But when the sense of the statement shows uncertainty in the speaker's mind, or shows that the condition stated is regarded as contrary to fact or as untrue, the subjunctive is used. Note the two sentences following, in which the conditions are properly in the subjunctive: If those statements be true, then all statements are true, Were I rich, I might be charitable.

The subjunctive is usually preceded by the conjunctions, if, though, lest, although, or the verb precedes the subject. But it must be borne in mind that these do not always indicate the subjunctive mode. The use of the subjunctive depends on whether the condition is regarded as a fact or as contrary to fact, certain or uncertain.

It should be added that the subjunctive is perhaps going out of use; some of the best writers no longer use its forms. This passing of the subjunctive is to be regretted and to be discouraged, since its forms give opportunity for many fine shades of meaning.

Exercise 37

Write five sentences which illustrate the correct use of be in the third person singular without an auxiliary, and five which illustrate the correct use of were in the third person singular.

Exercise 38

Choose the preferable form in the following sentences, and be able to give a definite reason for your choice. In some of the sentences either form may be used correctly:

1. He acts as if it were was possible always to escape death.
2. If it was were near enough, I should walk.
3. If I was were only wealthy!
4. If I were was in his place, I should study medicine.
5. If you are be right, then the book is wrong.
6. If he was were I, he would come.
7. Though he was were very economical, he remained poor.
8. Though she was were an angel, I should dislike her.
9. If he be is there, ask him to pay the bill.
10. If he be is there, he makes no sign of his presence.
11. If this be is wrong, then all love of country is wrong.
12. If it rains rain, I stay at school.
13. Take care lest you are be deceived by appearances.
14. Would that I was were a bird.
15. If it snow snows, I can't come.
16. If your father comes come, bring him to dinner.
17. If your father was were here, you would act differently.
18. Though he were was king over all the earth I should despise him.
19. If he come comes, he will find me at home.
20. Was were it necessary, I should jump.
21. If to-morrow be is pleasant, we shall go driving.
22. If my mother was were here, she would say I might go.
23. If she was were at home, I did not hear of it.
24. If that is be his motive, he is unworthy.
25. Though this seem seems improbable, it is true.
26. If a speech is be praised by none but literary men, it is bad.
27. If the father pays pay the debt, he will be released.
28. Though Mary be is young, she is a writer of note.
29. Unless he takes take better care of his health, he will die.
30. If he be is honest, he has not shown it.
31. If he be is honest, he will insist on paying me.
32. If he ever tell tells the truth, he conceals the fact.

61. Agreement of Verb with its Subject. The verb should agree with its subject in person and number. The most frequent error is the failure of the verb to agree in number with its subject. Singular subjects are used with plural verbs, and plural subjects with singular verbs. These errors arise chiefly from a misapprehension of the true number of the subject.

The s-form of the verb is the only distinct singular form, and occurs only in the third person, singular, present indicative; as, He runs, she goes, it moves. Is, was, and has are the singular forms of the auxiliaries. Am is used only with a subject in the first person, and is not a source of confusion. The other auxiliaries have no singular forms.

Failure of the verb and its subject to agree in person seldom occurs, and so can cause little confusion.

Examine the following correct forms of agreement of verb and subject:

A barrel of clothes was shipped (not were shipped).

A man and a woman have been here (not has been here).

Boxes are scarce (not is scarce).

When were the brothers here (not when was)?

62. Agreement of Subject and Verb in Number. The general rule to be borne in mind in regard to number, is that it is the meaning and not the form of the subject that determines whether to use the singular or the plural form of the verb. This rule also applies to the use of singular or plural pronouns.

Many nouns plural in form are singular in meaning; as, politics, measles, news, etc.

Many, also, are treated as plurals, though in meaning they are singular; as, forceps, tongs, trousers.

Some nouns, singular in form, are, according to the sense in which, they are used, either singular or plural in meaning; as, committee, family, pair, jury, assembly, means. The following sentences are all correct: The assembly has closed its meeting, The assembly are all total abstainers, The whole family is a famous one, The whole family are sick.

In the use of the adjective pronouns, some, each, etc., the noun is often omitted. When this is done, error is often made by using the wrong number of the verb. Each, either, neither, this, that, and one, when used alone as subjects, require singular verbs. All, those, these, few, many, always require plural verbs. Any, none, and some may take either singular or plural verbs. In most of these cases, as is true throughout the subject of agreement in number, reason will determine the form to be used.

Some nouns in a plural form express quantity rather than number. When quantity is plainly intended the singular verb should be used. Examine the following sentences; each is correct: Three drops of medicine is a dose, Ten thousand tons of coal was purchased by the firm, Two hundred dollars was the amount of the collection, Two hundred silver dollars were in the collection.

Exercise 39

In each of the following sentences, by giving a reason, justify the correctness of the agreement in number of the verb and the noun:

1. The jury have agreed.
2. The jury has been sent out to reconsider its verdict.
3. The committee has presented its report, but they have differed in regard to one matter.
4. The whole tribe was destroyed.
5. The tribe were scattered through the different states.
6. The regiment were almost all sick.
7. A variety of persons was there.
8. The society meets each month.
9. The society is divided in its opinion.
10. A number were unable to be present.
11. A great number was present.
12. The number present was great.
13. What means were used to gain his vote?
14. That means of gaining votes is corrupt.
15. Seventeen pounds was the cat's weight.
16. Twenty years of his life was spent in prison.
17. Two hundred pounds was his weight.
18. The family are all at home.
19. The family is large.
20. A pair of gloves has been lost.
21. A pair of twins were sitting in the doorway.
22. The army was defeated.

Exercise 40

Construct sentences in which each of the words named below is used correctly as the subject of some one of the verbs, is, was, has, have, are, was, have, go, goes, run, runs, come, comes:

One, none, nobody, everybody, this, that, these, those, former, latter, few, some, many, other, any, all, such, news, pains, measles, gallows, ashes, dregs, goods, pincers, thanks, victuals, vitals, mumps, flock, crowd, fleet, group, choir, class, army, mob, tribe, herd, committee, tons, dollars, bushels, carloads, gallons, days, months.

Exercise 41

Go over each of the above sentences and determine whether it or they should be used in referring to the subject.

63. The following rules govern the agreement of the verb with a compound subject:

1. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives so as to mean two distinct things, the verb should be in the plural; as, French and German literature are studied.

2. When the verb applies to the different parts of the compound subject, the plural form of the verb should be used; as, John and Harry are still to come.

3. When the verb applies to one subject and not to the others, it should agree with that subject to which it applies; as, The employee, and not the employers, was to blame, The employers, and not the employee, were to blame, The boy, as well as his sisters, deserves praise.

4. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, each in the singular, the verb should be singular; as, Each book and each paper was in its place, No help and no hope is found for him, Either one or the other is he, Neither one nor the other is he.

5. When the verb applies separately to several subjects, some of which are singular and some plural, it should agree with the subject nearest to it; as, Neither the boy, nor his sisters deserve praise, Neither the sisters nor the boy deserves praise.

6. When a verb separates its subjects, it should agree with the first; as, The leader was slain and all his men, The men were slain, and also the leader.

Exercise 42

Choose the proper form of the verb in the following sentences:

1. Hard and soft coal is are used.
2. The boy and the girl have has come.
3. Neither James nor I are is to go.
4. Neither James nor they are is to go.
5. Henry, and not his sister, is are sure to be invited.
6. The children and their father was were on the train.
7. Each man and each woman was were present.
8. Either Tennyson or Wordsworth was were the author of that poem.
9. Either the man or his children was were lost.
10. Either the children or their father was were lost.
11. Bread and milk are is frugal but wholesome fare.
12. The teacher was were cut off by the fire, and also her pupils.
13. The pupils was were cut off by the fire, and also the teacher.
14. Dogs and cats is are useless animals.
15. Neither the daughters nor their mother is are at home.
16. Either the soldier or his officers is are mistaken.
17. The cat and all her kittens was were at the door.
18. Tennyson, not Wordsworth, were was the author.
19. Each of the trustees has have a vote.
20. Our success or our failure is are due solely to ourselves.
21. Neither sincerity nor cordiality characterize characterizes him.
22. Everyone of these chairs is are mine.
23. Each day and each hour bring brings new questions.
24. The car and all its passengers was were blown up.
25. The ambition and activity of the man has have been the cause causes of his success.
26. Old and new hay is are equally good for horses.
27. Matthew or Paul are is responsible for that belief.
28. A man, a woman, and a child is are comprised in the group.
29. The pupils and also the teacher were was embarrassed.
30. The teacher and also the pupils were was embarrassed.
31. Neither he nor I are is am going.
32. Book after book was were taken from the shelves.
33. Either Aunt Mary or her daughters is are coming.
34. Either the daughters or Aunt Mary is are coming.
35. Aunt Mary, but not her daughters, is are coming.
36. The daughters, but not Aunt Mary, is are coming.
37. Both Aunt Mary and her daughter is are coming.
38. Mary, and not her mother, is are coming.
39. No preacher and no woman is are allowed to enter.
40. Every adult man and woman has have a vote.
41. Money, if not culture, gains gain a way.
42. Brain power, as well as money, talk talks.
43. Each boy and girl bring brings books.

64. Some miscellaneous cautions in regard to agreement in number:

1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modified by an adjective phrase; as, The thief, with all his booty, was captured.

2. Do not use a singular form of the verb after you and they. Say: You were, they are, they were, etc., not, you was, they was, etc.

3. Do not mistake a noun modifier for the noun subject. In the sentence, The sale of boxes was increased, sale, not boxes, is the subject of the verb.

4. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and the person of the antecedent determine the number and the person of the verb. Both of the following sentences are correct: He is the only one of the men that is to be trusted, He is one of those men that are to be trusted. It is to be remembered that the singulars and the plurals of the relative pronouns are alike in form; that, who, etc., may refer to one or more than one.

5. Do not use incorrect contractions of the verb with not. Don't cannot be used with he or she or it, or with any other singular subject in the third person. One should say, He doesn't, not he don't; it doesn't, not it don't; man doesn't, not man don't. The proper form of the verb that is being contracted in these instances is does, not do. Ain't and hain't are always wrong; no such contractions are recognized. Such colloquial contractions as don't, can't, etc., should not be used at all in formal composition.

Exercise 43

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong:

1. The ship, with all her crew, were lost.
2. You was there, John, was you not?
3. They was never known to do that before.
4. A barrel of apples were sold
5. How many were there who was there?
6. This is one of the books that is always read.
7. He don't know his own relatives.
8. I ain't coming to-night.
9. The art gallery, with all its pictures, was destroyed.
10. John, when was you in the city?
11. The book, with all its errors, is valuable.
12. Who they was, I couldn't tell.
13. This is one of the mountains which are called "The Triplets."
14. This is one of the eleven pictures that has gained prizes.
15. The hands of the clock is wrong.
16. The gallery of pictures are splendid.
17. This is one of those four metals that is valuable.
18. This is the one of those four metals that are valuable.
19. That answer, as you will see, hain't right.
20. The whole box of books were shipped.

Exercise 44

In the following sentences correct such as are wrong:

1. "Cows" are a common noun.
2. Such crises seldom occurs.
3. Fifty dollars were given him as a present.
4. There were four men, each of which were sent by a different bank.
5. At that time the morals of men were very low.
6. Mathematics are my most interesting study.
7. There was once two boys who was imprisoned in the Tower.
8. The jury is delivering its verdict.
9. The "Virginians" is a famous book.
10. Ten minutes were given him in which to answer.
11. Everyone of these farms are mine.
12. Lee, with his whole army, surrender.
13. Farm after farm were passed by the train.
14. He is one of the greatest men that has ever been president.
15. Three hundred miles of wires were cut down.
16. Three fourths of his time are wasted.
17. Three quarts of oats is all that is needed.
18. A variety of sounds charms the ear.
19. A variety of recitations were given.
20. The committee have adjourned.
21. Washington was one of the greatest generals that has ever lived.
22. Take one of the books that is lying on the table.
23. The house is one of those that overlooks the bay.
24. Question after question were propounded to him.
25. He was one of the best orators that has been produced by the school.
26. He is one of those persons who are quick to learn.
27. A black and white horse were in the ring.
28. A black and a white horse was in the ring.
29. The committee disagree on some points.
30. Mary, where was you yesterday?
31. The end and aim of his life are to get money.
32. All the crop were lost.
33. One of them are gone.
34. There comes the children.
35. Were either of these men elected?
36. The alumni of this school is not very loyal.
37. There seem to be few here.
38. There seems to be a few here.
39. Neither of the letters were received.
40. In all those songs there are a sprightliness and charm.
41. The Association of Engineers are still flourishing.
42. Neither John nor Henry have come.
43. Either this book or that are wrong.
44. This book and that is wrong.
45. This book, not that, is wrong.
46. Either this book or those students is wrong.
47. Either those students, or this book is wrong.
48. This chemical with its compounds were the agents used in tanning.

65. Use of Shall and Will. The use of the auxiliaries, shall and will, with their past tenses, is a source of very many errors. The following outline will show the correct use of shall and will, except in dependent clauses and questions:

To indicate simple futurity or probability:

Use shall with I and we; use will with all other subjects.

To indicate promise, determination, threat, or command on the part of the speaker; i. e., action which the speaker means to control;

Use will with I and we; use shall with all other subjects.

Examine the following examples of the correct use of shall and will:

Statements as to probable future events:

We shall probably be there.
I think you will want to be there.
It will rain before night.

Statements of determination on the part of the speaker:

I will come in spite of his command.
You shall go home.
It shall not happen again, I promise you.

66. Shall and Will in Questions. In interrogative sentences shall should always be used with the first person. In the second and third persons that auxiliary should be used which is logically expected in the answer.

Examine the agreement in the use of shall and will in the following questions and answers:

67. Shall and Will in Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses which are introduced by that, expressed or understood, the auxiliary should be used which would be proper if the dependent clause were a principal clause. The sentence, They assure us that they shall come, is wrong. The direct assurance would be, We will come. The auxiliary, then, in a principal clause would be will. Will should, therefore, be the auxiliary in the dependent construction, and the sentence should read, They assure us that they will come. Further examples:

I suppose we shall have to pay.
He thinks that you will be able to do it.
He has decided that John shall replace the book.

In all dependent clauses expressing a condition or contingency use shall with all subjects. Examples;

If he shall go to Europe, it will be his tenth trip abroad.
If you shall go away, who will run the farm?
If I shall die, I shall die as an honest man.

Exercise 45

Justify the correct use of shall and will in the following sentences:

1. I will go if you wish.
2. I shall probably go if you wish.
3. I will have it in spite of all you can do.
4. We shall return by way of Dover.
5. We will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer.
6. I feel that I shall not live long.
7. We think we shall come to-morrow.
8. I promise you, the money shall be raised.
9. You will then go to Philadelphia.
10. You shall never hear from me again.
11. He will surely come to-morrow.
12. How shall you answer him?
13. I think I shall ride.
14. He is sure they will come.
15. He is sure that I will come.
16. Shall you be there?
17. Will he who fails be allowed to have a reexamination?
18. Will you be there?
19. Will all be there?
20. He says he shall be there.
21. He has promised that he will be there.
22. I fear that he will fail to pass.
23. We think she will soon be well.
24. We are determined that they shall pay.
25. We expect that they will bring their books.
26. I doubt that he will pay.
27. We have promised that we will do it.
28. If he shall ask, shall I refer him to you?

Exercise 46

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with shall or will:

1. I think I —— find the work easy.
2. I —— probably be refused, but I —— go anyway.
3. —— you be busy to-night? Yes, I —— be in class until ten.
4. I —— probably fail to pass the examination.
5. If no one assists me, I —— drown.
6. No. I —— never sell my library.
7. If I fail I —— be obliged to take an examination.
8. —— my men begin work to-day?
9. —— you stop at Chicago on your way West? No, I don't, think I ——.
10. —— you promise me to sing at the concert to-night? Yes, I —— sing to-night.
11. —— I put more wood on the fire?
12. I —— be lost; no one —— help me.
13. It —— be there when you need it.
14. It is demanded that the pupils —— be orderly and attentive.
15. I think it —— rain soon.
16. We —— be disappointed.
17. —— we be permitted to go?
18. We —— do it for you.
19. —— I go or remain at home?
20. I —— be very grateful to you if you —— do this.
21. If you —— ask her, she —— go with you.
22. If you —— stop, I —— go with you.
23. Where —— we join you?
24. I think we —— be there in time.
25. I —— go to the river for a boat ride.
26. When —— you be twenty years of age?
27. —— we ever see you again?
28. Perhaps we —— return next year.
29. We promise, we —— return.
30. You —— probably suffer for it.
31. I —— not impose on you in that way.
32. —— I ask for your mail?
33. I hope that we —— be there before the curtain rises.
34. —— they probably be there?
35. —— you please fetch me a paper?
36. —— we stop for you on our way downtown?
37. When —— I find you in your office?
38. They —— never do it if I can help.
39. You —— do as I say.
40. I —— never, never, go there again.
41. We —— decide what to do about that at our next meeting which —— be in October.
42. —— it make any difference to you?
43. —— I go with you?
44. No, you —— please stay here.
45. He —— never enter this house again.
46. It is believed that they —— probably be present.
47. He fears that he —— die.
48. He requests that you —— come to-day at seven o'clock.
49. She asks that it —— be sent at once.
50. It is thought that his death —— not seriously change things.
51. It is believed that the emperor —— have to retract.
52. A story is told that —— gain little credence.
53. I fear that I —— take cold.
54. She says that I —— take cold.
55. They say that they —— do it in spite of anything done to prevent.
56. He is determined that he —— go away.
57. She is determined that he —— go to school.
58. They say they —— probably not go.
59. John thinks he —— probably live to be past sixty.
60. He tells me that he thinks that he —— be elected.
61. They say that they —— meet you.
62. They assure us that we —— find good stores in Berlin.
63. He says he fears he —— miss his train.
64. Wright says his father —— become famous.
65. He writes that he —— be here to-day.
66. Do you say that you —— be present?
67. The book says that —— be wrong.
68. Does she say that she —— come?
69. I told you that I —— not come.
70. I tell you that she —— not come.
71. He says that he —— go as a matter of duty.
72. John says that —— not happen anyway.
73. Does he say that he —— surely come?
74. Does John write what he —— promise to do in the matter?
75. —— you be sure to be there?

Exercise 47

Write five sentences in which shall is used in an independent clause, and five in which shall is used in a dependent clause.

Write five sentences in which will is used in an independent clause, and five in which will is used in a dependent clause.

Write five interrogative sentences in which shall is used and five in which will is used.

68. Should and Would. Should and would are the past tenses of shall and will, and have corresponding uses. Should is used with I and we, and would with other subjects, to express mere futurity or probability. Would is used with I and we, and should with other subjects, to express conditional promise or determination on the part of the speaker. Examples:

Futurity:

I should be sorry to lose this book.
If we should be afraid of the storm, we should be foolish.
It was expected that they would be here.

Volition or determination:

If it should occur, we would not come.
It was promised that it should not occur again.
He decided that it should be done.

Should is sometimes used in the sense of ought, to imply duty; as, He should have gone to her aid.

Would is often used to indicate habitual action; as, This would often occur when he was preaching.

Exercise 48

Justify the correct use of should and would in the following sentences:

1. I feared that they would not come.
2. He should know his duty better than that.
3. I should be displeased if he would act that way.
4. We should be ruined if we did that.
5. You should have seen his face.
6. We would often take that road.
7. He said that he would come at once.
8. If that should happen, we should not come.
9. If you were I, what should you do?
10. I should see the president of the class.
11. We should have been at the meeting.
12. He said that we should have been at the meeting.
13. He promised that he would be at the meeting.
14. If I should say so, he would dislike me.
15. Should he come, I would go with him.
16. They would usually stop at the new hotel.
17. What would they do in the city?
18. She asked if she should write the letter.
19. She said they would write the letter.
20. She agreed that it would be right.
21. She assured us that she would attend to it.

Exercise 49

Fill in the blanks with should or would in the following sentences:

1. I fear I —— be drowned if I —— go swimming.
2. I —— be much pleased to meet him.
3. It was feared that they —— not accept.
4. If it —— storm, we —— not start.
5. She —— often come to class with no books.
6. I believed that he —— come late.
7. He —— never have been invited.
8. If that had become known, we —— surely have been ruined.
9. To think that he —— do such a thing!
10. I —— like to see the game.
11. You —— not enjoy it.
12. —— you like to see the game?
13. —— I bring my opera glasses?
14. Mary —— never have known it.
15. He —— have easily deceived her.
16. They were anxious that we —— not miss the train.
17. If we —— come late, —— it make any difference?
18. If they had proposed it, we —— have voted it down.
19. On what date —— that come?
20. I suppose I —— have done it; but, it —— have inconvenienced me.
21. Had Lee known that, he —— never have surrendered.
22. I —— never have believed she —— do such a thing.
23. We —— never have come.
24. —— you think him capable of such a trick?
25. I knew I —— not be here on time.
26. —— they dare to attempt opposition?
27. How —— you go about it?
28. Lincoln, under those circumstances, —— probable not have been elected.
29. It —— have changed our whole history.
30. He said that it —— have changed our whole history.
31. He said he —— come.
32. She thinks they —— not do it.
33. We believe that we —— like to go at once.
34. They say it —— be done now.
35. I think I —— like to go.

Exercise 50

Write five sentences in which should is used independently, and five in which should is used dependently.

Write five sentences in which would is used independently, and five in which would is used dependently.

Write five sentences in which should is used in questions, and five in which would is used in questions.

69. Use of May and Might, Can and Could. May, with its past tense, might, is properly used to denote permission. Can, with its past tense, could, refers to the ability or possibility to do a thing. These two words are often confused.

Exercise 51

Fill the blanks in the following sentences:

1. —— I go home?
2. —— we get tickets at that store?
3. —— the mountain be climbed?
4. —— we come into your office?
5. You —— stay as long as you wish.
6. —— you finish the work in an hour?
7. How —— you say such a thing?
8. Several people —— use the same book.
9. We —— afford to delay a while.
10. —— John go with me?
11. You —— often hear the noise.
12. What —— not be done in a week?
13. That —— be true, but it —— not be relied on.
14. What —— he do to prevent it?
15. When —— we hand in the work?

70. Participles and Gerunds. The past participle has already been mentioned as one of the principal parts of the verb. Generally, the participles are those forms of the verb that are used adjectively; as, seeing, having seen, being seen, having been seen, seen, playing, having played, etc. In the following sentences note that the verb form in each case modifies a substantive: He, having been invited to dine, came early, John, being sick, could not come. The verb form in all these cases is called a participle, and must be used in connection with either a nominative or objective case of a noun or pronoun.

The Gerund is the same as the participle in its forms, but differs in that, while the participle is always used adjectively, the gerund is always used substantively; as, I told of his winning the race, After his asserting it, I believe the statement.

71. Misuses of Participles and Gerunds.

1. A participle should not be used unless it stands in a grammatical and logical relation to some substantive that is present in the sentence. Failure to follow this rule leads to the error known as the "dangling participle." It is wrong to say, The dish was broken, resulting from its fall, because resulting does not stand in grammatical relation to any word in the sentence. But it would be right to say, The dish was broken as a result of its fall. Examine, also, the following examples:

2. A participle should not stand at the beginning of a sentence or principal clause unless it belongs to the subject of that sentence or clause. Compare the following:

3. A participle preceded by thus should not be used unless it modifies the subject of the preceding verb. Compare the following:

4. The gerund is often used as the object of a preposition, and frequently has a noun or pronoun modifier. Owing to confusion between the gerund and the participle, and to the failure to realize that the gerund can only be used substantively, the objective case of a modifying noun or pronoun is often wrongly used before the gerund. A substantive used with the gerund should always be in the possessive case. Say, I heard of John's coming, not, I heard of John coming.

5. When a gerund and a preposition are used, the phrase should be in logical and immediate connection with the substantive it modifies, and the phrase should never introduce a sentence unless it logically belongs to the subject of that sentence. Exception: When the gerund phrase denotes a general action, it may be used without grammatical connection to the sentence; as, In traveling, good drinking water is essential. Compare the following wrong and right forms:

Exercise 52

In the following sentences, choose the proper form of the substantive from those italicized:

1. He spoke of John John's coming down.
2. The idea of his him singing is absurd.
3. Do you remember me my speaking about it?
4. What is the use of you your reading that?
5. He his him being arrested was a sufficient disgrace.
6. He him his being now of age, sold the farm.
7. He him his selling it was very unexpected.
8. You should have heard him his telling the story.
9. You should have heard his him telling of the story.
10. To think of them they their having been seen there!
11. What is the object of Mary Mary's studying French?
12. It its being John was a great surprise.
13. What is the use of them they their talking so much?
14. John John's going to school takes all his evenings.
15. The beauty of James James's writing got him the position.
16. He had heard about me my coming to-day.
17. John John's coming was a surprise.

Exercise 53

Wherever participles or gerunds are improperly used in the following sentences, correct the sentences so as to avoid such impropriety. See §107 for rule as to punctuation:

1. Having assented to your plan, you try to hold me responsible.
2. He asked him to make the plans, owing to the need of an experienced architect.
3. It was decided to send his son abroad being anxious for his health.
4. On hearing that, a new plan was made.
5. Moving slowly past our window, we saw a great load of lumber.
6. Intending to go to the theater, the whole afternoon was spent in town.
7. He was taken into the firm, thus gaining an increased income.
8. Not having the lesson prepared, he told John to stay after class.
9. No letter was written for more than a week, causing considerable anxiety.
10. Expecting us to come, we disappointed him.
11. After telling me the story, I left him.
12. By reading aloud to the class, they do not gain much.
13. He had to wait several hours for the train, thus causing him to lose a great deal of valuable time.
14. After listening to his lecture for an hour he became tiresome.
15. We listened attentively to his lecture, thus showing our interest.

72. Infinitives. The Infinitives are formed by the word to and some part of the verb or of the verb and auxiliary. For see and play as model verbs, the infinitives are as follows:

The word to is frequently omitted. In general, other verbs follow the same endings and forms as do the infinitives above.

It is necessary to know the difference between the two tenses, since the misuse of tenses leads to a certain class of errors.

73. Sequence of Infinitive Tenses. The wrong tense of the infinitive is frequently used. The following rules should be observed:

1. If the action referred to by the infinitive is of the same time or of later time than that indicated by the predicate verb, the present infinitive should be used.

2. When the action referred to by the infinitive is regarded as completed at the time indicated by the predicate verb, the perfect infinitive should be used.

Examine the following examples:

Exercise 54

In the following sentences choose the proper form from those italicized:

1. I was sorry to have heard to hear of John's death.
2. Should you have been willing to go to have gone with us?
3. The game was intended to be played to have been played yesterday.
4. I intended to write to have written long ago.
5. He wished to have met to meet you.
6. I should have liked to meet to have met you.
7. Mary was eager to have gone to go.
8. Nero was seen to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned.
9. Nero is said to have fiddled to fiddle while Rome burned.
10. This was to be done to have been done yesterday.
11. They agreed to finish to have finished it yesterday.
12. He was willing to sing to have sung alone.
13. He expected to have spoken to speak here to-morrow.
14. The Civil War is said to cause to have caused more loss of life than any other war.
15. Blackstone is said to have failed to fail at the practice of law.
16. It would have been hard to accomplish to have accomplished that result.
17. He was foolish enough to have spoiled to spoil six negatives.
18. I wanted to have attended to attend the convention.
19. It would be terrible to be lost to have been lost in the forest.
20. We were asked to have waited to wait.
21. I am eager to have seen to see it.
22. I am pleased to meet to have met you.

74. Split Infinitives. In the sentence, care should be taken to avoid as much as possible the inserting of an adverb or an adverbial modifier between the parts of the infinitive. This error is called the "split infinitive." Compare the following:

Exercise 55

Correct the following split infinitives:

1. She is known to have hurriedly read the note.
2. Mary tried to quickly call help.
3. He was asked to slowly read the next paragraph.
4. John attempted to rudely break into the conversation.
5. The plan was to secretly destroy the documents.
6. His policy was to never offend.
7. He wished to in this way gain friends.
8. He proposed to greatly decrease his son's allowance.

75. Agreement of Verb in Clauses. In a compound predicate, the parts of the predicate should agree in tense; past tense should follow past tense, and perfect tense follow perfect tense. Examine the following:

Exercise 56

Correct the following sentences:

1. I went last week and have gone again this week.
2. I have heard of his being here, but not saw him.
3. I saw John, but I have not seen Henry.
4. He desired to see John, but has not wished to see Henry.
5. John was sent for, but has not yet arrived.
6. I endeavored to find a way of avoiding that, but have not succeeded.
7. I have never seen its superior, and, in fact, never saw its equal.
8. She has succeeded in getting his promise, but did not succeed in getting his money.
9. I hoped and have prayed for your coming.
10. I have believed and usually taught that theory.
11. I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work.
12. No one has wished to see so much and saw so little of the world as I.
13. He has gained the favor of the king and was sent to Italy.
14. We have needed you and did our best to find you.

76. Omission of the Verb or Parts of the Verb. The verb or some of its parts are often omitted. This omission sometimes makes the sentence ungrammatical or doubtful in its meaning.

I like him better than John. This sentence may have the meaning shown in either of its following corrected forms: I like him better than John does, or I like him better than I like John.

As a matter of good usage, the verb or any other part of speech should be repeated wherever its omission either makes the sentence ambiguous or gives it an incomplete sound.

Exercise 57

Correct the following sentences:

1. I admire Mary more than John.
2. I think she is older than John.
3. He should have succeeded in gaining the end he tried.
4. I asked him to do what I should not have.
5. I did what I ought not.
6. We wish him better luck than Mary.
7. We want to see him more than Henry.
8. I should hate him worse than you.
9. He wanted me to do what I didn't care to.
10. You may, as you please, do it or not.
11. She may go if she wishes or not.
12. We think of you oftener than mother.

77. Model Conjugations of the Verbs To Be and To See.

CONJUGATION OF TO BE

Principal Parts: AM, WAS, BEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

Present Tense

[Footnote *: The forms, thou art, thou wast, thou hast, etc., are the proper forms in the second person singular, but customarily the forms of the second person plural, you are, you were, you have, etc., are used also in the second person singular. These distinct second person singular forms will be used throughout the model conjugations.]

Past Tense

Present Perfect Tense

(Have with the past participle, been.)

Past Perfect Tense

(Had with the past participle, been.)

Future Tense

(Shall or will with the present infinitive, be.[*])

[Footnote *: To determine when to use shall and when to use will in the future and future perfect tenses, see §§ 65, 66, and 67. In these model conjugations the forms of shall are given with the future and the forms of will with the future perfect.]

Future Perfect Tense

(Shall or will with the perfect infinitive, have been.[*])

[Footnote *: See Note under Future Tense.]

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

(Generally follows if, though, lest, although, etc. See §59.)

Present Tense

Past Tense

Present Perfect Tense

(Have, unchanged, with the past participle, been.)

Past Perfect Tense

(Had, unchanged, with the past participle, been.)

Future Tense

(Shall or will, unchanged, with present infinitive be.[*])

[Footnote *: See Note to Future Indicative.]

Future Perfect tense

(Shall or will, unchanged, with the perfect infinitive, have been.*)

POTENTIAL MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The distinct potential mode is no longer used by many authorities on grammar, and the potential forms are regarded as of the indicative mode. It has, however, been thought best to use it in these model conjugations.

As to when to use the different auxiliaries of the potential mode see §§ 68 and 69. The conjugation with must (or ought to) is sometimes called the OBLIGATIVE MODE. The conjugation with should or would is sometimes called the CONDITIONAL MODE.]

Present Tense

(May, can, or must, with the present infinitive, be.)

Past Tense

(Might, could, would, or should, with the present infinitive, be.)

Present Perfect Tense

(May, can, or must, with the perfect infinitive, have been. For forms substitute have been for be in the present potential.)

Past Perfect Tense

(Might, could, would, or should, with the perfect infinitive have been. For forms substitute have been for be in the past potential.)

IMPERATIVE MODE[*]

[Footnote *: The imperative is the same in both singular and plural.]

Be

INFINITIVE MODE

PARTICIPLES

GERUNDS

(Same as participles)

CONJUGATION OF TO SEE

Principal Parts: SEE, SAW, SEEN

INDICATIVE MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

Emphatic

Progressive

Present Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

Progressive

Past Tense—Active Voice

Simple

Emphatic

Progressive

Past Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

Progressive

Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect indicative of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect indicative of to be.)

Future Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Future Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute be seen for be in the future indicative of to be.)

Future Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute have seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

Future Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute have been seen for have been in the future perfect indicative of to be.)

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple