of these morbid conditions, arising from either heat or cold, are discussed with exasperating thoroughness, and the chapter concludes with the composition and use of various specific remedies of compound character, bearing the impressive titles of Dyasene, Dyacapparis, Dyaceraseos (a mixture of cherry juice, honey, cinnamon, mastic and scammony) and Agrippa.

Scrofulous swellings are carefully considered in a chapter entitled "De scrophulis et glandulis." "Scrophulae and glandulae are hard swellings developing in the soft parts, as in the emunctory localities of the veins and arteries, particularly in the neck, armpits and groins, and sometimes in other places. They spring from the superfluities of the principal organs, which nature expels, as it were, to the emunctories and localities designed to receive this flux." ... "Hence they are often found the cause of scabies, tinea, malum mortuum, cancer, fistula, etc., and are called glandes. Sometimes, however, a dryer matter is finely divided and falls into several minute portions, from which arise many hard and globular swellings, called scrofulae from the multiplicity of their progeny, like that of the sow (scrofa). The disease is also called morbus regius, because it is cured by kings."

Gilbert advises that these swellings should not be "driven in" (repercutienda), but brought to suppuration generally by emollients and poultices. When softened they may be opened with a lancet and the pus allowed to escape gradually, but as this process is tedious, he prefers the entire removal of the glands with the knife, premissing, however, that no gland should be cut into which cannot be well grasped by the hand and pulled from its seat. This surgical manipulation is fully described, and is undoubtedly taken from the similar chapter of Roger. It is worthy of notice also that just at the close of this chapter, Gilbert mentions a swelling called "testudo," a gland-like, gaseous (ventosa) tumor, usually solitary and found in "nervous" localities, like the joints of the wrist and hand. He says it often occurs from fracture (cassatura?) of the nerves, is cured by pressure, friction or incision, but is not entirely free from danger. Possibly this may refer to ganglion. Now, Roger makes no mention whatever of "testudo," while Roland says:

"Nota quod quamvis Rogerius non designat inter glandulum et testudinem, scias igitur quod testudo fit ex majori parte flegmatica, minori melancholie, glandula vero a contrario," a statement which might readily suggest the suspicion that Gilbert had before his eyes the text of Roland, or that, at least, he had not acquired his knowledge of testudo from Roger, his usual surgical authority.

Gilbert's sections on goitre (bocium gulae)⁸ are interesting in themselves, and characteristic of the method adopted by him in his discussion of surgical or semi-surgical subjects. An introduction relative to the pathology of the disease and which seems to be original, is followed by a treatment, medical and surgical, adopted almost literally from the Chirurgia of Roger. Thus he says: "Goiter occurs most commonly among the inhabitants of mountainous regions, and is due to an amplification and dilatation of the veins, arteries and nerves, together with the soft tissues, occasioned by the north wind (ventum boreale), or some other confined wind, which during childhood has accumulated in (coadunabatur) and enlarged the part to the size of the goiter." After suggesting an analogy between the disease and the redness and turgidity of the neck produced by passion or in singing, he adds that some cases are due to an accumulation of spongy tissue between the veins and arteries, or to the use of flatulent food, and he even tells us that some old women know how to produce and remove goitrous swellings by means of certain suitable herbs known to them.

Under medical treatment we find the following: "Dig out of the ground while chanting a pater noster, a nut which has never borne fruit. The roots and other parts pound well with two hundred grains of pepper, and boil down in the best wine until reduced in volume to one-half. Let the patient take this freely on an empty stomach until cured."

Another more elaborate prescription consists of a long list of ingredients, including burnt sponge, saponaria, the milk of a sow raising her first litter, with numerous simple herbs, and the sole object for which this nonsensical farrago is introduced here is to add that both these prescriptions are copied from the surgery of Roger. It is important too to remark here that we owe to Roger the introduction of iodine, under the form of burnt sponge, into the treatment of goiter.

In the failure of medical treatment, Gilbert directs the employment of surgical means, e.g., the use of setons, or, in suitable cases, extirpation of the goiter with the knife. If, however, the tumor is very vascular, he prefers to leave the case to nature rather than expose the patient to the dangers of a bloody operation. The whole discussion of goiter is manifestly a paraphrase of the similar chapter of Roger, who also introduced into surgical practice the use of the seton.

In Gilbert's chapter entitled "De arthretica passione et ejus speciebus," we are introduced to the earliest discussion by an English physician of that preeminently English disease—gout. We may infer, too, from the length of the discussion (thirty or more pages) that this was a disease with which Gilbert was not only familiar, but upon the knowledge of which he prided himself greatly. Indeed, it is one of the few diseases of the Compendium in which the author assumes the position of a clinician and introduces examples of the disease and its treatment taken from his own clientele. We shall, therefore, follow our author here rather more carefully and literally than usual, that we may learn the views of an English physician of the thirteenth century on, perhaps, the most characteristic disease of his countrymen.

Gilbert says: "Arthetica is a disease of the joints arising from a flux of humors descending into their continuity (concathenationem). The name is derived from the Latin artus, a joint, and the disease comprehends three species, viz., sciatica, disease of the scia, or the ligaments uniting the spine with the hip; cyragra, disease of the joints of the hands; and podagra, disease of the bones and joints of the foot, due to the descent of humors into their continuity. Sometimes, too, the disease affects other organs, occasioning pain in sensitive members, as, e.g., the head, and then derives its name from the part affected, as cephalea, emigranea or monopagia. Occasionally likewise some humor runs down (reumatizat) into the chest, spreading over the nerves of the breast or those of the spine between the vertebrae, and sometimes to other places. Hence the disease derives the general name gout (gutta), from its resemblance to a drop (gutta) trickling or falling downward and flowing over the weaker organs, which receive the humor. For gout arises particularly from rheumatic causes. Now, as the humors are rather uncontrollable (male terminabiles) fluids, they flow towards the exterior and softer parts, like the flesh and skin, which receive their moisture and being soft, dilatable and extensible, there results some swelling. But if the humors are hard and dry, they are confined within the interior of the organs, such as bones, nerves and membranes: and these, being hard in themselves, do not receive the moisture, nor suffer extension or dilatation, and thus no swelling results. Since, therefore, the material of this variety of arthetica, in which no swelling is present, is formed of grosser and harder substance and is found in the vicinity of hard and cold localities, it is dissolved slowly and the disease is not cured until this solution takes place. That form of the disease, however, in which there is swelling from a subtile and liquid material deposited in the soft parts is the more quickly cured. Hence swelling is the best sign of curability. This is most evidently true in podagra, unless the materies morbi, by reason of its scarcity, produces no enlargement of the affected part."

Quoting the words of Rhazes, Gilbert tells us that the materies morbi of gout is, for the most part, crude and bloody phlegm. Rarely is it bilious, and still more rarely, melancholic. If, however, it is compounded, it consists chiefly of bile mixed with a subtile phlegm, and more rarely, of phlegm mixed with black bile (melancholia), occasionally of black bile mixed with blood. The mixture of black bile and blood or bile is very rare, and still rarer a mixture of all the humors according to their proportion in the body.

If the color of the affected part is red, it indicates that the materies morbi is sanguineous; if greenish-yellow (citrinus), that it is bilious; if whiter than the general color of the body, that the materies is a subtile phlegm. If the color shades away into black, it does not signify necessarily that the materies is simply black bile, for such a color occurs at the close of acute abscesses, or from strangulation of the blood. But if, together with the black color, we find the tissues cold and no increase of heat in the affected part, this indicates that the materies is black bile.

By touching the diseased part we determine its heat or coldness, hardness or softness, roughness or smoothness, fullness, distention or evacuation, all of which signs possess special significance.

The antecedent causes of gout, Gilbert tells us, are a heat too solvent, cold too constringent (f. 311 c), sometimes a strong bath or a severe journey in a plethoric person (in plectorico), again excessive coitus after a full meal (satietatem), or even habitual excess, by which the joints are weakened and deprived of their natural heat and subtile moisture. Hence boys and eunuchs are not commonly affected by gout—at least boys under the age of puberty. Women, too, do not usually suffer from this disease, because in coitus they are passive, unless their menstrual discharge is suspended. Again gout sometimes arises from infection of the primary semen; for a chronic disease may be inherited by the offspring and affect the material causes, i.e., the humors. Flatulence (ventositas) is likewise a cause of gout, as we have already hinted.

In gout of the sanguineous type the favorite remedy of Gilbert was venesection, pushed to extremes which suggest the bloody theories of his later confrere Bouillaud. This bloodletting, however, was always to be practiced on the side opposite to that affected by the disease, as he tells us, for two reasons: First to solicit the peccant material to the opposite side; and, second, to retard its course toward the seat of the swelling. If, therefore, the disease is in the right foot, he bleeds from the basilic vein, or some of its branches, in the right hand. No other vein should be taken, but if neither the basilic vein nor one of its branches can be found, the bleeding may be performed upon the median vein, for certain branches of the basilic and cephalic veins unite to form the median. If the disease is in the hand, the material may be diverted in two ways, either to the other hand or to the opposite foot. Indeed, blood may be taken from both these parts in succession. The quantity of blood withdrawn should be in accordance with the strength of the patient, the character of the swelling, the pulsation, distention, heat and redness of the affected part. But it should be repeated frequently, and this bloodletting then frequently suffices, in itself, to cure the disease.

Gilbert continues: "I will tell you also what I myself saw in a woman suffering and screaming with pain in her right wrist (assuere?), which was greatly swollen, hot, red and much distended. She was fat, full-blooded, and before the attack had lived freely on milk and flesh. Accordingly she was robust, and I bled her from the basilic vein of the left hand and the saphena of the right foot, both within an hour. Each hour I withdrew a half-pound of blood, then I fed her and for three hours I drew half a pound of blood from the saphena. In the last hour the pain and throbbing (percussio) ceased entirely, and the woman begged me to bleed her again from the hand, for she had experienced great relief. I wished, however, to divert the material to the lower extremities for two reasons, one of which I ought not to mention in this place, while the other is useful, and indeed necessary in such cases. You should know that this woman was suffering pain in her left hand also, though this pain was of a less severe character than in the right. For this reason I desired to divert the peccant matter downward, a point which the physician should consider and observe. Once, while treating a man suffering from sanguineous gout, the pain of which involved the joints between the assuerus and the racheta (?) of the right hand, I asked him whether any pain was felt in the other hand or in the feet. He replied that similar pain was felt in the left hand or its joints, and that hitherto it had been more severe, but that no pain had ever been experienced in the feet. Hence I was unwilling to bleed him at all from the left hand, but I bled him from the right foot. A physician who had treated him before, and had bled him from the right hand for acute swelling of the joints of the left, quieted, indeed, the pain in the left hand, but diverted the disease to the right, where a swelling developed larger than in the left. And when I asked him about this, he understood that I knew more about medicine than the other doctor did. And this is one of the reasons why one ought to divert the material to another part, especially when the pain is so located that it may be increased at the beginning. For under such conditions we ought to refrain from bleeding, frictions and other treatment which may attract the materies morbi to the part. Indeed we ought to require derivation of the materies to another part whenever the affected locality contains one of the nobler organs, towards which the material is directing, or may direct its course. For instance: A person is suffering pain in the joints of the right hand, but has also an acute swelling in the bladder, the kidneys or the womb. Now, I say that in such a case we ought not to bleed from the hand, because if we do we shall injure the organ affected by the swelling. Perhaps, however, we may bleed from the right foot, provided we understand that there is on the right side a sanguineous tumor, the danger of which is greater than that of the swelling on the right hand. Again, suppose in the liver or in the right kidney an acute tumor, and in the joints of the right hand there is present a moderate pain. I say that we ought first to medicate the more dangerous lesion, and, possibly, two results may be obtained by the attraction of the peccant material. Or suppose a woman has gout in her hand, and with this a suppression of the menstrual flow. I say she ought to be bled from the foot and not from the hand for two objects, to solicit the material from the diseased hand, and to provoke a return of the menstrual discharge.

"But to return to our original patient. I may say that after the third venesection, with an interval of two hours, I withdrew a half-pound of blood from the saphena vein, and that night she slept, although she had not slept for many nights. And I did nothing more, except to prescribe a light and cool diet. The third day after the bleeding she was entirely free from any trouble in her hand. Hence I say that we ought in such cases to begin our treatment by venesection."

After this sanguinary introduction, Gilbert soothes the diseased part with cooling and astringent ointments, unless these occasion pain, in which event he omits them entirely and trusts the case to nature, "quoniam natura per se curabit."

The vigorous plan of treatment thus outlined Gilbert seems to regard as original and peculiar to himself, for the next chapter bears the title, "The treatment of gout according to the authorities (secundum magistros)." Here he says he quotes the opinions of the modern teachers and writers, who lay down definite rules for the guidance of the physicians.

Among these he mentions, as primary and of general application, the rule that, before all things, the body must be purified, either by venesection in cases where the material is sanguineous, or by purgation in other varieties of the disease. If the cause is rheumatic in its nature, fomentations should never be employed, for fear of increasing the flux. That the peccant material is to be eliminated gradually by mild remedies, just as it accumulated by degrees. In all cases of gout, and in all chronic diseases generally, much attention must be devoted to the stomach, since if this organ rejects the medicine, the latter must be at once abandoned, lest the stomach becomes weakened and even other organs, and thus the humors flow more readily (magis reumatizarent) to the joints, etc.

These general medical rules are succeeded by some twenty pages devoted largely to special formulae for the different forms of gout, with remarks as to their applicability to the different varieties of the disease. Most of the formulae bear special titles, apparently to lend the weight of a famous name to the virtues of the prescription itself, something as in these modern days we speak of "Coxe's Hive Syrup," "Dover's Powder," "Tully's Powder," etc. Thus we read of the "Pilulae artheticae Salernitorum," the "Cathapcie Alexandrine," the "Oxymel Juliani" the "Pilulae Arabice," the "Pulvis Petrocelli," the "Oleum benedictum," the "Pilulae Johannicii," etc. It is important, too, to remark that the active ingredient of very many of these formulae is the root called hermodactyl, believed by the majority of our botanists to be the colchicum autumnale.

Gilbert's discussion of gout closes with a short and characteristic chapter entitled "Emperica," in which he remarks: "Although I perhaps demean myself somewhat in making any reference to empirical remedies, yet it is well to write them in a new book, that the work may not be lacking in what the ancients (antiqui) have said on the subject. Accordingly I quote the words of Torror. If you cut off the foot of a green frog and bind it upon the foot of a gouty patient for three days, he will be cured, provided you place the right foot of the frog upon the right foot of the patient, and vice versa. Funcius, also, who wrote a book on stones, said that if a magnet was bound upon the foot of a gouty patient, he is cured. Another philosopher also declared that if you take the heel-bone of an ass and bind it upon the foot of the patient, he is cured, provided that you take the right bone for the right foot, and conversely, and he swore this was true. Torror also said that if the right foot of a turtle is placed upon the right foot of a patient suffering from the gout, and conversely, he will be cured."

Gilbert's discussion of leprosy (De lepra, f. 336 d) covers twenty pages and, according to Sprengel, is "almost the first correct description of this disease in the Christian West." Freind says this chapter is copied chiefly from Theodorius of Cervia. See page 3 ante. If, however, I am correct in my conjecture that the Compendium was written about the year 1240, the copying must have been done by Theodorius, whose "Chirurgia" did not appear until 1266.

Leprosy is defined as a malignant disease due to the dispersion of black bile throughout the whole body, corrupting both the constitution (complexionem) and the form of its members. Sometimes, too, it occasions a solution of continuity and the loss of members.

The disease is sometimes congenital, arising from conception during the menstrual period. For the corrupt blood within the maternal body, which forms the nourishment of the fetus, leads likewise to the corruption of the latter. Sometimes the disease is the result of a corrupt diet, or of foul air, or of the breath or aspect of another leper. Avicenna tells us that eating fish and milk at the same meal will occasion the same result. Infected pork and similar articles of diet may likewise produce the disease. Cohabitation with a woman who has previously had commerce with a leper may also produce infection.

Among the general symptoms of leprosy Gilbert enumerates a permanent loss of sensation proceeding from within (insensibilitas mansive ad intrinseco veniens) and affecting particularly the fingers and toes, more especially the first and the little finger, and extending to the forearm, the arm or the knees; coldness and formication in the affected parts; transparency (luciditas) of the skin, with the loss of its natural folds (crispitudines), and a look as if tightly stretched or polished; distortion of the joints of the hands and feet, the mouth or the nose, and a kind of tickling sensation as if some living thing were fluttering within the body, the thorax, the arms or the lips. There is felt also a sensation of motion, which is even visible also by inspection. Fetor of the breath, the perspiration and the skin are likewise noticeable. The localities affected lose their natural hair and are re-covered with very fine hairs, invisible except when held between the eye and the sun. The hair of the eyebrows and the eyelashes are lost—one of the worst of symptoms. There are present also hoarseness and an obstruction of the nostrils, without any visible cause. When the patient takes a bath the water runs off the affected localities as if they had been greased—another sign of evil omen. The angles of the eyes are rounded and shining. The skin, even when unaffected by cold, or other similar cause, is raised into very minute pimples, like the skin of a plucked goose. The blood in venesection has an oily appearance, and displays small particles like sand. Small tumors accompany the depilation of the eyebrows. Lepers are unusually and unduly devoted to sexual pleasures, and suffer unusual depression after sexual indulgence. The skin is tormented with a constant itching, and is alternately unduly hot or cold. Small grains are found under the tongue, as in leprous hogs.

Gilbert divides leprosy into four varieties, elephantia, leonina, tyria and allopicia, the pathology, symptoms and treatment of each of which are presented with wearisome minuteness and completeness. A long chapter, entitled "De infectione post coitum leprosi," discusses the transmission of the disease by means of sexual intercourse, and suggests the possible confusion of lepra and syphilis.

The usual catalogue of specific remedies terminates the discussion.

An interesting chapter on small-pox⁹ and measles, "De variolis et morbillis," gives us the prevailing ideas relative to these diseases in England during the thirteenth century. Premising his remarks with a classification of diseases as follows:

Diseases universal and infectious—like morphoea, serpigo, lepra, variolae et morbilli.

Diseases universal but not infectious.

Diseases infectious but not universal—like noli me tangere.

Diseases neither infectious nor universal.