Practical Grammar and Composition

Emphatic

Person Singular Number	Plural Number
1. (If) I do see	(If) we do see
2. (If) thou do see	(If) you do see
3. (If) he do see	(If) they do see

Progressive

1. (If) I be seeing	(If) we be seeing
2. (If) thou be seeing	(If) you be seeing
3. (If) he be seeing	(If) they be seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

1. (If) I be seen	(If) we be seen
2. (If) thou be seen	(If) you be seen
3. (If) he be seen	(If) they be seen

Past Tense—Active Voice

Simple

1. (If) I saw	(If) we saw
2. (If) thou saw	(If) you saw
3. (If) he saw	(If) they saw

Emphatic

1. (If) I did see	(If) we did see
2. (If) thou did see	(If) you did see
3. (If) he did see	(If) they did see

Progressive

1. (If) I were seeing	(If) we were seeing
2. (If) thou were seeing	(If) you were seeing
3. (If) he were seeing	(If) they were seeing

Past Tense—Passive Voice

1. (If) I were seen	(If) we were seen
2. (If) thou were seen	(If) you were seen
3. (If) he were seen	(If) they were seen

Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the present perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for been in the past perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Future Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Future Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute be seen for be in the future subjunctive of to be.)

Future Perfect—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute seen for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute been seeing for been in the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

Future Perfect—Passive Voice

(Substitute been seen for the future perfect subjunctive of to be.)

POTENTIAL MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the present potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the present potential of to be.)

Present Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

(Substitute be seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Past Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute see for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute be seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

Past Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute be seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the present potential of to be.)

Present Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute have been seen for be in the present potential of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

(Substitute have seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

Progressive

(Substitute have been seeing for be in the past potential of to be.)

Past Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

(Substitute have been seen for be in the past potential of to be.)

IMPERATIVE MODE

Active Voice

Simple

see.

Emphatic

do see.

Progressive

be seeing.

Passive Voice

be seen

INFINITIVE MODE

Present Tense—Active Voice

Simple

to see.

Progressive

to be seeing.

Present Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

to be seen

Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

to have seen.

Progressive

to have been seeing.

Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

Simple

to have been seen.

PARTICIPLES

Present Tense—Active Voice

seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

being seen

Past Tense—Passive Voice[*]

seen

[Footnote *: There is no past participle in the active voice.]

Perfect Tense—Active Voice

Simple

having seen

Progressive

having been seeing

Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

having been seen

GERUNDS

Present Tense—Active Voice

seeing

Present Tense—Passive Voice

being seen

Perfect Tense—Active Voice

having seen

Perfect Tense—Passive Voice

having been seen

CHAPTER VI

CONNECTIVES: RELATIVE PRONOUNS, RELATIVE ADVERBS, CONJUNCTIONS, AND PREPOSITIONS

78. Independent and Dependent Clauses. A sentence may consist of two or more independent clauses, or it may consist of one principal clause and one or more dependent clauses.

Independent clauses are joined by conjunctions; such as, hence, but, and, although, etc.

Dependent clauses are joined to the sentence by relative adverbs; such as, where, when, etc., or by relative pronouns; as, who, what, etc. These dependent clauses may have the same office in the sentence as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, or adverbs. (See §7.)

79. Case and Number of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. Failure to use the proper case and number of the relative pronouns has already been touched upon (see §29), but a further mention of this fault may well be made here.

The relative pronoun has other offices in the sentence than that of connecting the dependent and principal clauses. It may serve as a subject or an object in the clause. The sentence, I wonder whom will be chosen, is wrong, because the relative here is the subject of will be chosen, not the object of wonder, and should have the nominative form who. Corrected, it reads, I wonder who will be chosen. Examine the following sentences:

Wrong: We know who we mean.

Right: We know whom we mean.

Wrong: You may give it to whoever you wish.

Right: You may give it to whomever you wish.

Wrong: Do you know whom it is?

Right: Do you know who it is? (Attribute complement.)

Wrong: Everybody who were there were disappointed. (Disagreement in number.)

Right: Everybody who was there was disappointed.

The relative pronoun takes the case required by the clause it introduces, not the case required by any word preceding it. Thus, the sentence, He gave it to who had the clearest right, is correct, because who is the subject of the verb had, and therefore in the nominative case. Give it to whomever they name, is right, because whomever is the object of they name.

Errors in the use of interrogative pronouns are made in the same way as in the use of the relatives. The interrogative pronoun has other functions besides making an interrogation. It serves also as the subject or object in the sentence. Care must be taken, then, to use the proper case. Say, Whom are you looking for? not, Who are you looking for?

Note. Some writers justify the use of who in sentences like the last one on the ground that it is an idiom. When, as in this book, the object is training in grammar, it is deemed better to adhere to the strictly grammatical form.

Exercise 58

In the following sentences, choose the proper forms from those italicized:

Who whom do you wish to see?
You will please write out the name of whoever whomever you want.
I saw who whom was there.
Who whom was it you saw?
Who whom did you see?
John did not know whom who to ask.
Why did he not ask whomever whoever was there?
Who whom can tell the difference?
Give it to whoever whomever you please.
None of those who were was wanted was were there.
The one of those who were was wanted was not there.
He is one of those fellows who are is always joking.
Whom who was called "The Rail Splitter?"
Do you not know whom who it was?
That is one of the birds that is are very rare.
One of the books which was were brought was one hundred years old.
I am not among those who whom were was there.
Only one of the men who were was on board survived.
Everyone else who was were there was were lost.
I am the one of the three men who is am are guilty.
He was chosen one of the four speakers who was were to speak on Commencement Day.
It was one of the books which were was being sought by the librarian.
Give it to one of the men who whom is found there.
To who whom did you give it?
It was for whomever whoever was present.
Ask whomever whoever is nearest the door.

80. Conjunctive or Relative Adverbs. It is better to use a when clause only in the subordinate part of the sentence, to state the time of an event. Compare the following:

Bad: He was turning the corner, when suddenly he saw a car approaching.

Good: When he was turning the corner, he suddenly saw a car approaching.

Bad: When the news of the fire came, it was still in the early morning.

Good: The news of the fire came when it was still in the early morning.

81. Do not use a when or a where clause in defining a subject or in place of a predicate noun.

Bad: Commencement is when one formally completes his school course.

Good: Commencement is the formal completion of one's school course.

Bad: Astronomy is where one studies about the stars.

Good: Astronomy is the study of the stars.

82. So, then, and also, the conjunctive adverbs, should not be used to unite coördinate verbs in a sentence unless and or but be used in addition to the adverb.

Bad: The boys' grades are low, so they indicate lack of application.

Good: The boys' grades are low, and so indicate lack of application.

Bad: He read for a while, then fell asleep.

Good: He read for a while, and then fell asleep.

Bad: I'll be down next week; also I shall bring Jack along.

Good: I'll be down next week; and also I shall bring Jack along.

Exercise 59

Correct the following sentences:

Anarchism is when one believes in no government.
I am studying German, also French.
The clock had just struck five when the cab came.
I shall work until nine o'clock, then I shall retire.
I was sick all day, so I couldn't come to the office.
I was going up street yesterday when unexpectedly I met Jones.
Death is when one ceases to live.
Dinner is ready, so I shall have to cease work.
He told half of the story, then he suddenly stopped.
He loves good music, also good pictures.
A restaurant is where meals are served.

83. Conjunctions. There are certain conjunctions, and also certain pairs of conjunctions that frequently cause trouble.

And or but should not be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause; as, It was a new valise and differing much from his old one. Say instead, It was a new valise, differing much from his old one, or It was a new valise, and differed very much from his old one. Similarly, It was a new book which (not and which) interested him very much. This "and which" construction is a frequent error; and which should never be used unless there is more than one relative clause, and then never with the first one.

But or for should not be used to introduce both of two succeeding statements. Both of the following sentences are bad by reason of this error: He likes geometry, but fails in algebra, but studies it hard, He read all night, for the book interested him, for it was along the line of his ambition.

Than and as should not be followed by objective pronouns in sentences like this: I am as large as him. The verb in these sentences is omitted. If it is supplied, the error will be apparent. The sentence would then read, I am as large as him (is large). The correct form is, I am as large as he (is large). Similarly, He is taller than I (am tall), She is brighter than he (is bright).

As may be used as either a conjunction or an adverb. He is as tall as I. The first as is an adverb, the second as is a conjunction. As is properly used as an adverb when the equality is asserted, but, when the equality is denied, so should be used in its place. He is as old as I, is correct, but the denial should be, He is not so old as I. After not do not use as when as is an adverb.

Neither, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by nor; as, Neither he nor (not or) I can come. Neither should never be followed by or.

Either, when used as a conjunction, should be followed by or.

84. Placing of Correlatives. The correlatives, such as neither—nor, either—or, not only—but also, should be placed in clear relation to similar parts of speech or similar parts of the sentence. One should not be directed toward a verb and the other toward some other part of speech.

Bad: He not only brought a book, but also a pencil.

Good: He brought not only a book but also a pencil.

Bad: He would offer neither reparation nor would he apologize.

Good: Neither would he offer reparation nor would he apologize.

Good: He would offer neither reparation nor apology.

85. The prepositions without, except, like, and the adverb directly should not be used as conjunctions.

Wrong: Without (unless) you attend to class-room work, you cannot pass.

Wrong: This she would not do except (unless) we promised to pay at once.

Wrong: I acted just like (as) all the others (did).

Wrong: Directly (as soon as) he came, we harnessed the horses.

Exercise 60

Correct the following sentences:

Mary is as old as her.
I read as much as him.
He either wore his coat or a sort of vest.
He walked to the next town, but did not come back, but stayed all night.
We are better players than them.
He became thoroughly under the influence of the hypnotist and doing many absurd things.
There we met a man named Harmon and whom we found very entertaining.
They work harder than us.
John is not as tall as you.
Neither John or James is as tall as you.
I admire Mary more than she.
That can't be done without you get permission from the principal.
He dresses just like I do.
Directly he came we launched the canoes.
This cannot be done except you are a senior.
Neither she nor I was present.
He not only had a trained pig but also a goose.
Mary is not as pretty as Helen.
The men neither interested him nor the places.
He has traveled more than me.
We like him very much, for he is very interesting, for he has traveled so much.
It is a good book and which has much valuable information.
It was a rough town and harboring many criminals.
He took an interest neither in studies, nor did he care for athletics.
He neither took an interest in studies nor athletics.

Exercise 61

Construct sentences in which the following words are correctly used:

When, where, than, as—as, so—as, neither—nor, not only—but also, either—or, except, like, without, directly.

86. Prepositions. Some mistakes are made in the use of prepositions. Note the following brief list of words with the appropriate prepositions to be used with each:

agree with a person differ from (person or thing) agree to a proposition differ from or with an opinion bestow upon different from compare with (to determine value) glad of compare to (because of similarity) need of comply with part from (a person) confide in (to trust in) part with (a thing) confide to (to intrust to) profit by confer on (to give) prohibit from confer with (to talk with) reconcile to (a person) convenient to (a place) reconcile with (a statement) convenient for (a purpose) scared by dependent on think of or about

Do not use prepositions where they are unnecessary. Note the following improper expressions in which the preposition should be omitted:

continue on	down until
covered over	inside of
off of	outside of
started out	where to?
wish for to come	remember of
more than you think for

Do not omit any preposition that is necessary to the completeness of the sentence.

Bad: He is a dealer and shipper of coal.

Good: He is a dealer in and shipper of coal.

Exercise 62

Illustrate in sentences the correct use of each of the expressions listed under the first paragraph of §86.

Form sentences in which correct expressions are used in place of each of the incorrect expressions listed under the second paragraph of §86.

QUESTIONS FOR THE REVIEW OF GRAMMAR

Sentences, Parts of Speech, and Sentence Elements. What are the four kinds of sentences? What are the different parts of speech? Define each. What is the difference between a clause and a phrase? What is the difference between a principal clause and a subordinate clause? Illustrate. Illustrate an adverbial clause. An adjective clause. Illustrate an adverbial phrase. An adjective phrase. What is an attribute complement? Illustrate. What is an object complement? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain the difference between simple, complex, and compound sentences.

Nouns. What is the difference between singular and plural number? How is the plural of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s, ch, sh, x, or z? In y? In f or fe? In o? Of letters, figures, etc.? Of compound nouns? Of proper names and titles? How is the possessive case of most nouns formed? Of nouns ending in s or in an s sound? Of a compound noun or of a group of words? What is gender? How is the feminine gender formed from the masculine? What is the difference between common and proper nouns?

Pronouns. What is a pronoun? What is the antecedent of a pronoun? What is the rule for their agreement? What is meant by "person" in pronouns? Name five pronouns of each person. Name the pronouns that indicate masculine gender. Feminine. Neuter. What pronouns may be used to refer to antecedents that stand for persons of either sex? To antecedents that are collective nouns of unity? To animals? What are nouns of common gender? By what pronouns are they referred to? Should a singular or a plural pronoun be used after everybody? After some one? After some people? After two nouns connected by or? By nor? By and? What are relative pronouns? Name them. With what kind of antecedents may each be used? What is the difference between the explanatory relative and the restrictive relative? Illustrate. What is an interrogative pronoun? What pronouns may be used only in the nominative case? In the objective case? When should the nominative case be used? The objective? The possessive? May thou and you be used in the same sentence? When should but that be used, and when but what? May them be used adjectively? May which be used with a clause as an antecedent? May which and that, or who and that be used in the same sentence with the same antecedent?

Adjectives and Adverbs. Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Illustrate. What is comparison? What is the positive degree, the comparative, the superlative? Illustrate each. May one say, He is the largest of the two? Reason? He is the larger of the three? Reason? He is the largest of all? Reason? Name three adjectives which cannot be compared. May one say, Paris is larger than any city? Reason? Paris is larger than all cities? Reason? Paris is the largest of any other city? Reason? Is a singular or plural noun demanded by every? By two? By various? By each? With how many objects may either be used? Neither? Where should the adjective or adverb be placed in the sentence? What is meant by a double negative? Illustrate. What is its effect? What is the definite article?

Verbs. What is a verb? What is a principal verb? An auxiliary? Illustrate. What are the principal parts of a verb? Name each. With what is the s-form used? With which form can no auxiliary be used? Make a sentence using each of the principal parts of the verbs, go, see, begin, come, drink, write. What is a transitive verb? Illustrate. An intransitive verb? Illustrate. What is the difference between active and passive voice? Does a transitive or does an intransitive verb have both voices? Illustrate the passive voice. Distinguish between the use of sit and set. Of lay and lie. Of rise and raise. What is the general rule for the use of the subjunctive mode? In what way and where does the subjunctive of be differ from the indicative in its forms? How do other verbs differ in the form of the subjunctive? In what respects should a verb agree with its subject? Does the form of the subject always determine its number? What should be the guide in determining whether to use a singular or plural verb? What class of subjects may not be used with don't, can't, etc.? What determines whether to use a singular or a plural verb after who, which, and that? What form of the verb is used after you? After they? When are shall and should used with I and we? When with other subjects? What rule governs their use in questions. What form is used in dependent clauses introduced by that, expressed or understood? In contingent clauses? Distinguish the use of may and might from can and could. What is a "dangling participle"? Is it an error? May the gerund be correctly used without any grammatical connection to the rest of the sentence? As the object of a preposition is a participle or gerund used? Which is used adjectively? Which may be used in connection with a possessive substantive as a modifier? When it is dependent on another verb, in what case should the present infinitive be used? When the perfect infinitive? What is a "split infinitive"? Need the parts of a compound predicate agree in tense?

Connectives. By what are independent clauses connected? Dependent clauses? Name two conjunctive adverbs. Should a when clause be used in a subordinate or in the principal part of the sentence? May so, then, or also be used alone as conjunctive adverbs? May and or but be used to join a dependent clause to a principal clause? What case should follow than or as? Should neither be followed by nor or or?

A GENERAL EXERCISE ON GRAMMAR

Exercise 63

Correct such of the following sentences as are wrong. After each sentence, in parenthesis, is placed the number of the paragraph in which is discussed the question involved:

He likes to boast of Mary cooking. (71.)
It is an error and which can't be corrected. (83.)
He said he should come if he could. (68.)
Can I use your pencil? (69.)
If you were I, what would you do? (68.)
We would like to go. (68.)
Neither the members of the committee nor the chairman is present. (63-5.)
He only spoke of history, not of art. (45.)
Socialists don't have no use for trusts. (46.)
This is John's book. (13.)
I feared that they should not come. (68.)
Mother's and father's death. (15-4.)
Mary was eager to have gone. (73.)
The boys, as well as their teacher, is to be praised. (64-1.)
The members of Congress watch each other. (44.)
I fear that I will take cold. (67.)
Some one has forgotten their umbrella. (20.)
Neither of the three is well. (43.)
Whom do you consider to be the brighter man in the class? (29) (41.)
He is determined that he shall go away. (67.)
Neither John nor James brought their books. (22.)
Whom did the man say he was? (29.)
His clothes look prettily. (38.)
The play progressed smooth until the last act. (38.)
Henry and William is to come to-morrow. (22.)
This is the lesser of the two evils. (40.)
Do you think you will stop at Chicago? (66.)
I am believed to be him. (29.)
He sings very illy. (40.)
When they come to build the bridge the stream was too deep for them to work. (54.)
She is very discontented. (48.)
Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.)
The barrel bursted from the pressure. (54.)
Shall my work soon begin? (66.)
He is six foot tall. (42.)
Seeing his mistake, I was not urged further by him. (71.)
Will the dog bite? (66.)
I am believed to be he. (29.)
I am eager to have seen it. (73.)
I think it shall rain soon. (67.)
She showed the dish to Mary and I. (29.)
Mary asked her mother to wash her face. (34-4.)
Who did the man say he was? (29.)
He deserved the place, for he is well educated, for he has been through Oxford University. (83.)
Choose who you please. (29.)
It don't make any difference about that. (64-5.)
The pump was froze fast. (54.)
A boat load of fishes was the days catch. (13-12.)
Wagner was never too rattled to play. (48.)
It is him. (29.)
He did it hisself. (31.)
He eat all there was on the table. (54.)
He sent a chest of tea, and it was made of tin. (34-4.)
The murderer was hung at noon. (54.)
It is a queer kind of a book. (47.)
You may give it to whoever you wish. (32.)
Whoever is nominated, will you vote for him? (32.)
I think I will find the work easy. (67.)
He sent his son abroad, being anxious for his health. (71.)
Neither they nor Mary was there. (22.)
Brewer's the blacksmith's shop. (15-6.)
Goliath was slew by David. (54.)
Myself and mother are sick. (30.)
John is as good, if not better than she. (41-4.)
If anybody creates a disturbance, have the police put them out. (21.)
The paper was addressed to John and herself. (30.)
John's and William's dog. (15-4.)
Tell the boy and girl to come here. (47.)
Everybody's else mail has came. (15, 54.)
He knows nothing about it but that he has read in the paper. (34-6.)
Awake me early in the morning. (57.)
If he be honest, he has not shown it. (60.)
Either Adams or Monroe were president. (63-4.)
Washington, the general and the president, was born on February 22d. (47.)
Horne's and Company's Store. (15-4.)
A hole had been tore in the ships' side. (54.)
I sat my chair by the window. (57.)
I sat myself down to rest. (57.)
I can't hardly see to write. (46.)
John is one of the people who comes each night. (64-4.)
He laid on the couch all day. (57.)
Death is when one ceases to live. (81.)
I was told to set here. (57.)
Iron is more useful than any other metal. (41-3.)
I not only told him, but also Morton. (84.)
McKinley was nowhere near so strenuous as Roosevelt. (40.)
It weighs several ton. (42.)
John is not as bright as Henry. (83.)
Germany and France's ships. (15-4.)
John's employer's wife's friend. (15-5.)
You had ought to go home. (54.)
This is the man who wants the ticket. (26.)
Which is the larger of the three? (41-1.)
An axe is the tool which they use. (26.)
It is that characteristic that makes him so disagreeable. (26.)
The horse which we drove, and the horse which you had last week are the same. (26, 34-5.)
I don't like those kind of people. (42.)
I do not question but what he is right. (34-6.)
Let him lay there. (57.)
My friend and me drove to Hughesville. (29.)
American and English grammar is alike. (63-1.)
William and Mary has to go to the city. (63-2.)
The boy, and not his parents, were wrong. (63-3.)
The price of meat has raised. (57.)
This train runs slow. (38.)
Which is the best of the two? (41-1.)
Iron is the most useful of all other metals. (41-3.)
Without the safety catch is raised, the gun can't be discharged. (85.)
The family is all at home. (62.)
The horse run the mile in two minutes. (54.)
This suit hasn't hardly been wore. (46, 54.)
The knife has laid there all day. (57.)
The noise of the street was very loud, which kept me awake. (34-9.)
The jury has agreed. (62.)
Such things make him terrible nervous. (38.)
Whom do you think is the brightest man? (29.)
The army were defeated. (62.)
If I was you, I should go at once. (60.)
She may go if she wishes or not. (76.)
Everybody whom was there was given a vote. (79.)
I like her better than you. (76.)
Who do you want? (79.)
Knox is one of the alumnuses of the college. (13-13.)
By law, no one is allowed to kill more than two deers. (13.)
The clock had just struck five when the cab came. (80.)
When was you there? (64-2.)
He is as tall as me. (83.)
Neither John nor her will come. (29.)
You hear such statements everywheres. (34-8, 40.)
You never can tell whom you will meet on the train. (79.)
I wish you were more like she. (29.)
Winter, with her frost, destroyed them all. (20.)
Tell everybody to cast their vote for Jones. (21.)
He is the only one of the members who pay dues. (64-4.)
Was it necessary, I should jump? (60.)
The production of oranges were encouraged. (64-3.)
The ship, with all its passengers, were lost. (64-1.)
He has fell from his chair. (57.)
I will raise and go to my father. (57.)
The policeman failed the ruffian with his club. (57.)
They make pottery in Trenton. (34-8.)
Iron is more useful than all metals. (41-3.)
I intended to and have endeavored to finish the work. (75.)
He won't come, except we pay his expenses. (85.)
Neither German or French is taught there. (83.)
We have needed you and did our best to find you. (75.)
He awoke at nine. (57.)
I wish I was a bird. (60.)
If it rains, I stay at school. (60.)
Thou shouldst pray when you are in trouble. (34-2.)
The Indians, they hid behind trees. (34-3.)
We started out for the city at noon. (86.)
The king, he said they should kill him. (34-3.)
Outside of the house stood a large moving van. (86.)

CHAPTER VII

SENTENCES

87. Classified as to their rhetorical construction, sentences are considered as loose, periodic, and balanced.

The Loose Sentence is so constructed that it may be closed at two or more places and yet make complete sense; as,

Napoleon felt his weakness, and tried to win back popular favor by concession after concession, until, at his fall, he had nearly restored parliamentary government.

Note that this sentence could be closed after the words. weakness, favor, and concession, as well as after government.

88. The Periodic Sentence holds the complete thought in suspense until the close of the sentence. Compare the following periodic sentence with the loose sentence under §87:

Napoleon, feeling his weakness, and trying to win back popular favor by concession after concession, had, at his fall, nearly restored parliamentary government.

Both loose and periodic sentences are proper to use, but, since periodic sentences demand more careful and definite thought, the untrained writer should try to use them as much as possible.

89. The Balanced Sentence is made up of parts similar in form, but often contrasted in meaning; as, He is a man; Jones is a gentleman.

90. Sentence Length. As to the length of the sentence there is no fixed rule. Frequently, sentences are too long, and are, in their thought, involved and hard to follow. On the other hand, if there is a succession of short sentences, choppiness and roughness are the result. One should carefully examine sentences which contain more than thirty or thirty-five words to see that they are clear in their meaning and accurate in their construction.

Exercise 64

Compose, or search out in your reading, five loose sentences, five periodic sentences, and five balanced sentences.

Exercise 65

In the following sentences, determine whether each sentence is loose, periodic, or balanced. Change all loose sentences to the periodic form:

At the same time the discontent of the artisans made the lower class fear a revolution, and that class turned to Napoleon, because they felt him to be the sole hope for order and stable government.
The members of the council were appointed by the king, and held office only at his pleasure.
A society and institutions that had been growing up for years was overturned and swept away by the French Revolution.
Galileo was summoned to Rome, imprisoned, and forced publicly to adjure his teaching that the earth moved around the sun.
He draws and sketches with tolerable skill, but paints abominably.
Loose sentences may be clear; periodic sentences may not be clear.
He rode up the mountains as far as he could before dismounting and continuing the ascent on foot.
They visited the town where their father had lived, and while there, procured the key to the house in which he had been born.
His death caused great grief and extreme financial distress in the family.
There stands the Tower of London in all its grimness and centuries of age, holding within its walls the scene of many a stirring tragedy.
Few men dislike him, but many would gladly see him overthrown merely as an example.
Germany is moving in the same direction, although the reformers find it a hard task to influence public opinion, and a far harder one to change the various laws prevalent in the many German states.
Is this thing we call life, with all its troubles, pains, and woes, after all, worth living?
He read much, but advanced little intellectually, for all the facts and philosophy of his reading found no permanent lodgment in his mind.
His coming home was very unexpected, because he had started on a trip that usually took ten days, and that he had said would take longer this time.
It was during the time of the National Convention that Napoleon first became very prominent by defending the convention against a mob.

Exercise 66

Combine each of the following groups of sentences into one well constructed long sentence:

In highly developed commercial communities banks cannot afford space in their vaults for valuables. Especially, they cannot afford it merely to accommodate their patrons. Hence, in such communities the furnishing of places for safe deposit has become a separate business.
History should be a part of the course in all schools. It develops the memory. It furnishes the explanation of many social phenomena. It broadens the intellectual view. It gives culture as no other study can give it.
He never desired a higher education. This was possible because of the money bequeathed to him by his father. It had left him no need for a great earning capacity. More likely, it was because of the inborn dulness and lethargy of his mind.
New York is the pivotal state in all national elections. Its great number of electors makes it always possible for it to throw the election either way. Therefore, until one knows to which party New York will fall, he cannot tell how the election will result.
Our forefathers were devout. They were easily shocked in many ways. However, they permitted many liberties in the application of sermons to particular individuals. Such things would nowadays be strongly disapproved or resented.
Man's life is divided into two parts by a constantly moving point. This point is called the present. It divides the past from the future.
The Spartans were tormented by ten thousand absurd restraints. They were unable to please themselves in the choice of their wives. They were unable to please themselves in their choice of food or clothing. They were compelled to assume a peculiar manner, and to talk in a peculiar style. Yet they gloried in their liberty.
The mere approach to the temperance question is through a forest of statistics. This forest is formidable and complicated. It causes one, in time, to doubt the truth of numbers.
They passed the old castle. It was almost unrecognizable. This was by reason of the scaffolding which surrounded it. The castle was now being transformed into a national museum.
He stood looking with curiosity at John Peters. Peters limped slightly. Otherwise, he looked well and happy. He was moving about shaking hands right and left.
They rushed at him with a yell. He had by this time reached the base of the fountain. With a sudden wonderful leap he sprang onto the railing. There he was out of reach. He balanced himself by touching the brackets which held the lamps.
The unintelligent worker reminds one of the squirrel on the wheel. The squirrel rushes round and round and round all day long. At the end of the day the squirrel is still a squirrel. It is still rushing round and round. It is getting nowhere.
The man looked at the ladder. He believed he could reach it. There was a sudden flash of hope in his face. His face was already scorched by the fire.
Smith was financially embarrassed. He was determined to get to his home. He crawled on top of the trucks of an express car. The car was about to leave the terminal. He courted almost certain death.
The commander again looks toward the hills. He looks for a long time. Something seems to excite his apprehension. He converses earnestly with the staff officer. Then the two look more than once toward a poplar tree. The tree stands at the top of the hill. Only its top half shows. The hill is on the east.
The most important political question has been the tariff question. This has been most important for ten years. It is important because it is believed to have caused high prices and trusts.
The pleasantest month is June. It has flowers. It has mild weather. It has a slight haze in the atmosphere. These things seem to flood one's soul with peace and contentment.

91. The essential qualities that a sentence should possess, aside from correctness, are those of Unity, Coherence, Emphasis, and Euphony.

Unity. Unity demands that the sentence deal with but one general thought, and that it deal with it in such a consistent and connected manner that the thought is clearly and effectively presented. Unity demands, also, that closely related thoughts should not be improperly scattered among several sentences.

1. Statements having no necessary relation to one another should not be embodied in one sentence.

Bad: The house sat well back from the road, and its owner was a married man.

Good: The house sat well back from the road. Its owner was a married man.

a. Avoid the "comma blunder"; that is, do not use a comma to divide into clauses what should be separate sentences, or should be connected by a conjunction.

Bad: Jones lives in the country, he has a fine library.

Good: Jones lives in the country. He has a fine library.

Good: Jones lives in the country and has a fine library.

b. Avoid the frequent use of the parenthesis in the sentence.

Bad: This is a city (it is called a city, though it has but twelve hundred people) that has no school-house.

2. Avoid all slipshod construction of sentences.

a. Avoid adding a clause to an apparently complete thought.

Bad: That is not an easy problem, I think.

Good: That, I think, is not an easy problem.

Good: I do not think that is an easy problem.

Bad: He could not be elected mayor again under any circumstances, at least so I am told.

Good: He could not, I am told, be elected mayor again under any circumstances.

Good: I am told that he could not under any circumstances be elected mayor again.

b. Avoid long straggling sentences.

Poor: The students often gathered to watch the practice of the team, but, just before the last game, the management excluded almost all, and only a few who had influence were allowed to enter, and this favoritism caused much hard feeling and disgust, so that the students were reluctant to support the team, and lost most of their interest, a fact which had a bad effect on the athletics of the institution.

3. Unite into one sentence short sentences and clauses that are closely and logically connected with one another.

Bad: That it is a good school is not without proof. Its diploma admits to all colleges.

Good: That it is a good school is not without proof, for its diploma admits to all colleges.

Good: That its diploma admits to all colleges is proof that it is a good school.

Bad: This fact was true of all of us. With the exception of John.

Good: This fact was true of all of us, with the exception of John.

Bad: Edward came. But John never appeared.

Good: Edward came, but John never appeared.

Bad: The town has two railroads running through it. Also, three trolley lines.

Good: The town has two railroads running through it, and also three trolley lines.

Good: The town has two railroads and three trolley lines running through it.

4. Do not change the point of view.

Bad: We completed our themes, and they were handed in to the teacher. (In the first part of the sentence, the subject is we; in the second it is themes.)

Good: We completed our themes and handed them in to the teacher.

Good: Our themes were completed and handed in to the teacher.

Bad: The stage took us to the foot of the hill, and we walked from there to the top, where our friends met us.

Good: We were taken to the foot of the hill by the stage, and we walked from there to the top, where we were met by our friends.

Exercise 67

Revise such of the following sentences as violate the principles of unity:

I frequently had ridden on a bicycle, and though the first ride made me stiff, I felt little inconvenience afterwards.
Of the firm Jones & Smith, Jones is a man to be respected. While Smith is thoroughly dishonest.
John had plenty of energy and ambition. And it is hard to understand why he didn't succeed.
I have taken thorough courses in history in both grade school and high school, and I also worked on the farm in the summer.
In the East the people are conservative. But, in the West, they are radical and progressive.
The news came that special rates would be given from Chicago, and that we could go to Seattle and back for fifty dollars, and so, when our checks came, we seized our grips and started on a trip which was so long and eventful, but as enjoyable as any two months we had ever spent, and gave us an experience that was very valuable in our work, which we took up on our return in the fall.
The town has a fine public library, besides there are a number of steel mills.
One may reach Boston in two ways. Either by water or by rail.
Women (and Christian American women, too) frequently try to evade the customs laws.
My aunt has some of Jefferson's silver spoons, so she says.
He graduated from college (I think it was Harvard, though I am not sure) and then taught for three years.
This is one of Hugo's novels, it is very good.
He accomplishes everything he undertakes, if it is at all possible.
Washington was president of the United States. But Hamilton guided its financial policy.
Every year they sell three hundred sets, and Mr. West helps to write the letters.
The country people were the chief patrons of the store. Although no small amount of trade came from the town.
The box sat under a tree, and the dog, which was a collie, would go when he was told and sit on it, and no one could call him away but his master who was very often cruelly slow in doing so, but the dog never lost patience.
He was one of those persons (of whom there are so painfully many) who never do what they promise.
He then went to his room, which was in the back of the house, to sleep, and his books were found there the next day.
He was the man that I had mentioned, who had been recommended for the position. Who had been refused because of his deficiencies in English.
I can't go, I don't think.
He was a very big and very strong man. And, he should have made a great football player.
He will surely be elected, I haven't any fear.
The food was good, and the service was fine, but we did not care to stay on account of the weather, which was rainy most of the time, and because it was an out-of-the-way place.
He converses intelligently and pleasantly, and never gossips, hence he is an agreeable companion.
He died of smallpox, and was ninety years old.
There were twenty boys in the class. Each past twenty-five years of age.
He is in every way honorable, at least so far as money matters are concerned.
I had not previously thought of going to college, but now I was enthusiastic on the matter, and all my time (at least most of it) was devoted to poring over catalogues, of which I had a great number, and many of which I knew by heart from having gone over them so often, and finally a college was selected which seemed to suit me, so I went there in the fall to study chemistry.
He was very sensitive. So that we could tease him very little without making him angry.
There are a great number of stations along this short line of railroad, these, however, do little business.
They stopped and asked us the road to Milton, and it was discovered that they were going in the wrong direction, as Milton lay south of Williamsport, and we were camping twenty miles north.
He will most likely be suspended, it may perhaps be.
That day my cousin went home, and the next day John came to spend a few hours with me, and in the afternoon we drove all over the valley, but neither of us grew tired, because there were so many things to converse about, and so many long treasured questions to ask, and John left in the evening, and then I went to bed.
He has been proved a gambler, there you have it all.
Mrs. Smith (whose husband had been killed by a falling beam in one of the buildings he was constructing) consented to give us a room and board.
He read his lesson carefully, then he closed the book to think it over.
He is the most peculiar person I ever met—in the last few years at least.
I am reading a book, it is very interesting.
They get a great deal of amusement when he is walking (which he does every nice day) by whistling in time with his steps.
He gave me this book which you see, and I have been able to get a vast amount of information out of it.
It was noticed by everyone that he always behaved well. When he was in school.
The magician was present. And pleased everybody with his performances.
Because he liked music, John was considered an odd fellow, and his father was dead.

92. Coherence. Coherence in the sentence demands that the arrangement and the construction of the sentence be clear and free from ambiguity.

1. Frame the sentence so that it can have but one possible meaning.

Wrong: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled with the mange.

Right: He owned several dogs and was greatly troubled because they had the mange.

Right: He was greatly troubled because several of his dogs had the mange.

2. See that the antecedent of every pronoun is clear and explicit.

Wrong: The dog was bitten on the front foot which has since died.

Right: The dog, which has since died, was bitten on the front foot.

Right: The dog was bitten on the front foot and has since died.

3. See that the word to which each modifier refers is unmistakable.

a. Place every modifying element as near as possible to the word which it modifies.

Wrong: He was sitting in a chair reading a book made in the mission style.

Right: He was sitting in a chair made in the mission style and was reading a book.

Right: He was sitting reading a book in a chair made in the mission style.

Wrong: The table had been inlaid by his father, containing over fifteen hundred pieces.

Right: The table, containing over fifteen hundred pieces, had been inlaid by his father.

Right: The table contained over fifteen hundred pieces and had been inlaid by his father.

b. Avoid the "squinting construction." By this term is meant the placing of a clause so that it is impossible to tell whether it refers to the preceding or succeeding part of the sentence.

Wrong: It would be hard to explain, if you were to ask me, what the trouble was.

Right: If you were to ask me what the trouble was, it would be hard to explain.

4. Place correlatives so that there can be no doubt as to their office. Neither—nor, both—and, etc., are frequently not placed next to the expressions they are meant to connect. See §84.

Wrong: He neither brought a trunk nor a suit-case.

Right: He brought neither a trunk nor a suit-case.

Wrong: He not only received money from his father, but also his mother.

Right: He received money not only from his father, but also from his mother.

Right: He not only received money from his father, but also received it from his mother.

5. Omit no word that is not accurately implied in the sentence.

Wrong: The man never has, and never will be successful.

Right: The man never has been, and never will be successful.

Wrong: It is no concern to him.

Right: It is of no concern to him.

6. Use a summarizing word, in general, to collect the parts of a long complex sentence.

Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Prohibitionists, and Populists—all were there.

7. Express similar thoughts, when connected in the same sentence, in a similar manner.

Bad: I decided on doing the work that night, and to write it out on the typewriter.

Good: I decided to do the work that night and to write it out on the typewriter.

Bad: Textbooks are going out of use in the modern law schools, but some schools still use them.

Good: Textbooks are going out of use in the modern law schools, but in some they are still used.

Good: Though textbooks are going out of use in modern law schools, they are still used in some of them.

Bad: One should never try to avoid work in school, for you always increase your trouble by doing so.

Good: One should never try to avoid work in school, for one always increases his trouble by doing so.

Good: One usually only increases his troubles by trying to avoid work in school.

Exercise 68

Point out and correct any lack of coherence that exists in the following sentences:

Chicken lice are troubling all the farmers in the state.
The statute requires that one study three years, and that you pass an examination.
He is home.
Rich and poor, old and young, large and small, good and bad, were in the assemblage.
He both presented me with a gold piece and an increase in salary.
Tell the doctor, if he comes before seven, to call.
When the dog came on the porch, feeling playful, I laid aside my paper.
I only knew John.
The cart was pulled by a man creaking under a heavy load.
John told his father that his coat was too tight for him.
I not only knew the president but also the whole board of directors.
The boxes were full of broken glass with which we made fire.
Mrs. Smith wants washing.
A young woman died very suddenly last Sunday while I was away from home as a result of a druggist's mistake.
He was hit in the discharge of his duty by a policeman.
A dog has been found by Mrs. Jones with one black ear.
In taking the census innumerable errors are made, thus making the result unreliable.
It was a pleasure to see them work and their good nature.
The boy went to the teacher and told him that his trouble was that he used the wrong book.
John was not punished because of his ill health, and he was not entirely to blame for it.
They said they saw them coming before they saw them.
The officers arrested the men and they were then locked up.
You made the same mistake that you now make last week.
Wishing to make no mistake the boy was told by him to see the professor.
It resulted opposite to that in which it was expected.
They are required to report both on their way to work and coming home.
Under his direction we were taught grammar and something of composition was taken up.
Taking all precautions, a watchman is on duty every night.
We tried to study, but didn't do any.
I do not care either to see you or Henry.
He has a number of kennels with many dogs scattered over the farm.
Mrs. X. wants a picture of her children painted very badly.
One of the drawbacks to the work is that time is very scarce, in this way limiting what can be done.
The bicycle was easy to learn to ride, which I did.
Rails are placed along the sides of the bridges, and horses are forbidden to trot over them.
John told Henry that he thought he needed help.
He has to stop for rest, and to avoid getting too far ahead.
Board, room, clothes, laundry, and amusements, are higher there than here.
Mathematics is not only necessary, but also languages.
After having read the proof, it is rolled up, and you mail it back to the printer.
The baskets were unpacked and the girls waited upon them.
They knew all that was to be learned, including John.
We could say that the greater part of us had both seen the Niagara Falls and Canada.
Let him wear a loose shoe that has sore feet.
Being out of work, and as I did not wish to loaf, I started to school.
He tried to study unsuccessfully, and in the end failed.
He built a house for his wife with seven windows.
He sent her an invitation to go for a ride on the back of his business card.
I saw five automobiles the other night sitting on our front door step.
Mrs. Smith was killed last night while cooking in a dreadful manner.
Post cards are both increasing in variety and beauty.
He neither told John nor his father.
Mary told her mother, if she were needed, she would be called.
He bought a horse when ten years old.
The child the parent often rebuked.
Sitting on a chair the entire house could be watched.
Coming along the road a peculiar noise was heard by us.
Under the enforced sanitary laws people ceased to die gradually.
I knew him as a physician when a boy.
He came leading his dog on a bicycle.
When wanted he sent me a letter.