The particle mavari means 'around' and governs the genitive; e.g., iglesia no mavari ni tçuchi vo nague sutçuru na 'do not put earth around the church.'

The particle uchi means 'within,' and the noun which precedes it must be in the genitive; e.g., iglesia no uchi 'in the church,' ano fito va, fito no uchi de va nai 'that man is not among men,' that is (51 to say 'he is not a man,' futacuchi cúta coto va, cúta uchi de va nai (142v)^[144] 'to eat two mouthfuls is not to eat.'

The particle foca means 'outside,' and the genitive is placed before it; e.g., igelsia no foca ni 'outside the church,' foca ie iqe 'go out, or go outside.' Sometimes the genitive particle is replaced by iori; e.g., Deus vonago ichinin iori foca tçucuri tamavanu (142v)^[145] 'God did not create but one woman,' that is to say 'he created just one,' Tengu fito ni acu vo susumuru iori foca va, nai (142v) 'the Devil does nothing if he is not persuaded by man to sin,' goxǒ vo tasucaru tame baptismo vo sazzucaru iori foca bechi no michi ga nai 'there is no other way to save men than by baptism,' that is to say 'without baptism we cannot be saved.' Deus no gracia iori foca 'without the grace of God.'

The particle naca means 'in the middle.' It is used when the material is either dense or defuse; e.g., qi no naca ni 'in the wood,' fito no naca ni 'among the men.'

The particle nacaba means 'in the midst of things' when referring to a sequence. It follows the genitive; e.g., dangui no nacaba ni 'in the midst of the sermon,' sore vo qijte, nacaba va vosore; nacaba va aqirete ita (145v) 'hearing that, he feared and was afraid,' that is to say 'he spent most of his time being afraid.'

The particle ato means 'behind' and governs the genitive; e.g., sonata no ato cara mairǒ 'I shall come after you' that is to say 'I shall follow you.'

The particle vaqi means 'near' and governs the genitive; e.g., Pedro no vaqi 'near Peter,' misa no vaqi 'the mass is ended,' cono vaqi 'in the last few days.' All of these adverbs require after them the cases that are required by the verb which follows.

Adverbs of Interrogation and Response^[146]

There are many ways to ask 'why?' or 'for what reason[?]'; e.g., najeni[?], najoni[?], nani xini?, nani tote ca?, nani no iuie ni?, nanto xita coto ni?, nani no xisai ni iotte?. The question 'how?' is said; nanto xite?, nanto iǒ ni[?], icani to xite? The answer is 'because' or 'for the reason that'; e.g., sono iuie va, najeni to iúni. 'Because' is also said; tocoro de, fodo ni, ni iotte, or sacai ni. The first expresses (52 the greatest degree of causality, the second not so much, and the third the least.

Uie va means 'since (cum or si quidem)'; e.g., toganai uie va qizzucai ga nai (40v)^[147] 'I am not afraid because I have no fault.' The same meaning is achieved by the particle cara; e.g., caiǒ ni iro vo misuru cara va; cacusu coto va iranu 'since you have thus shown your feelings (iro), you can't hide them.' 'Since (si quidem)' means approximately the same as toqi va and xicaru toqi va. Sari nagara means 'but,' sari tote va means 'until,' saru tote va means 'since the thing is this way,' saru tote va, qicoienu coto gia 'since it is so, it is unbearable.'

Adverbs of Time^[148]

One asks 'when' with itçu or itçugoro. One asks 'from what day' with icca saqi or icca maie, 'from what month' with icutçuqi saqi, and 'from what year' with nannen maie. Usually ni is added when it is required by the verb, and the interrogatives ca or zo are always put at the end of the sentence, with zo preferred.

One answers 'now' with ima or tada ima, and 'already' with mǒ, e.g., mǒ iqe 'be already gone!' 'Sometimes' is said with toqi ni iotte or jibun ni iotte. 'Afterwards' is nochi. Sore cara or sore iori means 'after that,' core cara or core iori means 'after this,' and are iori or are cara means 'after that.' 'Immediately' is said with iagate. 'Afterwards' or 'again' is ima iori nochi, ima iori xite va, or ima iori igo. 'This morning' is said with qesa. Connichi or qio [qiô] is 'today,' and asu or miônichi [miónichi]^[149] is 'tomorrow.' 'Tomorrow morning' is asa, axitatô, or asatocu, and 'tomorrow night' is mionia [miǒia]. 'Before' is ijen or saqi ni. 'Yesterday' is qinô or sacujit. 'The day before yesterday' is vototoi or futçuca saqi ni. 'Several days in the past' is cono giǔ. Cono fodo and xenjit have the same meaning, as does xendo. Condo means 'several days in the future.' 'The day after tomorrow' is asatte or miógonichi. 'Three days hence' is xiasatte or miómiógonichi. Qiônen [Qionen] or cozo means 'last year.' 'This year' is cotoxi. 'Two years ago' is vototoxi or votodoxi. 'Three years ago' is sanuruvotodoxi [sannuru votodoxi].^[150] 'Immediately' is tachimaqi [tachimachi] (53 or socuij ni [socuji ni]. Sunavachi is also 'immediately.' Tanteqi is 'in a moment.'

Adverbs of Negation^[151]

Iia or iia [iia iia]^[152] means 'not.' Só devanai means 'it is not so.' Iccana or iccanagueni means 'by no means,' iume iume means 'not even in a dream,' sarani, ichiien, catçute, or catçute motte means 'in no way,' and io, iomo, or iomo iomo means 'without thinking'; e.g., catçute mairu mai 'in no way shall I come,' iomo só va gozaru mai (117v) 'it will in no way come to mind why it will be so.' When affirmative verbs are added to these adverbs they become negative; e.g., iomo iomo to mǒxitareba vo mairi atta (117v) 'although you said you would not go, you went,' io mairó 'in no way shall I go.'

Adverbs of Affirmation^[153]

Nacanaca means 'it is so,' vó means 'so,' when one agrees. Gueni or gueni gueni means 'it is thus'; e.g., gueni gueni só mo aró 'without doubt the situation is thus.' Chódo means 'at all.' Saiǒni, sono bun, sono gotoqu, sǒ de gozaru, sore sore, massǒ gia, or xicato means 'it is so.' Mottomo means that something is reasonably said. Guioi no gotoqu means 'as your Lordship believes, or says.' Mochiron indicates that a thing does not come in to doubt or discussion. Nacanaca naru coto de gozaranu means 'truly it is not possible.' Nacanaca no coto indicates a thing with which it is possible to agree. Macotoni means 'truly,' as does xinjit or xinjitni. Xeimon means 'I affirm by oath.' Isasaca or isasaca motte means 'not even a little,' and issai or ixxet means 'in no way, or by no means,' and when these particles are added to the affirmative they mean 'truly.'

(54

Comparative Adverbs^[154]

Iori, iori mo, and iori mo navo mean 'more' in a comparison. The person compared is in the nominative case and the person to whom he is compared is in the ablative with one of the particles which we have listed above; e.g., Pedro va juan iori mo gacuxó de gozaru 'Peter is wiser than John,' soco ie noboru iori va; mairanu ga maxi gia 'it is better not to go than to climb up there.' Gotoqu, mama, and iǒni are adverbs of similitude (adverbia similitudinis) and require the genitive for the thing with which the comparison is made. If the particle is preceded by a verb, no genitive is required; e.g., no iama ie nari tomo qitai mama ni qite, nurureba, nugui suteraruru (124v) 'if they were to go to the mountains or the plains wearing such clothes as they want to wear, they will have to take them off when they become wet on account of the water.' Vomô mama ni, vomô gotoqu, and vomô iǒni, mean 'as I think,' cono mi no mama ni 'according to his desires, or his pleasure.' Fodo means 'to such a degree as (tantum),' or 'just as (quasi)'; e.g., qifen ano fito fodo no gacuxó de gozaru^[155] 'you are as wise as he,' fara ga cudaru fodo ioi 'he will recover as soon as he has a bowel movement,' michi vo aruqu fodo cutabiruru (123v) 'as I walk so I get tired,' acai fodo ioi 'the redder the better,' xinuru fodo no vazzurai de va nai 'this disease is not strong enough to cause death,' fune ni mesaruru fodo naraba vare mo norózu (124) 'if Your Lordship would take up the task of boarding the ship, so shall I,' tamexi mo nai fodo ni atta to mǒsu (124v) 'they say it was as if it had never been,' voquru fodo araba sore ie mairǒzu (124) 'if I am able to arrive at the state where I can get up from bed, I shall come to you,' chicara no fodo vo mite 'seeing the degree of his strength,' fodo nó tçuita 'he arrived in an instant,' core fodo 'as this,' sore fodo 'as that,' are fodo 'as that,' vovoi fodo 'while more,' sucunai fodo 'while less.'

(55

Superlative Adverbs^[156]

Uie means 'the highest'; e.g., christian no voxiie va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru 'the doctrine and faith of Christianity are supreme, or above all,' cono saqe no uie va nai 'there is no better wine than that.' Ichi or daiichi means 'supreme, or unique'; e.g., gacuxǒ no uchi ni Sancto Thomas daiichi de gozatta 'among wise men Saint Thomas was the best,' core va are iori uie 'this is superior to that.' The particle xita has the opposite meaning of 'inferior, or the lowest'; e.g., xiqitai va anima iori xita de gozaru (141) 'the body is inferior to the soul.'

Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration^[157]

Ichidan, chicagoro, and iccǒ mean 'intensely (valde)'; e.g., chicagoro no vo cocoro gaqe de gozaru 'this is the greatest care and diligence,' sore va icco varui coto gia 'this is extremely bad.' Bexxite means 'chiefly,' tori vaqe means 'especially,' coto no foca means 'rarely, or extraordinarily,' icanimo means 'intensely,' and amarini means 'too much.' As has been said, adverbs are formed from adjectives according to the rules above, and these adverbs mean adverbially what the adjectives mean adjectivally; e.g., fucai means 'deep,' and fucó means 'deeply.' Icani mo xizzucani means 'extremely quietly,' tani coto ni means 'extraordinarily,' and xitatacani or guiósanni means 'in a way that is to be feared' that is to say 'too much.' See the dictionary.^[158]

Accumulative Adverbs^[159]

Voxinabete means 'universally'; sôbet means 'generally,' as do tçuneni and sojite [sôjite]; feijeini means 'regularly'; and voioso, tabun, vocata, ioppodoni mean 'for the most part,' and qeccu or caiette (56 means 'after all.' Tennen means 'perhaps,' as do xijen and icasama. Sadamete means 'probably,' canarazu means 'without doubt,' moxi xijien [moxi xijen] means 'perhaps,' xǒtocu means 'naturally,' jinen means 'by chance,' xidai vidai ni or jen jen ni means 'gradually,' and vonozzucara means 'by oneself.'

Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention^[160]

Ficqiǒ and tçuini mean 'finally, or in conclusion.' Tçugǒ means 'in summary.' Nǒ nǒ means 'is it not so?' e.g., nǒ nǒ icani qicaxeruru ca? 'do you hear me then?' Moxi^[161] means 'ho there (heus),' but it is an elegant word; e.g., moxi Padre sama 'ho there, Reverend Father.' Iare also means 'ho there,' but with inferiors; e.g., iare tarǒ quaja to iieba 'saying "Ho there, Tarōkaja."' Iai means 'ho there' with very low people; e.g., iai sochi ga motta mono va nani zo? 'hey! what is it that you bring?' Ia has the same meaning; e.g., ia vo tono bara domo va nani vo savagu zo? (128) 'hey! you soldiers and good men, why do you quarrel?' The particle ai has the same meaning but it is placed after the sentence; e.g., izzure mo mina qiqe ai (129) 'hey! all of you listen.'

The particles ca and zo, as has been said above, are used as interrogatives. The particles ia and caia have the same function but they are more humble; e.g., are va tare caia? 'who is he?', core ia[?] 'this?', io fuqete tare ca va tazzuneô zo? (89v) 'when it becomes late at night, who will be able to visit?', sore de arǒ ca to iú coto gia 'I said, "will it be this?"'

No? asks for agreement; e.g., gozarǒ ca no? 'will he come?'^[162] mairǒ to voxerareta no? [... vôxerareta no?] 'did he say that he will come?' no Pedro dono? 'isn't that so, Peter?' Na[?] means the same thing, but it is used with inferiors; e.g., sǒ qiita na? 'didn't you hear so?' Sometimes, in a sentence containing zo, baxi, which is a dubitive particle (particula dubitandi), is placed; e.g., nanto xita xisai de baxi gozaru zo? (122v)^[163] 'for what reason did this happen?', sate nanto iú voqiacu de baxi gozaru zo[?] (123) 'what is the name of your guest?', goiô baxi gozaru ca? 'isn't there something of use to you?'

Io and zo strengthen or give cadence to the sentence; e.g., caita zo 'he truly wrote,' maitta io 'he certainly came,' sono toqi vare (57 va ichi dan varui tçucai vo xiraruite gozaru io [... siaruite ...] (95) 'at that time I was following bad advice.' Bacari means 'only, or in only one way,' sore ni caguitte means 'that only,' core ni caguirazu 'not only this.' Bacari also means 'more or less'; e.g., fiacu bacari 'there were a hundred,' fiacunin bacari corosareta 'about one hundred men were killed.' Nó, nóte, naqu xite, and naqute mean 'without'; e.g., raxxi mo nó 'without reason or order,' cacugo nó 'without any preparation.'

The Case Prepositions^[164]

Tame or ni means 'concerning';^[165] e.g., sonata no tame 'for you (tibi).' It governs the genitive which precedes it; nan no tame 'for what,' nani ni naru ca? 'for what is it?', nani ni xô ca? 'what do you do that for?', nani no iô ni tatçu ca? (171v) 'for what is it needed, or useful?', maitte no iô va? (130) 'what's the use of going?'

Tai xite means 'on account of' or 'against'; e.g., tengu ni tai xite teqito 'to fight against the devil, or resist him,' Deus ni tai xite cuguio vo coraiuru 'I endure the pain (labor) because of God.' Uie iori also means 'because'; e.g., von jifi no uie iori (167) 'because of his mercy.'

Ni iotte signifies the reason for which; e.g., Deus iori fito no jento acu ni iotte go fempô vo ataiesaxerareozu [... ataiesaxerareôzu] (146v) 'God gives to man according to his virtues and vices.' This form is derived from the verb iori,u.

Ni tçuite means 'around, or about' and is derived from the verb tçuqi,u; e.g., core ni tçuite, core ni tçuqi, or core ni tçuqete means 'about that.' Sono gui ni voite va zonjenu (120) 'I do not know anything about this matter,' Vôxe va mottomo naredomo vagami ni totte va canai gatai (120) 'Your Lordship speaks well but what concerns me is that (58 it is difficult to do.' Dai quan ni itatte va ichinin bacari sadame io (120)^[166] 'decide that which concerns the steward only.' Itatte and totte^[167] are the gerunds of verbs just as the preceding. They also say Padre coto va 'the things belonging to the priest,' varera coto va 'about my things, or those things which belong to me.' Xitagatte or xitagǒte means 'near' and is the gerund of the verb xitagari,u or xitagai,ó. As with the other verbs it governs the dative case; e.g., guioi ni xitagatte or xitagǒte 'according to Your Lordship's understanding.' Xidai has the same meaning; e.g., conata xidai 'according to your wishes.' Sometimes it is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., mairi xidai 'according to when he comes, or according to his coming.'

Ni indicates the place in which. Ni voite has the same meaning but indicates permanence; e.g., fatto va fuximi ni voite vôxeidasareta 'he established the law while he was in Fushimi,' Bungo funai ni itatte 'in the city of Funai in the kingdom of Bungo,' iglesia ni uoru 'he is in church.'

De indicates the place of an action; e.g., michi de Pedro ni vǒta 'I met Peter in the street.' The same particle de, together with vo motte, indicate the instrument with which an action is done; e.g., bo vo motte Pedro vo uchi coroita 'he killed Peter with a stick,' Padre sama catarareta de navo qicoieta 'from what the Reverend Father told me, it became easier to understand,' necqi de xinda 'he died of a fever.'

Cara or iori indicate the place from which; e.g., iglesia cara 'from church.' They also say fune cara maitta 'he came by ship' and cachi cara maitta 'he came on foot.' Fune de maitta is the same as fune cara maitta and fune ni notte maitta. Fana cara me cara miguruxij mono gia 'it is unpleasant to the nose and the eyes.' Iori indicates the place through which; e.g., sama iori faitta 'he entered through the window.'

Tomo ni means 'at the same time'; e.g., sonata to tomo ni mairǒzu I shall go at the same time as you,' mǒsu to tomo ni 'at the same time as he spoke.'

Ie indicates the place to which; e.g., achi ie mairǒ 'I shall go directly to court (curia),' miiaco no cata ie noboru 'he went up to court' and also miiaco no fǒ ie noboru. They also say miiaco no iori, miiaco sama, or miiaco no gotoqu noboru, but this is not a good way of speaking and is more characteristic of a rustic (rusticus).

De indicates the material from which; e.g., tçuchi de cavara (59 vo tçuquru 'to make bricks out of earth or mud,' nande core vo tçuquru ca? 'from what is this made?'

Conjunction and Separation^[168]

To means 'and'; e.g., Pedro to juan to Nagasaqi ie ita 'Peter and John went to Nagasaki,' core to, are to vo toru 'I take this and that.' Mo has the same meaning; e.g., Pedro mo juan mo Nagasaqi cara modotta 'Peter and John returned from Nagasaki,' naqu mono mo ari, varó mono mo aru 'there are those who cry and those who laugh. Mo is often placed before negative verbs; e.g., nanigoto mo gazaranu ca? 'is that not something new?'

Mata means 'and,' whether it is found between nouns or verbs. Ca means 'or'; e.g., Pedro ca; juan ca coi to iie 'tell Peter or John to come.' Arui va also means 'or'; e.g., arui va Pedro, arui va juan 'either Peter or John,' arui va iomu, arui va caqu 'I either read or write.' Moxi va means 'if in fact,' and it is used in the middle of a sentence; e.g., moxi va cane ga nai naraba 'if in fact you were to have no money.'

Mata va is used to bind the sentences more tightly together (ad orationem contexturam). It means 'besides that, or besides'; e.g., (60 arui va iamai ga vocoru ca, mata va isogui no fumi qitaru ca etc. [... ca, etc.] (135) 'either some sickness occurs, or besides that some urgent letter arrives.'

Xicareba means 'since things are this way,' sari nagara means 'but,' sǒ aru tocoro de means 'since it is thus,' saraba means 'since it is so,' and sareba sareba means 'since then.' Ca? means 'if'; e.g., maitta ca mi io 'see if he came, or went,' maitta ca xiranu 'I don't know if he went.' Iara means 'if,' but distributively (divisive); e.g., fito iara chicuxǒ iara xiranu 'I don't know if it's man or beast,' nani iara to mǒxita 'I wonder what he said.'

Some disjunctive and emphatic particles are formed from nanica and tocacu with the addition of other particles; e.g., nani ia ca ia? 'which thing?' The same meaning is expressed by nani iara ca iara? and nanto iara cato iara? Nanto xite, cato xite means 'how,' nanto mo cato mo means 'in no way,' and nani mo ca mo means 'nothing.' Nanigoto mo cagoto mo, mina içtuvari naru zo [... itçuvari ...] 'when all is said and done they are all lies.' Nani no ca no, and nanto xite, cato xite are ways to excuse oneself. Nani no ca no to iúte means 'saying this and that.' Domo como means 'in whatever way it is,' as does dǒ xite mo cǒ xite mo. Dǒ xite cǒ xite means 'doing this and that differently.' Dǒ xô cǒ xô means 'I shall do this and that.'

Tomo cacumo means 'all the same,' as do toni cacuni, tonimo cacunimo, and totemo cacutemo. Core to ij; care to ij means 'saying this and that, or making excuses.' Care core means 'this and that,' coco caxico means 'here and there (hic and illic).' Vomoxirô, vocaxu^[169] [vomoxirovocaxǔ] is used when accommodating oneself almost to flattery.

If the particle motte is added to the particles catçute, isasaca, tomoni, nani, and nani nani iori [... and nani iori] it adds strength and force; e.g., catçute motte sǒ aru mai 'the situation will not be this way at all.'

Interjections^[170]

Sate, sate sate, [satemo,] and satemo satemo are interjections of admiration; e.g., satemo Deus no voqinaru vonjifi cana 'oh! great mercy of God!'

Avare is the interjection for pity; e.g., avare mutçucaxij io no naca cana 'oh! world replete with misery!'

Ha!^[171] is the interjection of penetence; e.g., ha faxi demo (61 vomoxiroi ga; tocoro ni iote qicoie canuru [... ni iotte ...] (127v) 'ah, the workmanship of the sound and the harmony of the singing is most graceful, but it is not able to be heard well.'

Iara! is the interjection for joy and pain; e.g., iara iara medeta ia (128) 'oh! how much I rejoice.' Ia is also used; e.g., satemo iiaxii iatçubara ia (129)^[172] 'oh! how vile and despicable,' gongo dǒdan fuxigui na xisai cana (128v) 'oh! how rare and ridiculous a reason.' Iei is the interjection of wonder; e.g., iei Padre sama cochi gozaru io 'oh! here is the Reverend Father.'

Hat is the interjection that indicates that one is repentent; e.g., Benqei core vo mite hat coto naxi to zonjite, sono mama niva ni bǒ vo voraxi, etc. (127v) 'Benkei seeing this,' etc.^[173]

The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs^[174]

The nominative is placed at the beginning of the sentence and the verb at the end: the remaining elements are placed according to the cadence (cadentia) of the sentence; e.g., Pedro va Nagasaqi de xutrai xita iqi iqi ni tçuite juan vo coroita 'Peter killed John because of an argument that took place in Nagasaki.' In certain sentences of serious import a substitute verb (verbum suppositum) is placed after the verb, but this is rare; e.g., tare mo canavanu futari no qimi ni tçucǒru coto va (84)^[175] 'no one can serve two masters.' In this sentence the substitute verb is tçucǒru coto va. Core ni iote tanomi tatematçuru itçumo virgen [Core ni iotte ...] (84) 'therefore I pray to the ever virgin [Mary].'

Clauses (orationes) in the absolute or permissive subjunctive, infinitive, conditional, and causative are always placed before clauses that are in the indicative or imperative, even if it does not make sense in Latin or any other European language; e.g., achi cara tomeraruru tomo; tomaru na 'do not stay, even if they want you to remain,' sore vo qiitareba, fara vo tatete modotta 'when he heard that, he came back very angry,' taxicani uqetamotta ni iotte coso, móxi ague maraxitare 'I listened carefully, and then I spoke,' faiǒ gozatta raba vo mexi vo xinjô mono vo 'if you had come earlier, I would have offered you food.'

When there are two verbs in the same sentence, the first will (62 be in the gerund form and the other will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g., core vo totte giqi ni mi ga comono ni vataxe 'take this and give it to my servant at once.'

When there are two or more clauses which have the same subject or tense, only the last verb will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the sentence. The other verbs will be in the root form, while still others will be in the gerund in e form; e.g., tovazunba cotaiezu, voxe raba tçuxxinde qiqi [tovazũba ... vôxe ... qiqe] (85v)^[176] 'if they don't ask don't answer: if they speak listen carefully,' Deus no vo coto vo macoto ni uqe, go voqite mo camavaide, sono mama inferno ni vochita 'he did not believe in God, and he did not respect His precepts; therefore, he fell into Hell.'

Verbs are always placed in the third person to indicate honor. No one honors himself except the king when he is speaking of himself; e.g., iorocobi ni voboximesu 'I am enjoying it very much.'

When there are many adjectives in a sentence, they will all be in the adverbial form except the last; e.g., qe nangǒ, iro curô, icanimo utçucuxij mono [qe nagǒ ...]^[177] 'a very beautiful person with long, black hair.'

The particle to is placed before verbs of understanding, believing, and hearing, takes the place of the verb 'to be,' and means 'that'; fito to zonjita 'I thought, or believed that he was a man,' qixó vo jennin to vomovô ca? [qixo ... vomovǒ ca?] 'shall I believe that you are a saint?' Amata no fito xini no fonovo ni moiuru vo misaxerareô (20)^[178] 'you will see many men burning in the flames of indignation.' Here one has replaced to with moiuru vo, which is a substitute verb. When mo is added to to it strongly affirms what is said; e.g., mairó to mo 'I shall certainly go, or I will be going.'

The particle to, in the first meaning, is sometimes replaced by iǒni; e.g., agueta iǒni gozaru 'they say that he offered it,' ica iǒna fito to va xiranu 'I did not know what kind of a man he was.' Sometimes the substantive verb takes the place of the particle to; e.g., mairó de gozatta 'he said that he would come,' xô de va naqeredomo 'although I did not say that I would do it.'

Qiuzo core vo mite, ima vo saigo no coto de areba (97)^[179] 'seeing this, Kiso believed that the hour of death was present, etc.' Here the substantive verb replaces to and serves as an active verb governing the accusative ima vo, which also replaces to. The particles sǒna and guena mean 'it seems.' Sǒna is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., deqi (63 sǒna 'it seems that it is finished.' If a substantive verb is placed after this particle the a is changed to i; e.g., deqi sǒni gozaru 'it seems that he will finish,' deqi sǒni mo zonjenu 'I believe that it will not be finished.'^[180] Sǒna is also added to adjectives in i, and when it is the i is lost; e.g., io sǒna 'it seems good, or it seems that it is good,' xigue sǒna 'it seems dense,' and aiau sǒna 'it seems that I am in danger.' If this particle is added to adjectives in na, the na is lost; e.g., aqiraca sǒna 'it seems that it is clear.'

The particle guena is added to the nouns and verbs previously formed; e.g., maitta guena 'I believe that he has come.' If a substantive verb is added to this particle the a changes to i; e.g., maitta gueni gozaru 'I believe that he has come.' Sǒna means 'it seems,' and guena means 'I believe,' but either of these forms may occasionally be used in any of the examples given.

When a sentence has two preterits, the first may be in the preterit and the second in the future; e.g., qesa cara sǒ vôxerareta raba mo faia de maraxô 'If you would have said that this morning, I would have already left.'

When reporting what someone else has said, it is said this way; Padre mósaruru va: iagate sonata ie mairó to mǒsaruru 'the priest said that he was going to come.' Sometimes when one is excusing himself he will use no in place of to; e.g., asu no, raiguat no, nando to noburu na 'don't spread around that it is tomorrow, next month, or whenever.'

When vo follows n it loses its v; e.g., go von o uqetatematçutta 'I received benefits.'^[181]

Adverbs are always placed before their verbs except for the adverbs of time which are placed at the beginning of the sentence; e.g., sore vo qijte iccó xicari maraxita 'hearing that he was very angry,' qiô nen espana cara vatatta toqi [qio nen ...] 'when I sailed from Spain last year.' Each verb requires before it a subject in the nominative case, either expressed or understood; e.g., vare iqe or iqe 'come!', where the vare is understood. In some sentences this rule is not respected; e.g., xisai voba core ni mósare maraxozu [... maraxôzu] 'he will explain, or give the reason for this.' In the following case we do not see the nominative, but rather are ni va, which is in the dative or ablative; are ni va, navo voixri atta [... voxiri atta] 'he knows better.' In this sentence the are ni va ought to be in the nominative. Cacaru vo ni va cogane no cusari vo icusugi mo tçuqeta dógu de gozaru (138v) 'for a necklace (torques) he had a chain of gold with many links.'

Core ni va gozonji aru mai 'Your Lordship does not know (64 about this.' Here the core ni va replaces the accusative which is governed by zonji,uru.

Certain cobita or coie nouns, as we have said above, are borrowed from Chinese and govern the same cases as the Japanese verbs to which they correspond; e.g., niva vo qenbut no aida ni mexi vo coxiraie io 'prepare the food while we visit the garden.' The noun qenbut requires the accusative niva vo. The same is true with fito ni guenzan suru (97) which is like fito ni vó 'I meet the man.' The guenzan governs the dative just as does the verb ai,ó.

When a borrowed word (vocabulum cobitum)^[182] is a compound of two elements it is possible to determine if it is a verb by seeing if the first part has the meaning of a verb; e.g., jóten is a verb which means 'to ascend to heaven' with the jǒ meaning to 'go up.' Tenjǒ is a noun in which the jǒ is placed after the ten and means 'heaven.'

The passive verb has the ablative for its agent (persona agente); e.g., Pedro cara corosareta 'he was killed by Peter,' but it is better that it govern the dative; e.g., Pedro ni corosareta, or Pedro va nusubito ni cane vo torareta 'Peter had his money stolen by thieves.'

There are also certain neutral verbs which govern the accusative as if they were active verbs; e.g., xiqitai vo fanaruru 'to depart from the body, or to die,' axi vo vazzuró 'to have a pain in the foot.' This is also true for nigue,uru 'to escape,' nogare,uru 'to evade,' de,uru 'to go out,' noqe,uru 'to retreat,' tovori,u 'to go across,' nori,u 'to sail,' as in caixǒ vo noru 'I sail the sea,' iuqi,u 'to walk,' as in michi vo iuqu 'I walk the streets,' vovari,u 'to finish,' mairi,u as in xogui vo mairu 'I play chess (tabula laterucularia),' iorocobi,u as in cocoro vo iorocobu 'I gladden the heart,' abi,uru, as in mizzu vo abiru^[183] 'I wash myself with water, or I pour water on myself,' avaremi,u 'I am sad,' (65 canaximi,u 'I am unhappy,' coie,uru 'to cross over,' fabacari,u 'to be shy,' facarai,ǒ 'to take care of,' faxiri,u 'to sail,' as in caixǒ, vo, faxiru [caixǒ vo faxiru] 'I sail the sea,' fagi,zzuru 'to be ashamed,' fedate,tçuru 'to separate,' fe,uru 'to spend,' as in ficazu vo furu 'I spend many days,' [fumaie,uru 'to be based on,' as in] dori vo fumaiuru 'to be based on reason, or to have reason as a basis,' itami,u 'to be sick,' mavari,u 'to go around,' as in cono cotovari vo móxi mavatta 'he goes around and spreads the news here and there,' meguri,u has the same meaning, nagusami,u 'to please,' as in cocoro vo nagusamu 'I make the heart happy,' naqi,u 'to weep,' tasucari,u 'to be saved,' as in inochi vo tasucaru 'I am saved from the dangers of life,' or goxǒ vo tasucaru 'to be saved for a future life,' tachi,tçu 'to go away from,' as in tocoro vo tatçu 'I go away from this place,' tomurai,ó 'to make a funeral for the dead,' ucagai,ó 'to inquire with hesitation,' voximi,u 'to value,' urami,u 'to enquire,' xinobi,u 'to wait in hiding, almost insidiously,' as in fito no me vo xinobu 'I am careful lest someone see me.'^[184] A few of these verbs which require the accusative of location admit to the use of the ablative with the particles cara or iori; e.g., tocoro vo tatçu is the same as tocoro iori tatçu 'I leave the place.'

There are some active verbs which require two accusative cases; e.g., fori,u, daxi,u, fanaxi,u, tate,tçuru. For example, Pedro vo soco vo voi idaita 'they led Peter away from that place.' It is possible that it governs the ablative of location; e.g., Pedro vo soco cara voi daita [... voi idaita]. Some take either the dative or the accusative; e.g., fito vo, or fito ni fanare,uru 'to go away from the men,' Deus vo, or Deus ni somuqi,u 'to offend God.' Verbs of this kind are generally verbs of fearing, offending, or going away.^[185]

Many verbs of helping, harming, damning, obeying, recognizing as superior or inferior, being subjugated, being victorious, and similar verbs govern the dative; e.g., chiie saicacu iǒni coieta 'he is superior to others in wisdom and industry.'^[186]

Verbs of giving, promising, and the like, govern the accusative for the thing and the dative for the person; e.g., fito ni cane vo cururu 'to give money to someone.'^[187]

There are many verbs which permit before themselves the roots of other verbs without change, letting the roots take on the function of an infinitive; e.g., qiqi fajime,uru 'to begin to hear.' Some of these verbs are: nare,uru 'to become accustomed,' tçuqe,uru with the same (66 meaning, fate,tçuru 'to finish,' narai,ó 'to learn,' some,uru 'to begin,' todoqe,uru 'to continue,' ate,tçuru 'to direct,' atari,u 'to find by chance,' vaqe,uru 'to divide,' cane,uru 'to be able to do with difficulty,' soconai,ǒ 'to be wrong,' sumaxi,u 'to finish,' sugoxi,u 'to exceed,' fague maxi,u 'to work much and intensely,' aqi,u 'to become bored,' tai 'to want,' and tǒ mo nai 'to not want.'^[188] If the roots of verbs are placed before certain adjectives ending in i, they form a kind of supine in Tu; e.g., iomi iasui (92) 'easy to read (facile lectu),' etc.

A numeral, if a substantive noun is placed after it, must be in the genitive case; e.g., fitotçu no toga 'one sin.' The same is true with the particle fodo when it means 'all'; e.g., aru fodo no fito 'how so ever many.' The same is true with iori; e.g., Nanban iori no mono 'things from Europe.' But this is a relative formation (relatiuum). The genitive is also required with nouns that mean much or little; e.g., amata no fito 'many men.' These nouns are; bechi 'other,' fon 'one's own,' cazucazu 'many,' sama zama 'many ways.' Iro iro 'much' is the same as iorozzu and izzure. Issai means 'all,' as does vono vono, cotogotoqu, and reqi reqi for a noble person, igue 'that which follows,' nocori 'that which remains,' itçumo 'always,' itçumo no coto 'that which always is,' tçune 'usual,' ima 'now.' Isasaca means 'a little,' as does soto or sucoxi, xotocu 'natural,' sono foca 'others.'^[189] These nouns are in the genitive if they are followed by a substantive noun, but when they are not followed by a noun they must be taken as adjectives. If they are followed by a verb rather than a noun, they do not require the genitive; e.g., iorozzu dancǒ xite iocarǒ 'it will be good if you all confer.'

Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters
Concerning Which Much Painful
Labor Is Required

There are two ways to count in Japanese.^[190] The first is with the ordinary numerals which are called iomi. With these one is able to count to ten; e.g., fitotçu means 'one,' which is also used to (67 say 'a little,' as in saqe fitotçu nomaxite tamǒre 'give me a little sake to drink.' Futatçu means 'two,' mitçu 'three,' iotçu 'four,' itçutçu 'five,' mutçu 'six,' nanatçu 'seven,' iatçu 'eight,' coconotçu 'nine,' and tovo 'ten.' Icutçu means 'what?' and is used when one does not have the proper number.

The second way of counting is with the coie vocables which are borrowed from Chinese. These numbers are not used by themselves to count to ten; but are rather used when counting things which are represented by Chinese, and not Japanese vocables. These bound numerals (termini numerales) are: ichi 'one,' ni 'two,' san 'three,' xi 'four,' go 'five,' rocu 'six,' xichi 'seven,' fachi 'eight,' cu 'nine,' jú 'ten.' The numbers eleven and above are made by joining these numbers together. Thus, 'eleven' is jǔichi; júni is 'twelve,' júsan 'thirteen,' júcu 'ninteen.' The tens are obtained by placing one of the numbers in front of ten; e.g., nijú 'twenty,' sanjú 'thirty,' sanjǔichi 'thirty-one,' cujǔ 'ninety.' Fiacu means 'hundred,' fiacu ichi 'one hundred and one,' fiacu jǔ 'one hundred and ten,' fiacu sanjǔ 'one hundred and thirty,' ni fiacu 'two hundred,' sambiacu 'three hundred.' Xen means 'thousand,' and xen roppiacu sanjǔ ichi is 'sixteen thirty-one.'

By placing the Japanese numerals in front of Japanese vocables, which are called iomi, and by removing the tçu of the aforementioned numbers before they are joined to nouns or verb stems, one is able to enumerate those things which are indicated by the vocable; e.g., fito cotoba 'one word,' futa cotovari 'two reasons,' mi ami 'three nets, or three casts of the net,' iocama 'to bake something four times in an oven,' itçu caqe 'five attacks,' mu casane 'six robes, or covers,' nana catana 'seven wounds by a sword,' ia catague 'eight loads,' cu cavari^[191] 'nine changes,' to cusa 'ten varieties.' Above the number ten this way of counting is not used, instead they say iro júichi or júichi no iro for 'eleven colors.' The interrogative is icutçu. If the thing being questioned is placed after the interrogative the particle no is added; e.g., itçucu no qi zo [icutçu ...] 'how many trees are there?' To such a question the answer is futatçu 'two,' mitçu 'three,' etc. If the tçu is removed from icutçu, one may place it in front of the thing being asked about; e.g., icu tocoro 'how many places?' icu toqi 'how many hours?'; also fito fanaxi 'one sermon, or conversation,' futa sugi 'two treads,' io te 'four hands, as in a fight,' itçu tçubu 'five grains,' mu tocoro 'six (68 places,' ia mavari 'six [eight] circuits,' cu ninai 'nine loads, carried in the Japanese fashion on a stick with the load in front,' to vatari 'ten crossings.' It is possible to count the same thing in different ways. Thus, mu tocoro is also mutçu no tocoro and tocoro mutçu 'six places.' Fito ie means 'one plain thing,' futa ie 'doubled, or duplicate,' mi ie 'triplicate,' etc. In the same way one may add Chinese numerals to Chinese vocables, or coie. Usually in this way of counting a [phonetic] change occurs in either the number or the thing counted. Sometimes this change is in the first part, sometimes in the second, and at other times in both. This is particularly true with the first, second, third, sixth, tenth, and one hundredth numbers. With the items below, if nothing is noted, it is an indication that nothing is changed.

When asking about men one says icutari? 'how many men?' The response is made by adding nin to the Chinese numeral; e.g., ichi nin 'one man,' ni nin 'two men,' iottari 'four men'; this is because xinin means 'dead person.'

When asking about days one says icca 'how many days?' The response is fi fitoi,^[192] because ichi nichi means 'one entire solar day,' futçuca 'two days,' micca 'three days,' iocca 'four days,' itçuca 'five days,' muica 'six days,' nanuca 'seven days,' iǒca 'eight days,' coconoca 'nine days,' toca^[193] 'ten days,' fatçuca 'twenty days.' The remaining days are counted with coie numerals.

When counting nights ia is added to the coie numerals; e.g., ichi ia 'one night,' ni ia 'two nights,' etc. It is also possible to add io which means 'night' in Japanese to the iomi numeral; e.g., icu io 'how many nights?' futa io 'two nights,' nana io 'seven nights,' etc.

When enumerating the months of the year guat is added to the coie numeral, with the exception that the first month is called xóguat. The second is niguat, the third is saguat,^[194] the fourth is xiguat, the eleventh is ximotçuqi, and the twelfth and last is xi vasu. When counting months the tçu is removed from the iomi numeral and the word tçuqi, which means 'month,' is added. Icutçuqi? means 'how many months.' In response one says fitotçuqi 'one month,' up to ten which is totçuqi, and from there on one counts with coie numerals; e.g., júichiguat 'eleven months.' If one wants to ask what month it is, January, February, one says nanguat. The first month of the (69 Japanese year is March.

In the enumeration of the years nen is placed after the coie numeral. In asking how many, nen [nan] is placed before nen; e.g., nannen 'how many years?' In response one says ichinen 'one year,' ionen 'four years,' sanganen 'three years,' sǒ ionen^[195] 'three or four years,' sǒ xijúnen 'thirty or forty years,' fatachi means 'twenty years of age,' as does nijǔnen, nijǔ no toxi, or toxi niju. They ask with icutoxi or toxi icutçu 'how old are you.' They count the age of men and animals such as cattle and horses by adding sai to the coie numeral; e.g., issai 'one,' nisai 'two,' sanzai 'three.'

In counting turns (visis) do is added to the coie numerals; e.g., nando 'how many times,' ichido 'once,' iodo 'four times,' godo 'five times,' sai san 'twice or thrice.'

In the enumeration of ships sô is placed after the coie numeral; e.g., nanzo [nanzô] 'how many ships,' to which one answers issô 'one ship,' niso [nisô] 'two,' sanzô 'three,' fassô 'eight,' jússô [jissô] 'ten.'

Ichiren 'one string,' niren 'two,' saren 'three,' as in figs or pearls.

When enumerating sermons, homilies (tractatus), or repetitions of things, fen is placed after the numeral; e.g., ippen 'one sermon,' nifen 'two,' sanben 'three,' ave maria fiacu gojippen 'one hundred and fifty Hail Mary's.'

In counting gold currency momme is placed after the numeral; e.g., ichi momme 'one momme,' ni momme 'two,' san mome [san momme] 'three.' When a momme is divided into tenths it is called an ippun [fun]. Thus, ippun means one tenth part of a momme, nifun means 'two tenths,' gofun means half the basic unit (media dragma), roppun means 'six tenths of a momme.'

When the tenth part of a momme is divided again into ten parts it is counted as ichirin, nirin, sarin, iorin, gorin, rocurin, xichirin, fachirin, and curin. Then comes ippun, which is one tenth of a momme. Fiacu me means 'one hundred momme,' fiacu ichi momme 'one hundred and one,' icquan me means 'one thousand momme,' jicquanme means 'ten thousand.' There are other coins of silver which are counted by placing mai or mon after the numeral; e.g., ichi mon means one of that unit, ni mon is 'two,' San mai is three hundred mon. They no longer produce a coin which is one half of the gold coin, but one thousand of these coins make icquan, while jicquan is 'ten (70 thousand quan.'^[196]

Core va ica fodo ni suru 'how much is this worth?' or ica fodo ni uru 'at what price will you sell this?' Ni momme suru 'I consider it worth two momme,' or ni momme ni iasui 'I can sell this for more than two momme, or at two momme this is cheap.'

The enumeration of liquid measurements is done by placing the particle xô in front of the liquid quantity; e.g., ixxo [ixxô] 'one xô,' nixo [nixô] 'two,' sango [sanjô] 'three.' Ten xô are itto which is the particle to placed after the numeral; nito means 'twenty xô,' sando 'thirty.' For one tenth of a xô one places the particle go after the numeral; e.g., Ichigo 'one go,' nigo 'two,' sango 'three,' ixxô gogo 'one and one half xô.' Fatto is eighty xô. One hundred xô make ichi cocu. By placing the cocu after numerals one obtains ni cocu 'two hundred xô,' sangocu 'three hundred,' jiccocu 'one thousand,' xencocu 'ten thousand,' ichi mangocu 'one hundred thousand.'

The enumeration of the measurements of human height is achieved by placing fito [firo] after the iomi numerals; e.g., fito firo 'one firo,' futa firo 'two,' jippiro 'ten.' The measurement of a span (palmus) is made by adding xacu to the coie numerals; e.g., ixxacu 'one span, or three spans by the Spanish measuring system,'^[197] sanjaku 'three.' Goxacu is the same as fito firo which is a measurement we have referred to before. Six xacu make up a measurement called icqen 'one qen,' nicqen [niqen] 'two,' jicqen 'ten,' and sanguen 'three.' From sixty of these measurements one makes a measurement called icchó, that is 'one mountain path,' nicchǒ [nichǒ] 'two,' jichiǒ [jicchǒ] 'ten,' sangiǒ 'three.' From sixty-three [thirty-six] chô, as measured in the northern part of Japan, one obtains ichiri which is one league or one miliar. One enumerates by adding ri to the coie numerals; e.g., niri 'two,' sanri 'three,' gori 'five,' júri 'ten'; iori is 'four,' because xiri means anus.^[198] Fan michi means 'a half of a league.' They say; ioco fan miqi tate ichiri [... michi ...] 'a half a ri wide and one ri long,' faba icqen 'the width is one qen,' iofǒ futa firo 'two hiro on all sides.'

The cardinal numbers first, second, etc. are made by adding ban to the coie numerals; e.g., ichi ban 'first,' ni ban 'second.' To these are also added me, as said before; e.g., xi ban me 'fourth.' One may also make the cardinal numbers by placing dai in front of the coie (71 numerals; e.g., daiichi 'first,' daini 'second,' etc.

The enumeration of multiples is done by adding bai to the numbers; e.g., ichibai 'double,' nibai 'triple,' sanbai 'quadruple,'^[199] fiacu zobai 'one hundred fold.'

The enumeration of the parts from the whole is done by placing buichi after the numeral; e.g., ni buichi 'one from two parts,' san buichi 'one from three parts.'

To indicate one tenth vari is placed after the numeral; e.g., ichi vari 'one from ten parts,' xi vari gobu 'four and one half from ten parts.' Jú buichi is the same as ichi vari.

The enumeration of oars, muskets, and long things made of wood is done by placing chó after the numerals; e.g., icchó 'one oar,' nichó 'two,' sangiǒ 'three,' jichó [jicchó] 'ten.'

The enumeration of fish and fire wood is done by placing con after the numerals;^[200] e.g., iccon, 'one fish,' sangon 'three,' jiccon 'ten,' fiaccon 'one hundred,' fiacu gojǔ sangon 'one hundred and fifty-three.' This is the amount Saint Peter caught, and even though he caught that number the net did not tear.

The enumeration of leaves of paper and sheets of gold, etc. is done by placing mai after the numeral; e.g., ichimai 'one leaf,' cami gomai 'five leaves of paper.'

The enumeration of the stories of a house is done by placing cai after the numeral; e.g., nicai 'the first floor,' sangai 'the second,' xigai 'the third,' gocai 'the fourth,' when counted as in a house in Madrid.

The enumeration of utensils and cups for drinking is done by placing fai after the numeral; e.g., ippai 'one drink, or one draught,' nifai 'two,' sanbai 'three,' jippai 'ten.'

The enumeration of rolls of silk or the like is done by placing tan after the numeral; e.g., ittan 'one roll,' nitan 'two,' sandan 'three,' jittan 'ten.' Xichitan bune is a ship with a sail seven tan wide.

This is also said by adding mai to the numeral; e.g., gomai 'five,' as in gomai bune 'a ship having a sail five mai wide.'

The enumeration of four-footed animals is done by placing fiqi after the numeral; e.g., ippiqi 'one animal,' nifiqi 'two,' sanbiqi 'three,' roppiqi 'six,' jippiqi 'ten,' fiappiqi 'one hundred,' xenbiqi 'one thousand.'

The enumeration of images, pictures, and medicines is done (72 by placing fucu after the numeral; e.g., ippucu 'one item,' nifucu 'two,' sanbucu 'three,' roppucu 'six,' jippucu 'ten.' Needles are also counted this way.

The enumeration of that which in the vernacular is called a quire of paper (mano de papel) is done by placing giô after the numeral; e.g., ichigio [ichigiô] 'one quire,' nigio [nigiô] 'two,' sangiô 'three,' so on to ten. Units of ten are counted by adding socu to the numeral; e.g., issocu 'ten quires, or what in the vernacular is called a half ream (media resma),' nisocu 'twenty, or an entire ream.' With this particle socu added to numerals one also counts pairs of shoes; e.g., issocu 'a pair of shoes.'

The enumeration of substance (substantia) is done by placing tai after the numeral; e.g., ittai 'one substance,' nitai 'two,' sandai 'three.' Deus no von tocoro va goittai de gozaru 'God as God is of one substance and one essence.'

The enumeration of the divisions in a writing (capitulum) is done by placing cagiô after the numeral; e.g., iccagiô 'one chapter,' (73 nicagio [nicagiô] 'two,' sangagio [sangagiô] 'three,' roccagio [roccagiô] 'six,' fiaccagio [fiaccagiô] 'one hundred.'

Sermons and exhortations are enumerated by placing dan after the numeral; ichidan 'one sermon, or assembly.' Words are enumerated by placing gon or guen after the numeral; e.g., ichigon 'one word,' sanguen 'three words.'

Placing the particle zzutçu after either coie or iomi numerals gives the meaning of 'each'; e.g., ichinin ni uxi sanbiki zzutçu vo toraxeta 'he let the men have three oxen each,' ichinin zzutçu saqe sanbai zzutçu vo nomareta 'each man drank three sake each.'

In speaking of two or three things separately, they join the two numbers; e.g., xigonin 'four or five men,' from which others may be copied.

The honorific particles are four; vo, von, go, and mi.^[201] The first two are joined to iomi vocables. The last two are joined to coie, or Chinese vocables. The last is the most honorific and is used when speaking of things divine; e.g., midexi tachi 'disciples of Christ the Lord,' goichinin vocoite cudasarei 'please send one from among the Lords.'

The words which follow have honorific particles that have (74 been added by the speaker. However, the honor is shown to the person addressed or to those related to him; e.g., go focô [go fôcô] 'a duty,' von furu mai 'a banquet,' von cotoba 'a word, or a sermon,' von mono gatari 'a conversation,' von natçucaxij or von nocori vovoi which mean the same as what the Portuguese call saudades (nostalgia) and the Spanish call carino (affection), von tori avaxe 'intercession,' von mi mai 'a visit,' von cha 'that which one drinks when they invite you,' go dancó 'a consultation or congregation for the purpose of obtaining advice,' von rei 'an act of gratitude,' von busata 'a lapse of good manners,' vo motenaxi 'to treat well and elegantly,' go chiso [go chisô] 'esteem,' go iqen 'an opinion,' e.g., fabacari nagara go iqen vo mǒxitai 'forgive me but I would like to give you some advice,' etc.