“James Citty,” like all other settlements in all ages, had to have places for disposal of refuse. That much refuse was disposed of by casting it in the James River is unlikely, since before the dawn of history it has been a trait of man to live on top of his own refuse rather than litter a shore with it. While it may be that no pits were dug purposely for refuse disposal, pits opened for brick or ceramic clay (or dug for ice houses, wells, or other purposes and later abandoned) were used for dumping trash. In 1955 a refuse pit almost 40 feet square was discovered in the “industrial area” near the workshop, ironworking pit, and pottery kilns. Filled with trash from the first half of the 17th century, this pit contained such artifacts as a swepthilt rapier (made about 1600), a cutlass, the breastplate and backpiece of a light suit of armor, a number of utensils of metal, ceramics, and glass, to add to the collection of early 17th-century arts and crafts. Several smaller refuse pits were noted, and it is worth commenting that many ditches finally became trash accumulation areas.

Only one road identified by 17th-century references has been definitely located by archeologists. This is the “Maine Cart Road,” sometimes called the “Greate Road,” leading from Glasshouse Point across the isthmus and onto the island, where it can be traced as far as its passage into the main “James Citty” area just north of the brick church and churchyard. A trace is all that remains of a road which once ran east-west between parallel ditches, south of the row house.

The foregoing has been a summary of the physical aspect of the Jamestown settlement from the standpoint of archeology. An account of the arts and crafts revealed by the artifacts found in these explorations follows. The whole story relating the settlers themselves to evidence they left in the soil of Jamestown remains to be told.

Archeological explorations at Jamestown, Va.—site of the first successful English colony in the New World—have brought to light thousands of colonial period artifacts which were used by the Virginia settlers from 1607 until 1699.

A study of these ancient objects, which were buried under the soil at Jamestown for many decades, reveal in many ways how the English colonists lived on a small wilderness island over 300 years ago. Artifacts unearthed include pottery and glassware, clay pipes, building materials and handwrought hardware, tools and farm implements, weapons, kitchen utensils and fireplace accessories, furniture hardware, lighting devices, eating and drinking vessels, tableware, costume accessories and footwear, medical equipment, horse gear, coins and weights, and many items relating to household and town industries, transportation, trade, and fishing.

These artifacts provide invaluable information concerning the everyday life and manners of the first Virginia settlers. A brief description of many of them is given on the following pages.

Excavated artifacts reveal that the Jamestown colonists built their houses in the same style as those they knew in England, insofar as local materials permitted. There were differences, however, for they were in a land replete with vast forests and untapped natural resources close at hand which they used to advantage. The Virginia known to the first settlers was a carpenter’s paradise, and consequently the early buildings were the work of artisans in wood. The first rude shelters, the split-wood fencing, the clapboard roof, puncheon floors, cupboards, benches, stools, and wood plows are all examples of skilled working with wood.

Timber at Jamestown was plentiful, so many houses, especially in the early years, were of frame construction. During the first decade or two, house construction reflected a primitive use found ready at hand, such as saplings for a sort of framing, and use of branches, leafage, bark, and animal skins. During these early years—when the settlers were having such a difficult time staying alive—mud walls, wattle and daub, and coarse marshgrass thatch were used. Out of these years of improvising, construction with squared posts, and later with quarterings (studs), came into practice. There was probably little thought of plastering walls during the first two decades, and when plastering was adopted, clay, or clay mixed with oyster-shell lime, was first used. The early floors were of clay, and such floors continued to be used in the humbler dwellings throughout the 1600’s. It can be assumed that most of the dwellings, or shelters, of the Jamestown settlers, certainly until about 1630, had a rough and primitive appearance.

After Jamestown had attained some degree of permanency, many houses were built of brick. It is quite clear from documentary records and archeological remains, that the colonists not only made their own brick, but that the process, as well as the finished products, followed closely the English method. Four brick kilns were discovered on Jamestown Island during archeological explorations.

While some of the handwrought hardware found at Jamestown was made in the colony, most of it was imported from England. Types of building hardware unearthed include an excellent assortment of nails, spikes, staples, locks, keys, hinges, pintles, shutter fasteners, bolts, hasps, latches, door knockers, door pulls, footscrapers, gutter supports, wall anchors, and ornamental hardware. In many instances each type is represented by several varieties. Citing 2 examples, there are more than 20 kinds of nails and at least 15 different kinds of hinges in the collection.

A few glass window panes may have been made in the Jamestown glass factory which was built in 1608. Most of the window glass used in the colony, however, was shipped from England. Many of the early panes used were diamond-shaped (known as “quarrels”), and were held in place by means of slotted lead strips (known as “cames”). The window frames used in a few of the Jamestown houses were handwrought iron casements. Most of the humbler dwellings had no glass panes in the windows. The window openings were closed by batten shutters, operated by hinges of wood and fitted with wooden fastening devices.

Most of the hand-painted tiles used at Jamestown (for decorating walls and fireplaces) were imported from Holland. A few were made in England. Made of a light-buff clay, and known as delftware, the tiles unearthed are decorated in blue, with a conventionalized design in each corner and a central picture or motif. Covered with a tin glaze, the majority of tiles found measure about 5 inches square by ³/₈-inch thick. The edges are beveled, permitting them to be set very close together at the glazed surface. The attractively decorated tiles added a touch of beauty to a few Jamestown interiors.

Four kinds of roofing materials have been excavated: Plain, flat, earthenware tiles; curved earthenware pantiles; slate; and wooden shingles. The plain tiles were made in Jamestown brick kilns, and it is possible that some of the S-curved red pantiles were also made locally. Slate was brought over from England, whereas most of the shingles were rived from native cedar and oak logs. Other materials used in roofing included bark, marshgrass and reeds (thatch), and boards. Sod appears to have been used on some of the very early houses.

Lime for mortar, plaster, and ornamental plaster was made in crude lime kilns at Jamestown from calcined oyster shells. The oyster shells came from the James River.

Plaster and mortar have been found at Jamestown in abundance. It appears that the majority of brick houses and many frame structures had plastered walls and ceilings after 1635. Some plaster found had been whitewashed, while other plaster bore its natural whitish-gray color. Mortar was found wherever brick foundations were located. The plaster and mortar used at Jamestown was made from oystershell lime, sand, and clay.

Ornamental plaster was found in a few of the excavations. The plasterwork was done in raised ornamental designs used for enhancing the beauty of both the interior and exterior of a building. Designs that have been found include Roman numerals, letters, mottos, crests, veined leaves, rosettes, flowers, geometric designs, a lion, and a face or mask. Many fragments of molded plaster cornices have also been excavated. Broken oyster shells are distinguishable in the decorated plasterwork, indicating that the pargeting was done at Jamestown.

Busy conquering a stubborn wilderness, the first Jamestown settlers had only a few things to make their houses cosy and cheerful. In most cases, their worldly goods consisted of a few cooking utensils, a change of clothing, a weapon or two, and a few pieces of homemade furniture. However, between 1607 and 1612, George Percy was generously outfitted with some necessities as well as much fine apparel and numerous luxury items (including a feather bed) by his brother the Ninth Earl of Northumberland, as published records of the Earl’s expenditures for George show. Other persons of gentle birth and position quite probably enjoyed similar goods.

After the early years of hardship had passed, the colonists began to acquire possessions for a more pleasant living; and by 1650 the better houses were equipped with most of the necessities of life of those times, as well as a few luxuries of comfortable living.

Very little furniture was brought over from England during the early years of the colony. Perhaps a few chests and Bible boxes were imported, but most of the large pieces of furniture, such as tables, chairs, bedsteads, chests-of-drawers, cupboards, benches, and cradles would have been made in Virginia. Woods commonly used included pine, cedar, walnut, maple, and oak.

The candle, made of either tallow or bayberry wax, was the standard lighting device at Jamestown. Pine torches were often used out of doors, and rushlights and candlewood were undoubtedly used in the humbler dwellings during the very early years of the settlement. Candlesticks unearthed at Jamestown include a large brass pricket holder, one made of English sgraffito-ware, several incomplete earthenware holders, and parts of delftware candlesticks. Many fragments of brass and iron candlesticks, as well as a few candle snuffers, have also been recovered.

The fireplace, around which the family gathered, was one of the most important features in the Jamestown home. Its fire offered warmth in winter, afforded light at night, and cooked the family meals during the day. An oven, usually found at the back or at one side of the fireplace, baked the family bread and other foods. About the fireplace, many home chores were carried out, including spinning and sewing; and not far from the glow of the burning logs the children learned their daily lessons and received their early religious training. Social activities were enjoyed about the hearth, especially during the long winter evenings; and when a member of the family was ill, the fireplace and its accessories were in constant use. The fireplace was the first place visited by the housewife in the early morning, and was usually the last place where she performed her household duties late at night.

A fine assortment of fireplace tools and accessories have been found at Jamestown, including iron tongs, shovels, andirons, parts of brass warming-pans, and a large fragment from a cast-iron fireback. One early 17th-century andiron recovered is attractively decorated with a cherub’s head in relief.

A large and varied assortment of cooking utensils and kitchen accessories have been excavated, including kettles, pots, pans, skillets, frying pans, toasters, broilers, griddles, skimmers, skewers, spits, ladles, pothooks, trammels, cranes, trivets, cleavers, knives and forks, sieves, and colanders. While only a few are complete others are almost complete or at least easily recognizable.

During the early years of the colony, people in England who planned to emigrate to Jamestown were advised to bring the following “Household implements: One Iron Pot, One Kettle, One large frying-pan, One gridiron, Two skillets, One Spit, Platters, dishes, spoones of wood.” With the exception of the wooden items, all of the utensils listed have been excavated.

In the small houses at Jamestown the kitchen also served as the dining room. During the early years, many settlers probably ate with wooden spoons out of wooden bowls and trenchers, and drank from mugs made of horn, wood, or leather. As the colony became well established, these crude utensils and vessels were used less frequently and were gradually replaced with ones made of pottery, metalware, and glassware. None of the perishable woodenware, horn, or leather items have been found at Jamestown, but a large assortment of more durable objects used at the table have been recovered. Space permits only brief descriptions of the more common types unearthed.

The table knives found at Jamestown vary in length from 6³/₈ to 8¼ Ƅ inches. Most of them have either bone or ivory handles, although 3 have embossed brass handles; and 1, found in a late 17th-century well, has an exquisite handle of banded agate.

The forks in the collection also have bone or ivory handles, the majority displaying 2 steel prongs, or tines. The number of prongs, however, is no positive identification of any particular period, as many English forks of the mid-17th century had 3 prongs, and a few had 4 prongs.

Types of spoons excavated include seal-heads, slipped ends, “puritans,” and trifids. The majority were made of either pewter or latten metal (a brasslike alloy), although 3 in the collection were made of silver. The earliest spoons found have rounded bowls and 6-sided stems (handles), whereas those made after 1650 usually have oval bowls and flat, 4-sided handles. One of the silver spoons, with rounded bowl and slipped end, bears the initials of its owner, ^WC/_E,” on the slipped end of the handle. This spoon appears to have been made between 1600 and 1625, and is still in excellent condition.

The most important spoon in the Jamestown collection, and one of the most significant objects excavated, is an incomplete pewter spoon—a variant of the trifid, or split-end, type common during the 1650-90 period. Impressed on the handle (in the trefoil finial of the stem) is the mark of the maker, giving his name, the Virginia town where he worked, and the year he started business. This is the sole surviving “touch” or mark of an American pewterer of the 17th century. The complete legend, encircling a heart, reads: “IOSEPH COPELAND/1675/CHUCKATUCK.” (Chuckatuck is a small Virginia village in Nansemond County, about 30 miles southeast of Jamestown.) Joseph Copeland later moved to Jamestown where he was caretaker of the statehouse from 1688-91. He may have made pewter in Virginia’s first capital. His matchless spoon found in the old Jamestown soil is the oldest dated piece of American-made pewter in existence.

The largest and most representative collection of 17th-century European and early American pottery which has been excavated in America is on exhibition at Jamestown. Thousands of fragments of colorful types have been found, and by the exercise of extreme care and patience, museum technicians have pieced together many early specimens. These examples reveal the kinds of pottery used in the wilderness settlement over three centuries ago. Included in this ceramic collection are pitchers, bowls, jugs, cups, mugs, porringers, milk pans, jars, plates and dishes, pots, and platters. These were used at the table, as well as for the storage of foods, and for other purposes.

While some of the utilitarian earthenware was made at Jamestown, most of the pottery that has been found was imported from England. Many types also came from other European countries, including Germany, Holland, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. One kind of maiolica may have been made in Mexico, while the few fragments of porcelain recovered were made in China.

Because of the great variety and importance of the ceramic collection, a few of the more representative types will be described briefly.

While large numbers of eating and drinking vessels made of pottery have been excavated on Jamestown Island, only a few fragments of utensils made of silver, pewter, brass, and copper were found. Metalware vessels were relatively scarce during the early years of the settlement, and their almost complete absence in the Jamestown collection may be attributed to the fact that not many of them were discarded, regardless of their worn condition. Only a few metal handles from mugs and cups, and a small number of pewter plate fragments, have been excavated.

Although no complete specimens of domestic silver and pewter eating and drinking vessels were found, 17th-century records and inventories indicate that many Jamestown families owned such wares (especially after 1630), including cups, beakers, dishes, salts, salvers, tankards, porringers, bowls, and plates.

It is of interest that 2 goldsmiths, 2 refiners, and a jeweler arrived at Jamestown in 1608 aboard the supply ship _Phoenix_. Although John Smith related that these artisans “never had occasion to exercise their craft,” it is possible that they made a few metal objects (such as spoons) in the capital city.

Glass was made at Jamestown in 1608-09, and again in 1621-24. It was, in all probability, the first commodity made by the English in a “factory” in the New World. Many glass fragments were found at the furnace site, but none was large enough to reveal what specific glass objects were made there. It appears that drinking glasses may have been among the items manufactured.

The majority of the glass drinking vessels unearthed at Jamestown were made in England, although a few were manufactured in Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries. In the collection are fragments from goblets, beakers, bowls, and wineglasses. Four of the English wineglass stems bear makers’ seals, rare marks seldom found on English drinking vessels.

These comprise a large and important part of the Jamestown collection. Literally thousands of glass fragments from these bottles have been unearthed, and by diligent and patient work a few complete wine and gin bottles have been pieced together.

The glass wine bottles were made in England. The oldest excavated, made between 1640 and 1660, have spherical bodies and tall necks. Those made between 1660 and 1680 have cup-shaped bodies with short necks. Of the period between 1680 and 1700 the neck is very short and the body is wide and squat. Insofar as is known, no glass wine bottles were used at Jamestown before 1640.