The optative is formed by placing negavacuva or avare before the negative imperative and placing caxi or gana after it; e.g., avare aguru na caxi 'oh! if only you would not offer,' and negavacuva na ague so gana with the same meaning.

The preterit of the optative is formed by placing mono vo after the negative future; e.g., aguru mai mono vo 'oh! if only you would not have offered.'

The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the u which ends the negative present to eba; e.g., agueneba 'since he did not offer.'

The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding reba to the negative preterit of the indicative; e.g., aguenanda reba 'since he had not offered.'

The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding qereba to the negative future; e.g., niguru mai qereba 'since he is not going to escape.'

The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding domo to the negative present after changing the final u of the verb to e; e.g., aguenedomo 'although he cannot offer.' They also say, and this usage is preferred, aguenaidemo or agueidemo 'even if he not offer.'^[90]

The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing redomo after the negative preterit; e.g., aguenanda redomo 'although he had not offered.' Aguenaidemo or agueidemo 'although he would not be allowed to offer,' is also said.

The permissive future is formed by adding qeredomo to the negative future; e.g., aguru mai qeredomo 'although he is not going to be allowed to offer.' (28

The negative gerund in Di is the same as the negative present or future; e.g., aguenu or aguru mai 'of not offering.'

The gerund in Do is formed by placing ni after the negative root or the negative present tense; e.g., aguezuni or aguenuni 'by not offering.' The same meaning is obtained with agueide, aguenaide or aguezu xite.

The gerund in Dum is formed by placing tote or tame after the [negative] present or future of the indicative; e.g., aguenu tame or aguru mai tote 'in order not to offer.'

The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding fito or mono to the negative of the present, preterit, and future indicatives; e.g., aguenu fito 'he who is not offering,' aguenanda mono 'he who did not offer,' aguru mai mono 'he who will not offer,' aguenaide cara or agueide nochi 'after he had not offered, after they did not offer, or after it was not offered.'

(29

For the preterit, if the root ends in ami it changes to óda; e.g., cami:códa 'I ate, or chewed.' If it ends in ebi or emi it changes to eôda; e.g., saqebi:saqeôda 'I am injured,' sonemi:soneoda [soneôda] 'I envied, or I had envy.' If it ends in obi or omi it changes to ôda; e.g., corobi:corôda 'he fell,' comi:côda 'it enclosed itself.' If it ends in umi it changes to únda [unda]; e.g., casumi:casunda 'it is cloudy.' The same change is made for roots ending in imi; e.g., canaximi:canaxúnda [canaxunda] 'he became sad.' If it ends in gui it changes to ida; e.g., fegui:feida 'it is divided.' Xini,uru has the preterit xinda 'he is dead,' and ini:uru has the preterit inda 'he left.' While in this respect they [xini and ini] are in the second conjugation, in the other tenses they are in the first. A root ending in chi or ri changes in the preterit to tta; e.g., mochi:motçu in the preterit becomes motta 'he received,' chiri,u:chitta 'it is scattered.' Those which end in xi or qi change to ita; e.g., coroxi,u:coroita 'he killed,' qiqi,u:qiita 'he heard,' xiqi,u:xiita 'he stretched it out.'

The future is formed by changing the i in which the root ends to ó, ǒzu, ózuru; e.g., iomó, iomǒzu, or iomózuru 'you will read.' If the root ends in chi it changes to tó; e.g., machi:mató 'I shall wait.' A root ending in xi changes to só; e.g., móxi,u:mósó 'I shall say, or speak.'

The imperative is formed by changing the i in which the root ends to e; e.g., iomi:iome 'read! or may you read.' If the root ends in chi it changes to te; e.g., machi:mate 'wait!' The imperative is also formed by changing the nu in which the negative present ends to ai; if you remove the nu from iomanu and replace it with ai it gives you yomai 'read!'^[91] This is a common rule for the third conjugation, but this imperative is used only when addressing inferiors.

The future of the imperative is the future absolute; e.g., (30 iomó 'you will read.' This is used when addressing very low people.

The roots of the third conjugation end in ai, oi, or ui. Those ending in ai change to ó to form the present; e.g., narai:naró 'I learn.' Those ending in oi change to ô; e.g., vomoi:vomô 'I think.' Those ending in ui change to ú; e.g., cui:cú 'I eat.'

The preterit is formed by adding ta to the present tense; e.g., naróta 'I learned,' vomôta 'I thought,' cúta 'I ate.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the final a of the preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru in the present and gozatta in the past, in the same way as we have described for the first conjugation; e.g., naróte gozaru or narǒte gozatta 'I have already learned.'

The future is formed by changing the final i of the root to vó, vózu, or vózuru; e.g., naravó, naravǒzu, or naravózuru 'I shall learn.' If the root ends in oi it is changed to vô, vôzu, or vôzuru [vǒ, vǒzu, (31 or vǒzuru]; e.g., vomoi:vomouô, vomovozu, or vomovôzuru [vomoi:vomovǒ, vomovǒzu, or vomovǒzuru] 'I shall think.'^[92]

The imperative is formed by placing e after the root; e.g., naraie 'learn!' toie 'ask!' cuie 'eat!'^[93] It is also formed by removing the syllable nu from the negative present tense and replacing it with the letter i; e.g., naravai 'learn!' tovai 'ask!' cuvai 'eat!' This form is used when addressing inferiors, as are those of the other conjugations.

The Third Negative Conjugation

The root of the third negative conjugation is formed by changing the i of the affirmative root to vazu; e.g., naravazu, tovazu, and cuvazu. The present tense is formed by changing the i to vanu; e.g., naravanu 'I do not learn,' tovanu 'I do not ask,' cuvanu 'I do not eat.'

The preterit is formed by changing the i of the root to vananda; e.g., naravananda 'I did not learn,' tovananda 'I did not ask,' cuvananda 'I did not eat.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the final a of the preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru or gozatta; e.g., cuvanande gozatta 'I had not eaten,' or naravanande gozaru 'I had not learned.' The remaining forms are like the other conjugations.^[94]

If the substantive verb is placed after the gerund in Do for all the affirmative and negative conjugations, it means that the action signified by the gerund is or is not done; e.g., aguete aró 'it will already be offered,' cono qió ga caite gozaranu 'this book is not written,' agueide arózu 'he will not yet have offered.' The substantive verbs are gozaru:gozaranu, voru:vori nai, dea or gia:devanai, aru:aranu or gozaranu, voru:voranu, and each of these verbs follows the general rules for its conjugation.^[95]

If the substantive verb from any of the conjugations is placed after the infinitive form it means that whatever is signified by the infinitive is, was, or will be; or the negative thereof; e.g., aguru coto aró 'it will be that he offers,' that is to say 'he will offer,' naróta coto gozaru mai 'he will not learn.' All these substantive verbs are conjugated in the second conjugation to which they belong by virtue of the fact that their (32 roots end in i; ari,u:gozari,u.

The subjunctive is formed by changing the i of the present tense to qereba; e.g., naqereba or gozanaqereba 'if it be not.'

The permissive subjunctive is formed by changing the i of the present to qeredomo; e.g., gozanaqeredomo 'although he is not.'

The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding redomo to the preterit of the indicative; e.g., nacatta redomo 'although he was not.'

The substantive [verb] with the particle tomo is formed with the root; e.g., naqu tomo 'even if it were not.' The gerund is nó, nóte, naqu xite, or nacatte 'since it is not.' The remaining are formed as above, with the verb ari,u added, and are conjugated in the second conjugation.

Adjectives, when they do not precede verbs, are conjugated in the same way as the negative substantive verb. The adjectives, which have been said above to end in ai, ei, oi, ui, and ij, form their roots by changing the final i to qu; e.g., fucaqu is the root of 'deep,' ioqu the root of 'good,' xiguequ the root of 'dense,' varuqu the root of 'bad,' and vonajiqu the root of 'the same.'

The present tense is the form (vox) of the adjective itself; e.g., ioi 'good,' fucai 'deep,' varui 'bad,' vonaji 'the same.'^[96]

The preterit is formed by changing the i of the adjective to c or q and adding ari,u. This form is then conjugated according to (33 the tense required by the sentence.

The gerund in Do is fucóte 'since it was deep,' ióte 'since it was good,' canaxiúte [canaxúte]^[97] 'since it was sad,' xingueote [xigeôte]^[98] 'since it was dense.' It also takes the form of fucó xite, fucaqu xite, or fucacatte, or again iô xite, ioqu xite, or iocatte.

The adjectives which end in na are not conjugated. There is, however, a gerund in Do. For example, aqiracana has for its gerund aqiracani xite 'since it was clear,' and with the same meaning there is aqiraca de. Arisóna has arisǒni xite 'since it became apparent, or easy to believe.' Ióna has ióni as in ióni xite 'since it is in a good way, or since it has a good manner.' Cava ga fucóte vatarananda 'because the river was deep, I did not cross it,' xebǒte irarenu 'since it was narrow, he was unable to enter,' varúte cuvarenu 'it is inedible, or it cannot be eaten, because it is bad.' The other tenses of the adjective, as has been said, are formed with the verb ari,u and conjugated according to the requirements of the sentence. The negative conjugation is also formed with ari,u; e.g., if the root is fucacarazu the present tense is fucacaranu 'it is not deep.' The preterit is fucacarananda 'it was not, etc.'

The Conditional Particles^[99]

There are five particles which make an utterance (oratio) conditional; naraba, ni voite va, raba, va, and ba. When the first two are placed after any verb, affirmative or negative, present, preterit, or future, the result is that the verb becomes conditional. For example; niguru naraba 'if you flee,' iôda ni voite va 'if you had read,' naravó naraba 'if you will learn,' cuvazu ni voite va^[100] 'if you do not eat.' Sometimes voi [voite] is removed from ni voite va; agueô ni va 'if you would offer,' aguetaró ni va 'if you would have offered.' Sometimes voite [voite va] is removed, leaving only ni; e.g., mairó ni coso, nen goro ni mǒsǒzure (19) 'if I go, or if I shall have gone, I will tell him so in a friendly way,' xitaró ni coso, saisocu tçuqu maji qere (19) 'if I (34 had done it, it would not have been done with diligence and persuasion.'

The particle raba is placed after the preterit;^[101] e.g., naróta raba 'if I would have learned,' naravananda raba 'if I would not have learned.'

The particle va is added to the negative roots of all three conjugations; e.g., aguezu va 'if I not offer,' iomazu va 'if I not read,' naravazu va 'if I not learn,' naqu va 'if it not be,' fucacarazu va 'if it be not deep.'

The particle ba has the same effect and is, like va, joined to the root; aguezũba, iomazũba, naravazũba.^[102] If the particle ba replaces the negative zu, an affirmative conditional is formed; e.g., agueba, 'if I offer,' iomaba 'if I read,' naravaba 'if I learn,' and iocaraba 'if it be good.' The particle va is not only added to the negative roots of adjectives, but also to the affirmative; e.g., fucaqu va 'if it be deep,' vonajiqu va 'if it be the same.' Sometimes they use this expression to give the idea 'if it be not too troublesome, will you do it.' They also say aguemajiqu va 'if you would not offer.'

The particle ni voite va is joined to nouns in such a way as to substitute for the substantive verb; e.g., jójó ni voite va uqe toró (121v)^[103] 'I shall get it, if it be very good, or the best,' curuxicarazaru gui ni voite va 'if it would not have been unpleasant, or if it had not been an unpleasant thing.'

If the particle saie is placed in a clause (oratio) in which there is already a conditional particle, it adds strength to the meaning; e.g., fune saie mairu naraba 'if only a ship were to come,' sonata saie vocutabire naku va (118) 'if he be not tired,' or it might be said 'as for me, or as far as it depends upon me, I am not tired.'

The particle saie alone sometimes forms a conditional; e.g., Niffon no xôcocu ni saie caióna coto gozaru fodo ni [Nifon ...] (118) 'if in the small kingdom of Japan things of this kind be found, or exist,' that is to say 'how much more there will be in a large one,' coco moto no tocai ni saie meivacu itasu ióni gozaru fodoni, etc. (118) 'on the voyage here I suffered very much, and so ...,' fito saie côquai suru mono vo iurusu ni ivan ia, Deus ni voite voia? [... va?] (118v) 'if one forgives one who repents, how much more will God,' core fodo xei vo iruru saie coto naricanuru ni; ucato xite va, incadeca banji canavǒzo? [... icadeca ...] (119) 'if gathering all one's strength this can be done only with difficulty, how could it be done if it were done without any strength?,' core saie xinicui ni 'if this be difficult to do,' fune de saie ioio tçuita (35 ni, cachi va nananaca naru mai [... nacanaca naru mai] (119v) 'if I arrived by ship with such difficulties, without doubt I could not have done it on foot.'

The Potential Verb^[104]

The placing of the particle rǒ^[105] after the present or future tense makes a potential; e.g., aguru rǒ 'he perhaps offers,' nigueozurǒ [nigueôzurǒ] 'he will perhaps escape.'

The preterit is made by changing ta to tçu and adding rǒ; e.g., aguetçurǒ 'he perhaps offered.' But if it is added to the negative preterit, the da must be changed to zzu; e.g., aguenanzzurǒ 'it has perhaps not been offered, etc.'

The present potential is also formed by adding arǒzu [mo arǒzu] or other future verbs to the infinitive; e.g., aguru coto mo arǒzu or ague mo xôzu 'he will perhaps offer.'

The preterit is formed by adding this same future to the preterit infinitive; e.g., agueta coto mo arǒzu 'he perhaps offered.'

The future is agueô coto mo arǒzu 'he will perhaps offer.' The negative is formed in the same way; e.g., aguenu, aguenanda, or aguru mai coto mo arǒzu 'he perhaps does not offer, he perhaps did not offer, or he will perhaps not offer.' When we wish to say that something is perhaps the case we use mono instead of coto; e.g., noxenanda mono de arózu 'they perhaps did not place it aboard ship,' iqi chigǒta mono de arǒzu 'they seem not to have met along the way,' moreqicoieta mono de gozarǒ ca to zonzuru 'I believe it is perhaps as it has been said.'

To express the meaning 'become' the verb nari,u is added to the adjective and then conjugated according to the requirements of the adjective taken adverbally; e.g., fucǒ naru 'it becomes deep,' varǔ natta 'it became bad.' Also they say fucǒ aru 'it is deep,' and sometimes fucǒ nai 'it is not deep.' They obtain this same meaning by conjugating nai according to the tense required by the sentence. They also use fucǒ nai coto mo arǒzu 'perhaps it will be that this is not deep.' (36

The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs^[106]

The verb qi,uru 'to come' has quru 'I come,' qita 'I came,' côzu 'I shall come,' coi or coio 'come!' qitareba 'since he will have come, or would have come,' qitaredomo 'although he came.' The negative root is côzu [cozu] and the negative present is conu 'I do not come.' Mede, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to enjoy,' has a present in mezzuru and its gerund in Do is medete 'by enjoying.' Cui, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to be mournful,' has its present in cuiuru. Its gerund in Do is cuite 'by mourning,' its negative root is cuizu, and its negative present is cuinu. Araie, which is the root of the verb 'to be,'^[107] has a present in araiuru or arǒru 'it is.' Furi, which is the root of the verb 'to become old,' has a preterit in furita 'he became old,' and a gerund in Do which is furite 'by becoming old.' Fe, the root of the verb meaning 'to cross over,' has a present in furu 'he crosses over,' and a preterit in feta 'he crossed over.' Tari,u is a verb which signifies that a thing is complete or entire. It has a present in taru 'it is complete,' a preterit in tatta 'it was complete,' and a future in tari maraxo [maraxô] 'it will be complete.' Its negative root is tarazu, its negative present is taranu, its preterit is tarananda 'it was not complete,' its future is taru mai 'it will not be complete,' and its imperfect subjunctive is taraneba 'since it has not been completed.'

The [negative] permissive is taranedomo, the infinitive is taranu coto, and the gerund in Do is taraide or tarazu xite. The verb taxi:tasu, which means 'to complete, or finish,' has a future in taxi maraxô 'I shall finish.' Tasanu is the negative present. Tari [Tarai] is the root of the verb tarǒ which has the meaning 'to be completed.' In the negative the preterit is taravananda 'it was not completed,' the subjunctive is taravaneba 'since it is not completed,' the permissive is taravanedomo, the infinitive is taravanu coto, and the gerund in Do is taravaide or taravaxu xite [taravazu xite]. Vocotari is the root of the verb vocotaru 'to be negligent.' It has an infinitive in vocotaru coto, a negative root in vocotarazu, and a negative present in voicotaranu [vocotaranu]. Voi is the root of a verb which has a preterit in voita 'he was old.' (37 Voitaru has the same meaning. The negative present is voinu and the gerund in Do is voite. Urei is the root of the verb 'to be sad.' It has a present in ureô, an imperative in ure io [ureie io]^[108] an infinitive in ureoru coto [ureôru ...].^[109] Its gerund in Do is ureite. Tomi is the root of the verb tomu or tomeru 'to become rich.' Its preterit is tonda, its gerund in Do is tonde, and its negative root is tomazu. Saiguiri,u means 'to go before, or anticipate.' Its preterit is saiguitta and its gerund in Do is saiguitte.

The Aforementioned Verbs—Their Formation and Diversity^[110]

In this language there are simple active, causative active, passive, neutral, and impersonal verbs.^[111] All are conjugated by the three conjugations according to the way in which their roots terminate.

From certain adjectives come (procedo) certain verbs; e.g., from catai 'hard' comes catame,uru 'I make hard' which is active, catamari,u 'I become hard' which is neutral, catamerare,uru 'I am made hard' which is passive. From the adjective canaxii 'sad' comes canaximi,u which means 'to be sad.'

The causative verbs (verba faciendi facere) are formed with the particles saxe or xe. The first is added to the roots of verbs in the first conjugation,^[112] while the second is [not] added to the roots of the second and third conjugation, but rather to the negative present after the nu has been removed; e.g., aguesaxe,uru 'I make him offer,' iomaxe,uru 'I make him read,' naravaxe,uru 'I make him learn.' All of these forms are in the first conjugation because the particles end in e. Sometimes, but rarely, saxe follows verbs of the second and third conjugation, but this is to make the verbs more elegant. It is used with the particle rare to honor someone; e.g., iomasaxe rare,uru ['he makes him read']. Padre va dojucu ni cathecismo vo naravasaxeraruru 'the priest orders his servant to learn his cathecism,'^[113] mono no fon vo fito ni (38 iomasaxeraruru (162v.) 'he makes him read his book.'

The passive verbs (verba passiva) are made with the particles rare and re. The particle rare is added to the active verbs, according to the way explained before, after removing the nu from the negative form; e.g., aguerare,uru 'I am offered it,' iomare,uru 'I am read to,' naravare,uru 'I am taught.' They use these passive forms to mean 'to be read to by someone,' or 'to be, or not to be legible.' There are other passive forms which come from neutral verbs or verbs which have neutral meanings. They are also formed with the particles rare and re, but when they are so formed they do not govern the cases common to the passive (for which see below) but rather the cases of the verbs from which they come; e.g., from agari,u comes agarare,uru; and, since agari,u 'I ascend' requires the accusative, this verb also requires the accusative. For example; cono iama ie agararenu (102) 'it is not possible to climb this mountain, or this mountain is unable to be climbed,' xiro cara derarenu (102) 'it is not possible to leave the castle,' xebóte irarenu (102) 'it is not possible to penetrate because it is too narrow, or confined,' cono michi va arucarenu (102) 'it is not possible to walk this street,' natçu va coco ni irare mai 'it will not be possible to live here during the summer,' cono fude de va cacarenu (102) 'it cannot be written with this pen,' fima ga nóte cacarenanda (102) 'it cannot be written because of the lack of time,' cono bun ni coso cacaruru mono de gozare (69v) 'it will indeed be well written in this way,' axi ga itóte arucarenu (102) 'it is impossible to walk because of painful feet.' All of these passive verbs are of the first conjugation.^[114] The neutral verbs (verba neutra) are those which have a neutral meaning; i.e., being initiated by oneself, and not by others. For example; ivo ga toruru 'the fish are caught,' caje ga toruru 'the wind ceases,' ito ga qiruru 'the string is cut,' ji ga iomuru (100) 'the letter [Chinese character] is well read,' aqi,u 'I am uncovered.' Qiri,u 'I cut' is active, qirare,uru is passive, and qire,uru 'I am cut' is neutral. This last form is used when a sword cuts well because it is sharp. Qiraxe,uru is a causative verb which means 'I make someone cut.' Ague,uru means 'I raise,' aguerare,uru 'I am raised' passively, aguesaxe,uru 'I make someone raise,' agari,u 'I am raised' neutrally, agarare,uru 'to be ascendable,' agaraxe,uru 'I cause something to be raised, or I cause him or it to raise himself or itself.' If to these verbs are added the particles which indicate honor (see below) other combinations are made. The adjectives when they are conjugated have a neutral meaning; e.g., fidarui 'I am thirsty,' fucacatta 'it was deep.'

The impersonal verbs (verba impersonalia) do not name or refer to a person; e.g., mi vo fatasu tomo itçuvari vo ivanu mono gia (39 (69v) 'even if one were to die, one should not tell a lie,' mono mo tabezu saqe mo nomaide ichinichi fataraqu mono ca? (69v) 'is it possible to work all day without eating anything or drinking any wine?', xujin no maie de sono ióna coto vo iú mono ca? 'is it possible to speak this way in front of ones lord?' Concerning the conjugations for these verbs they follow the rules according to their roots.

The root of any verb of whatever conjugation can be taken from its conjugation and changed to another conjugation by adding one of the particles of honor (honor). The resulting form will belong to the conjugation determined by the final letter of the particle. These particles are: maraxi,uru, ari,u, saxerare,uru, xerare,uru, nasare,uru, saxemaxi,u, tamai,ó, rare and re.^[115]

The particle maraxi does not add honor to that which is talked about, but rather it is used to speak honorably to those in front of us. For example; cui,u means 'I eat,'^[116] but a servant in front of his master will not say nezumi ga cúta 'the mice ate the cheese'; he will rather say nezumi ga cui maraxita. By itself cui,u is in the third conjugation because its root ends in ui, but if maraxi is added it becomes a verb in the first conjugation. When we refer to something about a people (natio) we do not show honor to that word but only pay attention to the person we are speaking to by adding maraxi or not. For example, if we are addressing an inferior we say Nan ban jin va core vo cuvanu; but if we are addressing a person of nobility we say Nan ban jin va core vo cui maraxenu 'Europeans do not eat this.' When ari,u is added to the root of any verb it attaches a middling (mediocris) degree of honor; e.g., modori aró ca? 'are you going to come back?' If you add vo in front of the verb it is honored moderately (satis); e.g., vomodori aró ca? 'Your Lordship is going to come back?' Tono sama vo xini atta toqi 'when the master died,' Deus cono xecai vo gosacu atta 'God created the world.'^[117] We use these particles when we are speaking with honored persons whom we like and with whom we are on friendly terms.

The particle nasare,uru gives the highest (supremus), or moderately great (satis magnus) honor and is placed after the root of the verb; e.g., Deus cono xecai vo gosacu nasareta 'God created the world.'

The particles rare and re add a middling and not a great amount of honor to the verbs to which they are added. The particle rare is added mainly when we are talking about someone who is absent. It is formed by taking the nu from the negative present and replacing (40 it with this particle; e.g., aguerare,uru means 'I offer' when the person to whom the offering is made requires a middling degree of honor and respect (reverentia). This verb coincides letter for letter with the passive but is distinguished from it by the cases which it governs. The particle re is placed after verbs of the second and third conjugation only; e.g., iomare,uru 'to read' and naravare,uru 'to learn,' said of a person having a good reputation. We speak in this way when speaking of those who are equal to us and the servants of our lord, but not of other servants, or nobles.

The particles saxemaxi and xemaxi give the same degree of honor as ari,u and rare or re. These particles are added to the root of a first conjugation verb,^[118] or to the negative present from which the nu has been removed; aguesaxemasu 'he offers.' Maxi,u [Xemaxi,u] is added to the negative present of the second and third conjugation verbs after taking away nu; e.g., iomaxemasu 'he reads,' and naravaxemasu 'he learns.'

The particles saxerare,uru and xerare,uru attribute great honor. The first is added to the negative present of verbs in the first conjugation^[119] after the nu is removed, and the second is added to the [other] negatives in the same way; e.g., aguesaxeraruru 'I offer,' iomaxeraruru 'I read,' naravaxeraruru 'I learn.' Because these forms coincide letter for letter with the honorific causative, the particle ari,u may be placed after the verb and the particle vo may be placed before to avoid confusion; e.g., yomaxe aru [vo iomaxe aru] 'I read' and naravaxe aru [vo naravaxe aru] 'I learn.'

The passive verb, concerning which see below, also permits the particle saxerare,uru; e.g., viamavaresaxeraruru (99v) 'I am honored.'

The particle tamai,ó bestows the highest honor. We use it when speaking of God, saints, kings, or generals. It is added to the roots of verbs and conjugated in the third conjugation. It is placed after the root of the passive form when referring to God; e.g., Deus filio, umare tamǒ toqi 'when the son of God was born,' Deus agamerare tamǒ 'God is honored.'

The particle tate matçuri,u makes the meaning of the verb to which it is added humble. It is placed after the root of affirmative verbs; e.g., Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tate matçuru coto va ichi sugureta jen gia 'to love God is the supreme virtue.' This particle permits some degree of honor if re is added to it after the final e [i] has been changed to a. Thus, when speaking of the saints in respect to God, one says, (41 Sancto Domingo, Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tatematçurareta 'St. Dominic loved God.'

The particle maraxi [mairaxi]^[120] is able to elevate to honor the particle rare; e.g., tono iori cono coto vo Padre ni vataximairaxerareta 'the lord gave it to the priest.'

Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor^[121]

Mesare,uru indicates any act which can be done, or which is properly done by a noble person (persona nobilis). This includes such things as eating, drinking, sailing, riding a horse, etc. Vôxerare,uru means that a noble person speaks. Vomaraxi,uru and vomaraxi ari,u mean that a noble person gives. Voxe,uru [Vôxe,uru] and vôxe ari,u mean that a middling person (persona mediocris) says or declares.

Verbs preceded by vôxe or mexi are given the same degree of honor by either; e.g., vôxe tçuqerare,uru 'I declare,' mexi tçucavare,uru 'I serve,' which have the same meanings as tçuqerare,uru and tçucavare,uru. To call someone we use coi with an inferior, with someone not quite as inferior we use iorai, with someone a little better we use vaxei, while vogiare is the superior way to call. Gozare, which means that your Lordship should come, and gozarǒ in the future tense are even more honorable ways to indicate the imperative. Voide nasarei, voide nasareô, or voide nasarei caxi mean 'might your Lordship come,' or 'Oh! would that your Lordship come.' Cudasare,uru means that a noble person gives. Tamavari,u means that a noble person gives to an inferior. Tamóri,u means that a middling person gives. Mizzu vo nomaxete tamǒre 'Give me a drink of water.' Cudasare,uru and tamóri,u mean that a humble person eats honoring his food. Coximexi,u and qicoximexi,u mean that a noble person eats and hears. Voboximexi,u and voboximesare,uru mean that a noble person thinks. Saxerare,uru means that a noble person does. Nasare,uru, asobaxi,u, and asobasare,iuru [asobasare,uru] mean that a noble person does what is proper to him such as hunting, writing, reading, or reciting. Ii,ú is used when the person addressed is humbler than the person or thing spoken to; (42 and mexi,u [móxi,u] means the person or the thing spoken to is addressed with honor. Therefore I would be incorrect were I to say mi ni móxe 'tell me!' I should rather say mi ni iie. I should not say tono ni iie 'tell it to the lord,' but rather tono ni móxe. Mairi,u means to go to a place to which honor should be shown; e.g., iglesia ie maire 'go to church!' Cure,uru and toraxe,uru mean to give in a way that humbles the person to whom the thing is given. Cui,ú means 'to eat' without showing respect (respectus); mexi,u also means 'to eat' but it is cultivated (urbanum); e.g., in addressing those deserving respect I will not say mexi vo cui maraxita but rather mexi vo tabe maraxita 'I ate.' Mairi,u or vomairari,u [vomairi ari,u] means that a middling person eats, while agaraxerare,uru and voagari ari,u are nobler ways to say this. Qiqi,u means to hear and uqetamavari,u and uqetamóri,u mean to hear in a way which honors the person heard; e.g., goiqen vo uqetamǒtta 'I heard your advice.' Móxi ague,uru means to speak in a way which humbles oneself while bestowing honor on the person being addressed. Móxi ire,uru means to speak between equals (equales). Chómon xi,uru means to listen to the word of God. Goranji,zuru or goranjerare,uru is to look at a noble thing. Xi,uru means to do in common way, itaxi,u means to do in a cultivated way, and tçucamatçuri,u means to do in a humble way.

Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb^[122]

The particle nama placed before any verb in any tense means that the action has been done poorly or in an incomplete manner; e.g., nama aró 'I wash poorly,' nama iaqu 'I am incompletely broiled.'

If the particles tçui, cai, uchi, faxe, voi, ai, and tori^[123] are placed in front of a verb they do not change the meaning, but they add emphasis; e.g., uchi cobosu has the same meaning as cobosu 'I pour,' faxe noboru is the same as noboru 'I ascend,' voxi comi,u is the same as comi,u 'I enclose,' ai cavari,u is the same as cavari,u 'I am changed,' tçui mavari,u is the same as mavari,u 'I go around,' and tori firogue,uru is the same as firogue,uru 'I spread out.'

The particle qitte is the gerund in Do for the verb qiri,u and when it is placed after the roots of certain verbs it gives them great emphasis; e.g., tanomiqitte 'imploring with great prayers,' vomoiqitte (43 'assuming a strong resolution.' The verbs tanomiqiri,u and vomoiqiri,u are also used.

The particle ga means 'but;' só iú ga; nanto aró ca? 'they say so, but will it be so?' or 'it may be so, but I don't know for certain,' furi va furu mai ga, fune no dasu coto naró ca xiranu 'it's not raining any more, but I still don't know if it will be possible to launch the boat or not,' sono qinpen ni va gozaru mai ga; doco cara toraxeraruru zo? (20)^[124] 'there are probably none in the neighborhood, or in the surroundings, so from where can they be gotten?'

The particle gotoqu is added to the present, preterit, and future tenses meaning 'in the same way'; e.g., coxiraiuru gotoqu 'in the same way as you furnish or carry out,' qiita gotoqu 'as I heard.' The form is sometimes ga gotoqu; e.g., móxita ga gotoqu 'as he said,' caracavózu ga gotoqu 'as in jest I will tease or laugh at.' This same meaning is obtained with iǒni; Nifon no catagui vo xirareta iǒni, vôxeraruru (122v) 'he speaks as one who knows the customs of Japan,'^[125] mósu ióni 'as I say.' The particle furi is also used for the same purpose; e.g., toza no chijocu vo nogareôzuru tameni catana vo saita furi vo mixerareta (123) 'he showed himself wearing his sword in order to avoid the danger of infamy.' minu furi vo saxerareta (123) 'he made it known that he did not see.'

The particle saie is used [with the negative] to mean 'not at all'; e.g., mma saie nacatta (118)^[126] 'there are not any horses at all,' cotoba saie xiranu mono (118) 'he does not know how to speak at all,' ji saie mixiranu mono 'he does not know any letters at all.' This same particle is used for emphasis; e.g., qiden to saie mǒxeba (119) 'it would (44 suffice if you were to say that you are,' Padre no tçucavaruru to saie móxeba 'if only he had said that this was useful to the priest,' or one might say 'it would suffice if, etc.'

The particle qere is a confirmative particle which comes at the end of a sentence with the meaning 'therefore'; e.g., maitta qere 'therefore he came,' sate só aru qere 'finally this is the situation.'^[127]

The particle coso is of great importance among the Japanese for they use it first in an adversative sense (in sensu adversativo); core coso ió gozare [... iô ...] 'he is truly good.'^[128] If the sentence in which this particle is found ends in a verb, that verb ends in e, as in the example above. If the verb is in the preterit it ends in re; e.g., yô coso gazattare! (117) 'you are welcome! (bene veneris!).' The exceptions to this rule are when the sentence does not end in a verb or an adjective; e.g., core coso xixó yô [... io] (116) 'he is a true teacher,' when after the particle coso there is in the sentence a gerund in e, a permissive in tomo, or a potential preterit in tçuró or zzuró;^[129] e.g., vare coso iro iro xinro tçucamatçutte cutatireba toxiiórini nari maraxita [... cutabireba toxiiorini ...] (117) 'suffering many and various hardships, I became an old man,' vare coso corosaruru tomo 'if I be killed,' fara coso tattçurǒ (117) 'he was perchance quite angry,' sato chicaqereba coso fi ga miiure (116) 'the fire is already seen because the village is so near.' This [last] sentence ends in e because it does not contain an exception to the rule. Vóxerareta coto domo vo go côquai de coso gozarózure (97) 'without doubt you will do penance for what you have said,' catajiqe nǒ coso gozare (97) 'I congratulate you very much and thank you.' If someone says, 'Who did that?' the answer is Patre coso [Padre coso] 'the Priest did.' If someone asks, 'is there anyone who did that?' and if he does not hear, or does not understand the answer, and asks again, the person who answered will say Juan coso 'I have already said it was John.'

When someone is careless about what was said, or when he has not heard something and asks again, the answer is; e.g., tovoru na to iieba 'I have already told you not to pass through,' iome to iieba 'I have already told you to read,' Padre coso to iieba 'I have already told you that it is the Priest.'

Adding the particles maieni and saqini to the negative present tense makes the construction affirmative; e.g., iglesia ie mairanu maieni (141v) 'before he goes to church.' They are also added to the affirmative future tense; e.g., mairǒzuru tote no saqini 'a little before (45 I come.'

The particle tocoro signifies the time during which the action indicated by the verb is done. It is placed after the verb; taburu tocoro ni 'when I was eating,' tabeta tocoro ni 'after dinner,' tabeôzuru tocoro ni or tabeôzuru ni 'when I will be eating.' It also serves as a reduplicative particle which denotes a reduplication to the degree possible; e.g., jesu christo humanidad no von tocoro va (121v)^[130] 'Jesus Christ in so far as he was a man,' vonore ga foxxezaru tocoro vo fodocosu coto nacare (121) 'as you do not want done to you, do not do to others,' fudai no tocoro vo vo iurusu [... tocoro vo iurusu] (120v) 'I gave him his freedom,' fito no acu no tocoro ni va dôxin xenu (121v) 'I do not consent to the sins of man,' utagó tocoro mo nai (120v) 'there remains no place to doubt, or for doubt,' nocoru tocoro mo nai 'it does not remain any more,' tçuini, sono tocoro ie mairózu (121v) 'finally he will arrive at this place,' fumbet ni voiobanu tocoro gia (121v) 'there are some things which are not understood, or to which one's comprehension does not extend,' nani mo nai tocoro vo iô qicoximexe (120v) 'will your Lordship kindly eat from this littleness which is nothing.' From these examples it is possible to see the force of this particle.

The particles tocoro, made, and made de gozaru are often added to an utterance (cadentia). They do not have any special meaning and are the same as coto de gozaru; e.g., naranu made or naranu coto de gozaru mean the same as naranu 'it is not possible.' Guijet tçucamatçurǒ to zonzuru coto va cacugo itasanu coto gia (10v) 'the breaking of this friendship does not come to mind.' Here the itasanu coto gia is the same as itasanu alone.

The particle madeio is used to confirm what has been said; e.g., caita madeio 'that which I wrote, I wrote.'

The particle toqi when added to the present tense, forms a preterit imperfect; e.g., jennin tachi va saigo ni voiobi tamó toqi va buji ni gozatta 'when saints arrive at the time of their death, they are peaceful and quiet.'

Changing the ta of the preterit to tçu and the da of the negative to zzu^[131] the meaning becomes 'I do it this way and then that way'; e.g., mono vo caitçu, iôzzu, nando xite curasu bacari gia 'I spend my life reading, writing and doing other things,' tattçu itçu vocu iori zaxiqi ie ide zaxiqi iori vocu ie iri xitten battǒ xeraruru (11v) 'standing and sitting, entering and departing, he stands up and falls down.' The particle ri gives the same meaning after the preterit; e.g., xeqen no mono va netari voqitari nǒdari curasu bacari gia (11) 'men of the world spend their lives sleeping, arising, and drinking,' mazzu (46 ite niva vo mo facaxetari, cusa vo mo ficaxetari iroiro no xigoto vo ategǒte cosó mairǒzure [... coso ...] (10v) 'I shall go and sweep out the courtyard (atrium), pull up the weeds, and then having dispensed with these things I shall go,' ima cono io fuqe iuqeba nome ia, utaie ia fito bito motçu, utǒtçu sacamori suru (129) 'when it already is late at night, urging themselves on to drink and sing, the men enjoy themselves dancing and singing.'

The particle ie, which is the root of the verb ie iuru [ie:uru]^[132] 'I can,' signifies, when placed before negative verbs, that the action expressed by the verb cannot be done; e.g., ie iomanu 'I cannot read.' This particle is also placed after the infinitive; e.g., iomanu coto vo ienu 'I cannot read.' Iomi va ieide, or iomi mo ieide 'since I could not read, or not being able to read' is also said. The infinitive sometimes acts as a substitute verb (suppositum verbum); e.g., xinuru coto va vosoroxij 'it is terrible to die.'

The particle tai 'I want' is added to the roots of verbs and signifies the desire to do the thing indicated by the verb; e.g., mizzu vo nomi tai^[133] 'I want to drink some water,' mizzu vo nomi tó gozaru or mizzu vo nomi tó zonzuru, but these last two forms are more noble. Here is an example of the noble form in the negative, tǒ mo nai; e.g., mizzu vo nomi tǒ mo nai 'I do not want to drink water,' and mizzu vo nomi tǒ mo gozaranu. Mairu tó mo zonjenu means 'I do not want to go.' When the particle tai is added to adjectives, or verbs indicating a sensory act (actionem sensitiuam) in the first person,^[134] the i is changed to c; and the verb ari,u is added and conjugated in the tense required by the sentence; e.g., cuitacatta 'I wanted to eat.' If the verb is in the second or third person, the i is changed to g and again the verb ari,u is added, or an honorific particle depending upon what the person deserves, or without it as an absolute form. But if the person is inferior, the i is changed to c as said before.

The particle de sometimes gives a subjunctive sense when it is added to nouns; e.g., varãbe de xinda 'he died a child, or when he was a child,' vare ga buchófó de tofó mo gozanai (163v)^[135] [... buchôfó ...] 'since I am clumsy and not careful, nothing will work out in a way that will be harmonious.'

The particle ió 'way' is added to the roots of verbs and also to the verbs themselves. When the root governs the genitive, the verb governs the same case; e.g., cono qiǒ no iomi ió va 'the way of (47 reading this book,' or cono qió vo iomu iǒ va. In the first sentence qiǒ is in the genitive with the particle no; in the second sentence it is in the accusative with vo because yomu governs this case. Tei signifies an extraordinary and marvelous way of doing something; e.g., machicanuru tei vo goron jerarei (122)^[136] 'might your Lordship observe the way that they are expectant.' Also, arisama means 'way,' me mo aterarenu arisama gia 'it is a way, or a form (figura), which is unable to be seen.'

Sama indicates the time of the action of the verb to which it is added while governing the case required by the verb. It is added to the root of the verb; e.g., saqe vo nomi sama ni (105) 'when he actually drank the wine,' iado ie caieri sama ni (105) 'when he returned home,' fune iori agari sama ni (105) 'when he actually disembarked from the ship,' fune ni nori sama ni 'when he actually boarded the ship.'

When there are in a sentence two verbs whose actions form a single action, the first verb is put into the form of the gerund in Do; e.g., mizzu vo motte coi 'bring some water, or come bringing water,' fune vo voite coi 'bring the boat here, or come poling the boat,' core vo totte iqe 'take this, or carry this and go.'

The gerund in Do when added to verbs of asking, giving, or doing, means that one is asking to know or to acquire the thing which is indicated by the verb to which it is added; e.g., nifon guchi vo voxiiete cure io 'teach me Japanese,' sǒ voxerarete cudasaruru na [sǒ vôxerarete ...] 'your Lordship ought not say that,' Deus no coto vo catatte tamǒre 'do me the favor of relating to me those things which pertain to God.'

The particle mo placed after the gerund in Do, whether it ends in te or de, means 'although'; e.g., sǒ mǒxite mo 'although you say so,' ica fodo susumete mo, corobu mai 'no matter how much you try to persuade me, I will not deny the faith.' They also use sǒ mǒxeba atte mo 'even if you say that,' dǒxitemo cǒxitemo (134v) 'what ever you do.'

If the particle coso (see above) is added to the affirmative gerund in Do; and, if the sentence ends in this particle, the sentence becomes negative; e.g., mite coso 'I did not see anything,' atte coso 'there is no way.' But if the sentence does not end in coso, it becomes affirmative (48 and emphatic; e.g., mite coso gozare (116) 'I certainly saw.' The verb ends in e according to the rule explained above when the particle coso was being discussed.

When the negative gerund in Do, which ends in e, is followed by va, naranu, or canavanu it expresses necessity or the impossibility of the contrary; e.g., mairaide canavanu (106v)^[137] 'it is necessary to go,' ivaide va no coto naredomo, nanto xô ca? 'and if the thing which is said to be necessary happens, what shall I do?' xitagavaide naranu 'it is necessary to obey.' The same meaning, but with less strength, is obtained with the future of the affirmative or negative infinitive and the permissive subjunctive in domo; e.g., mairǒ coto de gozatta redomo (18)^[138] 'although I should have gone,' mairu mai queredomo [... qeredomo] (18)^[139] 'although I should not be going,' mairǒ coto de gozanacatta redomo (18) 'although I did not have to go.' They also use the negative gerund in Do to obtain the meaning of 'if not'; e.g., òracio vo mǒsaide cú na 'do not eat unless you have said your prayers.'

The gerund in e indicates an action already done; e.g., mexi cúte coi 'come after eating!' cono qió ga caite gozaru 'this book was written,' chichi ni fumi vo cacaide cuiaxiú gozaru [... cuiaxú ...] 'I am ashamed that I did not send a letter to your father,' cono qió ga caite gozaranu 'this book was not written.'

The particle nagara, when added to the root of a verb, forms a gerund in Do if it is followed by a verb indicating a repugnant or contrary action; e.g., toganin Deus iori bacutai no go von, o uqetatematçuri nagara; caietta somuqi tatematçuru [... go von vo uqe ...]^[140] 'sinners receiving, or even if sinners receive, benefits from God, they will offend him rather than be grateful,' Jesu Cristo Deus de gozari nagara, fito ni taixite cruz ni cacaraxerareta 'while Jesus Christ was a God, he was crucified for man.' Nagara is also added to nouns; e.g., quantai nagara (136v) 'although there was some lack of education,' sannin nagara (137) 'three at the same time, or even if there are three' aqiraca nagara (136v) 'although he is famous.' In this instance aqiraca na loses its na as do all the other adjectives that end in na.

The particle iasui is added to the roots of active and passive verbs to form the supine in Tu; e.g., iomi iasui 'easy to read,' corosare iasui 'easy to be killed.' The same thing is achieved by the following way of speaking; iúte va vosoroxij 'it is terrible to say,' mite va (49 fuxiguina 'it is admirable to see,' iú vo mo vosoroxij 'it is terrible to say.'

First Section^[141]

Adverbs are formed from adjectives ending in ai by changing the ai to ó; e.g., fucó 'deeply,' for those ending in oi by changing the oi to ô; e.g., caxico [caxicô] 'wisely,' for those ending in ei by changing the ei to eô; e.g., xigueo [xigueô] 'densely,' for those ending in ui by changing the ui to ú; e.g., aiǔ 'in danger,' and for those ending in ij by changing the ij to iú; e.g., cavaiú 'unhappily.'

Adverbs of Place^[142]

The interrogative pronouns are eight in number; izzucu[?], izzucata[?], donata[?], doco?, dochi?, dochira?, dono tocoro[?], and dono fǒ?, and they signify 'which place?' To these adverbs are added the particles va, no, ni, ie, vo, cara, and iori according to the case required, such as 'from where,' 'whither,' 'through which place,' 'in what place,' etc. Made can also be added to them with the meaning of 'to the limit of which'; doco made ie iqó ca[?] 'up to where will you go?' The interrogative particle, ca? or zo[?], is added to these questions but it is better to use zo rather than ca in sentences with an interrogative particle; e.g., izzuru ie maitta zo 'where did you go,' dono tocoro vo tovotta zo 'at which place did you cross,' doco iori itta zo 'through where did he enter,' dochi cara qita zo? 'from where did he come?', donata va Pedro no iado zo[?] 'which is Peter's house?', doco ni voru zo[?] 'where, or in what place is he?' One may respond in many ways; cono tocoro, coto moto, [coco moto], core, conata, cochi, cochira, coco, cocora, cono cata, cono fǒ, which mean 'here (hic)'; sono tocoro, soco moto, sore, sonata, sochi, sochira, soco, socora, sono cata, sono fǒ (50 which mean 'there (istic)'; ano tocoro, asoco moto, are, anata, achi, achira, asoco, asocora, ano cata, anofó, which mean 'there (illic).' To these particles are added the case particles. The interrogative adverbs with the case particles and mo added mean 'everywhere,' 'through every place,' or 'to every place,' e.g., dono tocoro ie mo tovorǒ 'I shall go everywhere,' doco ni mo 'everywhere,' doco cara mo 'from everywhere.' However, if, instead of mo, nari tomo is added the meaning becomes 'any place,' in a distributive sense; e.g., doco ie nari tomo mairǒ 'I shall go to each place individually.' The same meaning is obtained by doco zo with the case particles placed between the doco and the zo; e.g., doco ni zo aru fodo ni 'if someone is any place.' Coco caxico means 'here and there.' Doco mo caxico mo means 'the whole place.' The case particles are placed before mo; e.g., doco ni mo caxico ni mo 'in the whole place,' but after the adverb; e.g., coco caxico ni 'here and there,' coco caxico ie doco, caxico iori [coco caxico ie 'to here and there,' coco caxico iori 'from here and there'], etc.^[143]

The particle uie means 'above.' The genitive case is placed before it; e.g., fandai no uie ni voqe 'place it on the table,' cono uie va gozaru mai 'it will not be above this,' that is to say 'it will not be better than this,' sono uie ni 'about that,' sono uie no sata vo catari are 'tell me about that,' core va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru 'one will not discover anything better than his,' that is to say 'this is the best.' Xita means 'below.' It governs the genitive; e.g., fandai no xita ni voqe 'place it under the table,' micotoba no xita iori (141v) 'when the king finishes speaking,' voxita vo cudasarei (141v) 'would your Lordship be so kind as to give to me that which remains of your drink.'

The particle soba means 'side' and governs the genitive; e.g., fito no soba vo fanaruru 'he separates himself from the side of another.'

The particle maie means 'before' and governs the genitive; e.g., fito no maie vo tovoru 'I pass in front of someone else,' cacugo no maie (141v) 'according to ones disposition,' funbet no maie (141v) 'as I believe, or think, or according to the sense (iuxta sensum).'